Sustainable Development and Social Inclusion

Sustainable development and
social inclusion
Sustainable development and
social inclusion
Towards an integrated approach to research
Edited by Malcolm Eames

With Maria Adebowale
Sustainable Development Research Network
Sponsored by DEFRA
The Sustainable Development Research (SDR) Network is a DEFRA funded initiative,

co-ordinated by the Policy Studies Institute (PSI) in London in collaboration with the Centre
for Sustainable Development (CfSD) at the University of Westminster and Centre for the
Study of Environmental Change and Sustainability (CECS) at the University of Edinburgh.
The Network’s goal is to contribute to sustainable development in the UK by facilitating the
better use of evidence and research in policymaking. For further information visit:
www.sd-research.org.uk
The Joseph Rowntree Foundation has supported this project as part of its programme of
research and innovative development projects, which it hopes will be of value to policy
makers, practitioners and service users. The facts presented and views expressed in this
report are, however, those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Foundation.
Joseph Rowntree Foundation, The Homestead, 40 Water End, York YO30 6WP
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Contents
Acknowledgements vi
Contributors’ biographies vii
1 Introduction and overview 1

Aims and objectives 1
Structure of the report 1
The Sustainable Development Research Network 1
Terminology 2
2 Towards a socially inclusive sustainable development research agenda 4

Introduction 4
Joining up the social, economic and environmental 5
Equity and differential impact/access 6
The SDR-Network 8
Applying SD principles to research 12
Lessons and recommendations 14
3 Edited papers of the first annual Sustainable Development Research conference 17

