ERROR ANALYSIS

Submitted to fulfill an assignment

Lecture: Approaches and Method of Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL)

Lecturer: Prof. Dr. Endang Fauziati, M. Hum.

By
LUSI MAYANGSARI S891408025

A CLASS

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

POST GRADUATE PROGRAM
SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY
SURAKARTA
2015

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 Error Analysis

Introduction

In foreign language learning, error correction has become one of the important
teaching processes. But actually, few teachers know a lot about error analysis and some
related theories. They often take so negative attitudes toward errors that they could not
tolerate any errors and tend to correct them as soon as they could find any. As a result,
although they think they have been working hard enough and spend much time and energy
working on error correction, their effort is not effective and the learners do not believe they
have benefited a lot. On the contrary, the learners often feel upset, for they have found that
there is a great gap between themselves and their teachers in dealing with errors and
understanding of error correction. Therefore, it is necessary to have a theoretical foundation
about error analysis.

Theoretical Review
Definition of Error Analysis
Saville-Troike in Fauziati (2009) said that learners’ errors are “the window into the
language learner’s mind”. It means learners’ errors provide information to the teacher about
the students’ difficulties in acquiring the language. The main focus of error analysis are on
learner’s errors and the evidence of how learner errors could provide an understanding of the
underlying processes of second language learning or second language acquisition. Errors tell
the teacher about what needs to be taught, tell the researchers how the learning proceeds and
are a means whereby learners test their hypotheses about second language, James (1998).
Error analysis helps the teachers and researchers to find out something about
psycholinguistics process and cognitive mechanism of second language learning. It leads us
to give a conclusion about learning strategies which can be used in language learning process.
In sum up, error analysis is important for the teacher since it is used to find out the
student’s error and give them an appropriate treatment in teaching learning process.

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Difference between Error Analysis and Contrastive Analysis
Based on Khansir (2012) error analysis differs from contrastive analysis as follows:
1. Contrastive analysis starts with a comparison of systems of two languages and
predicts only the areas of difficulty or error for the second language learner, whereas
error analysis starts with errors in second language learning and studies them in the
broader framework of their sources and significance.
2. EA unlike CA provides data on actual attested problems and so it forms a more
efficient basis for designing pedagogical strategies.
3. EA provides a feedback value to the linguist, especially the psycho-linguist interested
in the process of second language learning in ascertaining.
a. Whether the process of acquisition of first language and second language
learning are similar or not?
b. Whether children and adults learn a second language in a similar manner or not?
4. EA provides evidence for a much more complex view of the learning process- one in
which the learner is seen as an active participant in the formation of and revision of
hypotheses regarding the rules of the target language.
5. CA studies interlingual error (interference) whereas EA studies intralingual errors
besides interlingual.

In this article, error analysis is divided into three main aspects as follows; (1) the
algorithm for conducting error analysis, (2) error description and classification, and (3) error
correction.
1. The Algorithm for Conducting Error Analysis

Algorithm is the specification of the set of procedures you need to carry out or
to perform a complex operation. In order to accomplish the goals, researcher can
create s set of procedures to carry out in error analysis. There are some procedures
proposed by experts. Firstly, the procedure is from Corder in Fauziati (2009), as
follows:

a. Recognition of error

b. Description of error

c. Explanation of error

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 Secondly, the procedures for conducting error analysis from Sidhar in Fauziati
(2009) as follows:

a. Collecting of data (either from free/given theme or from examination answers)

b. Identification of errors

c. Classification into error types

d. Statement of relative frequency of error types

e. Identification of the areas of difficulty in the target language

f. Remedial lessons

g. Analysis of the source of error

h. Determination of the degree of disturbance caused by the error

Thirdly, the algorithm for conducting an error analysis from James in Fauziati
(2009) is shown below:

a. Sample of target language learner

b. Register each utterances of sample and its context

c. Identify the utterance of sample language whether is normal or not. If the

utterance is in the context or some plausible context, it is acceptable. In contrast, if
the utterance is not in the context, it is ungrammatical and if the utterance is not in
the some plausible context, it is unacceptable.

d. Reconstruct intended target language from and note the miss-correspondences.

e. Describe the error in term of:

- Level and unit of target language system

- Learner modification of the target language

f. Identify the sample as mistake or error. If the learners are able to do self
correctness, it categorize as the mistake, while if the learners are not able to do
self correctness, it categorize as the error.

g. Carry out a back-translation of deviant form into learners’ first language

h. Identify the translation. If the translation is good, it needs interlingual

(interference/transfer). On the other hand, if the translation is not good, it needs
alternative diagnosis (intralingual, induced, etc.)

i. Determine the gravity

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 j. Remedial work/ modify the syllabus

To conduct an error analysis, we should differentiate between error and

mistakes clearly. This table below shows the differences between error and mistake.

Error Mistake
Systemic and consistent deviation Non systemic and consistent
deviation
Not able to do self correctness Able to do self correctness
Produced by learners who have Produced by learners who have
imperfect competence in target perfect competence in target
language language or native speakers
Occur in normal situation Occur in stressful condition,
indecision, and fatigue
Generally, it seems easy to recognize the learners’ errors if they exhibit
omission, additions, wrong selections, wrong orderings, etc. However, a learner may
produce a superficially well-formed sentence based on the rules of target language or
grammatically correct, it does mean the sentence that he/she produces is acceptable in
the context. For example, someone says to the learner, “Do you have a time?” and the
learner answers, “Yes, I do. I’m free this evening.” Although the learner produces
grammatically correct sentence, but his/her sentence is unacceptable. Her/his
interlocutor does mean to ask about her/his free time, but he/she asks about the time.
So, the learner should answer by showing the time, such as eight o’clock. Thus, the
sentence can be categorized as free from errors when it fulfills two criteria:
grammatically and acceptability.

According to Fauziati (2009), a sentence is grammatical, if it does not break

any of rules in standard language. For example:

a. The cat died

b. The cat that the dog chased died

c. The cat that the dog that the man hit chased died

All the sentences above are correct grammatically, however, most of native speakers
would not accept the third sentence since it is unacceptable in the context. On the other
hand, ungrammatical sentence is the sentence which breaks the rules in standard
language. For instance, the man did not chased the dog.

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 Based on James opinion in Fauziati (2009), acceptability is a judgment that
refers to the user not to the linguistics factors. The users decide an utterance is acceptable
or not in the context. Thus, to judge the acceptability of an utterance or a sentence, we do
not refer to the rules but to the contexts. For example, “What’s up, Sir?” said the student
to greet the teacher. This sentence is grammatically correct but contextually inappropriate
(unacceptable). In order to greet the older persons, we should use the formal expressions
such as, “How have you been, Sir?”. This expression is acceptable since it has appropriate
style and register in social situation.

Moreover, the criteria of acceptable are not only appropriate in the context but
also it is more easily understood, less clumsy, natural and not ambiguous. For example,
“She likes cooking her family and her pets”. This sentence is unacceptable since it is
ambiguous so lead the problems of interpretation.

In sum up, in producing the sentences the learners have to consider two
criteria: grammatically and acceptability. Grammaticality related with the rules of
language and acceptability related with the proper use of language rules. Sentences have
erroneous if they are ungrammatical or unacceptable. Only sentences which have
grammatical and acceptable are free from errors. The table below will present clearly the
description about error identification.

Grammatical Acceptable Free from errors

Grammatical Unacceptable Erroneous
Ungrammatical Acceptable Erroneous
Ungrammatical Unacceptable Erroneous

2. Error Description and Classification

According to Fauziati (2009), error can be described into four taxonomies, as follows:

a. Linguistic Taxonomy

In linguistic taxonomy, error is located in the overall system of the target

language. Errors in language component include phonology, syntax and
morphology, semantics and lexicon, and style. For example, syntax error can be
classified into auxiliary system, passive sentences, negatives constructions,

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 articles, verbs, nouns, prepositions, adjectives, subordinates clauses, etc. this
framework is useful and applicable to handle the errors.

b. Surface Strategy Taxonomy

The surface strategy taxonomy or it is called as target modification taxonomy is a

classification system in which the learners’ erroneous is difference from the
presumed target version. By using surface taxonomy, error classification can give
a clear description about cognitive processes that underlie the learners’
reconstructions of the new language or the language that being learned. From this
taxonomy, error can be classified into four types:

 Omission error

It is a type of error which is characterized by the missing of an item that

must appear in a well-formed utterance. For example, we know that
morphemes or words can be classified into content words (e.g. nouns,
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) and grammatical words/morphemes such as
auxiliary verb (is, am are, was, were, been), article (an, a, the), verb and
noun inflections (-s, -ed, -ing), etc. mostly, the learners omit the
grammatical morphemes more frequently than content words. For
example, Anna an beautiful girl. She speak English fluent. We are go to
Singapore trip together.

 Additions error

This is the opposite from the omission error. This error is characterized by
the presence of en item which should not appear in the well formed
utterance. The learners have this error in double marking, regularization,
and simple addition. For example, my teacher teached English yesterday..