Opening address: sustainable energy 17
David King
A new agenda for UK sustainable development research 21
Malcolm Eames
Sustainable development research – a Research Councils’ perspective 27
John Lawton
Towards a sustainable rural economy: lessons from foot and mouth 31
Andrew Donaldson, Philip Lowe and Neil Ward
Pollution, social exclusion, equity and health 35
Tanja Pless-Mulloli and Peter Phillimore
Developing tools for sustainability appraisal 41
Christopher Wood
Quality of life and sustainable development 44
Paul Ekins and Roger Levett
References 50
Acknowledgements
Malcolm Eames and Maria Adebowale would like to thank all those who have contributed their
work, opinions, suggestions, expertise and support to this report. Particular thanks are due to those
who contributed papers to the first Sustainable Development Research Network conference: David
King, John Lawton, Chris Wood, Paul Ekins, Roger Levett, Tanja Pless-Mulloli, Peter Phillimore,
Andrew Donaldson, Philip Lowe and Neil Ward. Also to Asher Craig, Damien Killeen, Helen Lynn,
Alison West and Charlie Murwood, all of whom gave their time to be interviewed during the
preparation of Chapter 2, and to Jim Skea, Paul Ekins, Karen Lucas, Andy McLeod and Kate
Corcoran of the SDR-Network Co-ordinating Team, John Adams of DEFRA and Alison Jarvis of JRF
for their constructive feedback.
vi
Contributors’ biographies
Maria Adebowale is the founding Director of development R&D policy and participatory
Capacity Global, a non-governmental technology assessment.
organisation, which co-ordinates the UK
Professor Paul Ekins has a PhD in economics
Environmental Justice Network and provides
from the University of London and is Head of
support on community participation, poverty
the Environment Group at the Policy Studies
eradication, environment and human rights
Institute. He was previously Professor of
issues at local, national and international levels.
Sustainable Development in the School of
She is a Commissioner of the UK Sustainable
Politics, International Relations and the
Development Commission and a member of the
Environment at Keele University. Paul is also a
Advisory Committee on Consumer Products
founder and Associate Director of the
and the Environment. Maria is the former
sustainable development charity Forum for the
Director of the Environmental Law Foundation
Future, Senior Consultant to Cambridge
and is the author of numerous articles on
Econometrics, a member of the Royal
environment law, sustainable development
Commission on Environmental Pollution and
issues and human rights.
National Consumer Council, and a specialist
Dr Andrew Donaldson is a researcher at the adviser to the Environmental Audit Committee
Centre for Rural Economy, University of of the House of Commons.
Newcastle. He comes from an interdisciplinary
Professor David King is currently Chief
background, having studied biology and rural
Scientific Advisor to the UK Government and is
resource and countryside management before
Head of the Office of Science and Technology.
obtaining his doctorate in social sciences. He has
He was appointed as Lecturer in Chemical
wide-ranging interests in social and cultural
Physics at the University of East Anglia,
theory and environmental issues, and
Norwich, in 1966, and moved to the University
specialises in the cultural aspects of rural/
of Liverpool in 1974 to take up the Brunner
territorial development and governance. He has
Chair of Physical Chemistry. He became Head
worked on a range of studies of the conduct and
of Department in 1983. In 1988 he moved to his
impacts of the foot and mouth epidemic since
current position at Cambridge as 1920 Professor
April 2001, including media representations and
of Physical Chemistry and held the headship of
institutional responses.
the Chemistry Department from 1995 to 2000. In
Dr Malcolm Eames is the Coordinator of the 2001 he was elected to a fellowship in Queen’s
SDR-Network and a Research Fellow with the College and an honorary fellowship at Downing
Environment Group at the Policy Studies College.
Institute in London. He has published on a
Professor John Lawton trained as a zoologist at
range of environmental policy issues, including
the University of Durham. He was awarded a
work on the implementation of UK and