 Misformation error

This error is characterized by the use of the wrong form of a structure or

morpheme, such as regularization (runned, womans, hitted, etc), archi-
forms ( selection of one member of a class of forms to present other class,
such as the use of that, this, these, those but the learner only uses that , and

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 alternating forms (the use of she/ he, him/her, they etc. In this error, the
learners use he for she, him for he, they for it)

 Misordering error

This error is characterized by the incorrect placement of morpheme or

group of morphemes in an utterance. It occurs in first and second language
acquisition. For example, the embedding of question, what Daddy is doing
I don’t know what is it.

c. Comparative Taxonomy

Comparative taxonomy is an error comparison between target language and first

language. This error comparison divides into three major errors, as follows:

 Developmental error

This error mostly is made by the children who learn language target
language as first language. For example, “The cat eat the mouse last
night”. The omission past tense marker can be classified into
developmental error.

 Interlangual error

This error is caused by the interference or transfer from first language

structure into target language. For example, the girl beautiful (Indonesian :
gadis cantik)

 Ambiguous error

It can be classified equally as developmental or interlangual errors. These

errors both reflect the learners’ first language and the type of error in
speech of children acquiring their firs language, such as “I no want eat”
(Indonesian: I don’t want to eat)

d. Communicative Effect Taxonomy

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 This taxonomy classifies error based on the perspective effect on the listeners or
readers. It deals much with differentiate between error that cause the
miscommunication and error that do not.

In communicative effect taxonomy, errors divide into two types, as follows:

 Global errors

It is the error that affects overall sentence organization. Mostly, it includes:

- Wrong order of major constituents (e.g. English language use many

people)

- Missing/wrong/misplaced the sentence connectors (e.g. He started to

go to school since he studied very hard)

- Missing cues to signal obligatory exceptions to perspective syntax

rules (e.g. The student’s proposal looked into the principles)

- Regularization of syntactic rule to exception(e.g. He amuse that movie

very much)

 Local errors

This error effects single elements and only limited into single part of the
sentence. The errors includes in noun and verb inflections, articles,
auxiliary, etc. For example, Why we like each other?

Non-Contrastive Approach to Error Analysis

Richard identifies several types of errors observed in the acquisition of

English as second language does not derive from the other language / first language.
While, Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982) said that error can be caused by the
interference of the learners’ mother tongue.

Richard identifies error does not derive from interference of transfer. He divided into
two types as follows:

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  Intralingual error

This error includes faulty generalization, incomplete application of rules,

and failure to learn conditions under which rules apply.

 Development error

This error includes overgeneralization, ignorance of rule restrictions,

incomplete application of rule and false concept hypothesized.

3. Error Correction

One of the purpose we conduct error analysis is to identify the principles

which should guide the effective of error correction. Error analysis is able to help
teacher to devise remedial lessons and exercises in order to help students better learn
the target language. Therefore, in classroom language teaching, error correction is
commonly applied by the teacher through giving feedback.

Lyster and Ranta in Fauziati (2009) divided the feedback into six types:

a. Explicit correction(e.g. teacher gives direct explanation about what the

students said was wrong)

b. Recast (e.g. the teacher implicitly revise the students’ utterances)

c. Clarification requests (e.g. teacher remind the students about their error by
asking question, such as “Pardon?”)

d. Metalinguistic feedback (e.g. teacher gives questions or comments about

the students’ utterances)

e. Elicitation (e.g. teacher directly elicits reformulation of the students’

utterance)

While, the term error correction that are summarized by James in Fauziati (2009), as
follows:

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 a. Informing the learners about their errors and letting them to repair it themselves.

b. Providing treatments or information to lead to the revision and correction of error.

c. Providing learners with information that allows revising or rejecting the wrong
rules they were operating with when they produced the error.

Error correction has been given feedback for the learners such as negative input,
input enhancement, negative evidence, negative feedback and reinforcements, Ming in
Fauziati (2009). Contrary, error correction provides inconvenienced value for second
language acquisition, Krashen in Fauziati (2009). The learners do not generally receive
explicit feedback on their target language.

Discussion
Error Analysis is a very complicated and thorny problem. As language teachers, we
need to be armed with some theoretical foundations and be aware of what we are doing in the
classroom. Here principles of optimal affective and cognitive feedback, of reinforcement
theory, and of communicative language teaching all combine to form these theoretical
foundations. The brief procedure to conduct error analysis in classroom as follows:
a. What kinds of errors should be corrected
The expressions such as “an news”, or “a advice” are systematic errors, and they need
to be corrected. As for pre-systematic errors, teachers can simply provide the correct
one. For systematic errors, since learners have already had the linguistic competence,
they can explain this kind of errors and correct them themselves. So teachers just
remind them when they commit such errors. As to what kind of errors should be
corrected, it needs teachers’ intuition and understanding of errors. At the same time,
the teacher should consider the purpose of the analysis and analyze them in a
systematic way.
b. When to correct the errors
Concerning this problem, the most controversial issue is to treat them immediately or
to delay. First, we are confronted with a dilemma—fluency versus accuracy. For
communicative purpose, delayed correction is usually preferred. Some advanced
learners believe that when to correct errors is determined by the type of errors
committed. For instance, if they are pronunciation or grammatical errors, immediate

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 correction is preferable, for post-correction cannot make learners remember anything.
Furthermore, the overall situation in the classroom is also important. When the whole
class is familiar with a word, but only one of them is singled out for being corrected,
he or she would feel awkward. So, we can see that when to correct is very
complicated. Both the teachers’ intuition and the feedback from the learners are
equally important.
c. How to correct the errors
According to James (1998), it is sensible to follow the three principles in error
correction. Firstly, the techniques involved in error correction would be able to
enhance the learners’ accuracy in expression. Secondly, the students’ affective factors
should be taken into consideration and the correction should not be face-threatening to
the learners. Some scholars believed that teachers’ indirect correction is highly
appreciated. They either encourage learners to do self-correction in heuristic method
or present the correct form, so learners couldn’t feel embarrassed. Compare the two
situations:
(1) Learner: “What means this word?”
Teacher: “No, listen, what does this word mean?”
(2) Learner: “What means this word?”
Teacher: “What does it mean? Well, it is difficult to explain, but it means…”
It is obvious that teacher’s remodeling in (2) is more natural and sensible than the
direct interruption in (1).

Therefore, error analysis is very essential for language teaching. Firstly, by error
analysis, teachers will get an overall knowledge about the learners’ errors. Foreign language
learning is a process of hypothesis and trial and error occurrence is inevitable. So the teacher
should learn to tolerate some errors, especially some local errors. Secondly, errors can tell the
teacher how far towards the goal the learner has progressed and consequently, what remains
for him or her to learn. So learners’ errors are valuable feedbacks. We can do some remedial
teaching based on their errors. Thirdly, errors are indispensable to the learners themselves, for
we can regard the making of mistakes as a device the learner employs in order to learn.
Finally, some errors need to be handled, otherwise, they will become fossilized. In a sense,
error analysis theory together with other theories have enriched the second language learning
theory in that learning involves in a process in which success comes by profiting from

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mistakes and by using mistakes to obtain feedback from the environment. With the feedback
they make new attempts to achieve the more closely approximate desired goals.

Certainly, error analysis is significant, nevertheless it also has its limitations. First,
there is a danger in too much attention to learners’ errors and in the classroom teacher tends
to become so preoccupied with noticing errors that the correct utterance in the second
language will go unnoticed. While the diminishing of errors is an important criterion for
increasing language proficiency, the ultimate goal of second language learning is the
attainment of communicative fluency in a language. Another shortcoming in error analysis is
the overstressing of production data. Factually language comprehension is as important as
production. It also happens that production lends itself to analysis and thus becomes the prey
of researchers, but comprehension data is equally important in developing an understanding
of the process of language acquisition. Thirdly, it fails to account for the strategy of
avoidance. A learner who for one reason or another avoids a particular sound, word, structure
or discourse category may be assumed incorrectly to have no difficulty therewith. The
absence of error therefore does not necessarily reflect native like competence since learners
may be avoiding the very structure that poses difficulty for them. Finally, error analysis can
keep us too closely focused on specific languages rather than viewing universal aspects of
language.

Conclusion
Error analysis is associated with a rich and complex psycholinguistic view of the
learner, but the sophisticated use is in its infancy. As EFL teachers, we should be aware of
what is going on in the field of EA and keep a keen eye on the related theories. In order to
improve teaching, we need to explore the learners’ psychological process in language
learning so that we can enhance our understanding of learners’ errors. Based on the analysis
of the causes of their errors, we provide our timely guide and help. In addition, while placing
an emphasis on error correction in the classroom, as language teachers, we should take the
teaching objectives, learners’ linguistic competence, their affective factors and the
effectiveness of the error correction into consideration. Consequently, we can employ more
flexible strategies in error correction and make more contributions to the EFL classroom
teaching and learning.
References

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Dulay, H., Burt, M., & Krashen, S. D. (1982). Language two. Newbury House, Rowley. MA.

Fauziati, Endang. (2009). Reading on applied linguistics: a handbook for language teacher
and teacher researcher. Surakarta: Era Pustaka Utama.

James, C. (1998). Errors in language learning and use. Addison Wesley Longman Limited.

Khansir, Ali Akbar. (2012). Error analysis and second language acquisitions. A journal of
Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 5, pp. 1027-1032, May 2012

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