Personal Chair at York in 1985. In 1989 he
European environmental policies and
founded, and was appointed Director of, the
environmental futures research. His current
NERC Centre for Population Biology at Imperial
research interests lie in the areas of sustainable
vii
Sustainable development and social inclusion
College, where he remained until 1999. He took projects and papers examining first the impact
up his present post as Chief Executive of NERC of air pollution on health and later the politics of
in October 1999, but retains his Professorship in pollution. He is currently working with Tanja
an honorary capacity at Imperial College. Pless-Mulloli on a comparative project
During his career he has served on a wide range exploring ‘cultures of risk’ in petrochemical
of committees and bodies, including the Royal centres in Germany and Scotland, funded by the
Commission on Environmental Pollution. Economic and Social Research Council and the
Anglo-German Foundation.
Roger Levett is a partner in Levett-Therivel,
consultants who specialise in public sector Dr Tanja Pless-Mulloli works as a senior
policy, appraisal and management for lecturer in the Department of Epidemiology and
sustainable development. His interests include Public Health at Newcastle University. She is an
the relationship between consumption, environmental epidemiologist with a
economic growth, happiness and environmental background in biology, medicine, and
impacts; sustainable settlements; planning for environmental public health. She joined the
sustainability; indicators and appraisal tools team at Newcastle from her native Germany in
including Quality of Life Capital which he 1993, where she conducted environmental
helped develop. epidemiology work with strong community
participation. She became interested in the
Professor Philip Lowe is the Duke of
contribution of social exclusion to the links
Northumberland Professor of Rural Economy
between air pollution and health in her work on
and Director of the Centre for Rural Economy at
the health of people living near industry.
the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Philip
Another research interest is the perception and
Lowe is a specialist in the rural economy. His
communication of risk in communities living
research interests include the sociology of rural
near industry.
development, environmental policy analysis
and land use planning. He has led a number of Professor Neil Ward is Professor of Human
research projects and major research Geography at the University of Leeds. He
programmes in these fields. He has also played specialises in applied policy research and
a prominent role advising governmental and analysis in the fields of rural and regional
other bodies on rural policy development. development, agriculture, environment and
land use policy. In 1999 he was seconded to the
Dr Peter Phillimore is a Senior Lecturer in
Prime Minister’s Performance and Innovation
Social Anthropology at Newcastle University.
Unit in the Cabinet Office to work as the rural
After doing fieldwork in north India for his PhD
policy specialist on the Rural Economies project,
at Durham, he worked with Professor Peter
which informed the English Rural White Paper.
Townsend at Bristol University doing research
During 2001 he was a member of the
on health inequalities in the north of England.
government’s Rural Task Force.
This led to a particular interest in Teesside and
its industrial environment, and a series of
viii
Acknowledgements
Professor Chris Wood is co-director of the EIA training since 1974 and has a particular interest
Centre and Professor of Environmental in the relationship between EIA and SEA and
Planning in the School of Planning and land use planning. He was a member of the
Landscape, University of Manchester. He has Foresight Environmental Appraisal Task Force.
had an interest in environmental planning for 30 He is convenor of the Royal Town Planning
years. He has been involved in environmental Institute’s Environmental Planning and
impact assessment (EIA) and strategic Protection Panel and co-editor of the journal
environmental assessment (SEA) research and Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal.
ix
1 Introduction and overview
Malcolm Eames
Aims and objectives of the SDR-Network conference papers, UK

government policy documents, and interviews
This report seeks to ensure that a strong ‘social
with key stakeholders.
component’ is reflected in the emerging
An analysis is presented of the strengths and
‘agenda’ for UK sustainable development
weaknesses of the SDR-Network, and of the
research.
potential for developing inclusive participative
Particular objectives of the report are to:
research with socially and economically
• provide a basis for dialogue between excluded communities.
researchers, research funders, policy The section draws together key
makers and other stakeholders concerned recommendations for:
with environmental and social exclusion/
• the SDR-Network and the wider research
regeneration issues
community
• promote the effective integration of social,
• research users, including government
economic and environmental/resource
policy makers and others involved in
elements in research to support
sustainable development projects
sustainable development
• research funding bodies.
• encourage UK funding bodies to support
such integrated research Chapter 3 gives updated and edited versions
of the papers from the SDR-Network
• evaluate the Sustainable Development
conference. The full versions of these papers are
Research (SDR) Network’s contribution to
available in pdf format on the SDR-Network’s
developing this agenda
website (www.sd-research.org.uk).
• review the proceedings of the SDR-
Network’s 2001 annual conference
The Sustainable Development Research
through the ‘lens’ of social exclusion/
Network
inclusion.
Sustainable development is all about integration
and this network is an excellent example of taking
Structure of the report
an integrated approach to solving multi-
The rest of this chapter gives an overview of the dimensional problems and cross-cutting issues.
SDR-Network, introducing its aims, objectives (Elliot Morley, DEFRA Minister, SDUK conference,
and current activities. The definitions of some of May 2002)
the key terms used in the report are also given.
The SDR-Network was established in spring
Chapter 2 gives a critical assessment of the
2001 with the goal of contributing to sustainable
links between sustainable development research
development in the UK by facilitating the better
and social inclusion, based on a desktop review
1
use of research and evidence in policy making. Over its first year much of the SDR-
The Network promotes high quality cross- Network’s efforts have been directed towards
cutting research that integrates the identifying current knowledge gaps, research
environmental, social and economic pillars of opportunities and policy needs, with the
sustainable development. objective of influencing the priorities of major
funding bodies.
The Network’s first annual conference took
Aims of the SDR-Network
place in December 2001 (see Chapter 3), and an
• Monitoring and mapping research extensive consultation process informed the
relevant to the UK Sustainable publication of the Network’s first report: A New
Development Strategy Agenda for UK Sustainable Development Research.
• Fostering a network of organisations This present document provides a companion
with an interest in sustainable volume to that report, which can be
development research downloaded at http://www.sd-
• Facilitating the flow of information research.org.uk/sdrnreportforweb.pdf.
about current and planned activities
• Identifying specific gaps in knowledge,
Terminology
and assessing research opportunities
• Promoting sustainable development The following paragraphs outline the
research activity by influencing definitions of some of the key terms used in the
funders and research organisations. report.
Sustainable development
The Network is a DEFRA-funded initiative,
Sustainable Development is development that
coordinated by the Policy Studies Institute (PSI)
meets the needs of the present without
in London in collaboration with the Centre for
compromising the ability of the future to meet its
Sustainable Development (CfSD) at the
needs.
University of Westminster and the Centre for
(World Commission on Environment and
the Study of Environmental Change and
Development, 1987)
Sustainability (CECS) at the University of
Edinburgh. This ‘classic’ definition of sustainable
The Network’s Coordinating Team is development has been accepted by the UK
assisted by an academic Advisory Group that government, which further defines such
contributes to the strategic development of its development as ‘ensuring a better quality of life
activities, and a User Forum that serves as an for everyone, now and for generations to come’
interface between research and policy making. (DETR, 1999a).
2
Introduction and overview
Social exclusion
Objectives of the UK government
This term commonly refers to the condition of
strategy for sustainable development
communities, groups and individuals who are
• Social progress which recognises the economically and/or socially disadvantaged.
needs of everyone (emphasis added) People living on low incomes within affluent
• Effective protection of the environment societies are an obvious category, as are people
• Prudent use of natural resources from black and minority ethnic communities
• Maintenance of high and stable levels living within majority white populations. Other
of economic growth and employment. dimensions that may lead to people being left
out of the socio-economic and political
Source: DETR (1999a).
mainstream include age, disability and gender.
In the UK social exclusion is often analysed
Sustainable development research by measures of deprivation across the six
Sustainable development research refers to domains of income, employment, health,
integrated cross-cutting research designed to education, housing and service access.
support sustainable development policy making
and practice. In the past, such research has not Social inclusion
always succeeded in integrating all three – The term ‘social inclusion’ typically refers to the
environmental, social and economic – pillars of objective of measures that seek to address the
sustainable development. The SDR-Network sort of disadvantage and disengagement
therefore adopted a broad inclusive definition, indicated above.
stating that:
Regeneration
Sustainable Development Research is ...
At its simplest, regeneration is defined as a
concerned with at least one of the environmental
process of change and development by which
objectives (i.e. ‘resources’ or ‘environment’) plus
policies, programmes and projects revitalise or
at least one of either the ‘social progress’ or
rehabilitate deprived geographical communities
‘economic growth’ objectives of the UK strategy.
by creating buoyant local economies, improving
(Eames, 2001; original emphasis)
degraded built and natural environments,
Chapter 2 explores whether this promoting community involvement and
‘environment plus’ approach pays sufficient educational opportunities, and improving living
attention to the social aspects of sustainable conditions and ‘quality of life’.
development.
3
2 Towards a socially inclusive sustainable
development research agenda
Maria Adebowale
Introduction that arise from the simultaneous pursuit of

economic growth, environmental protection and
Since 1997 a central theme of government policy
social progress. How to achieve ‘the balance’ is
has been a commitment to promote social
therefore one of the crucial preoccupations of
inclusion and bring traditionally disadvantaged
policy makers and their public and private
groups back into mainstream society. Efforts
sector delivery agents at every level of
have also been made to integrate social progress
government.
objectives into the UK’s approach to sustainable
Sustainable development research can do
development.
much to inform these debates: identifying the
This is reflected in, for example:
problems; providing the evidence for what
• the modernising local government works and what doesn’t; and stretching the
agenda, and establishment of the Social parameters of our understanding of what
Exclusion and Neighbourhood Renewal constitutes sustainable development. The SDR-
Units Network’s co-ordinating role provides a unique
opportunity to drive this agenda forward.
• the sustainable development strategy, A
However, this report argues that, in order to
Better Quality of Life, and choice of
successfully address these challenges, the
headline indicators for sustainable
Network must ensure that the exploration and
development.
analysis of the social dimensions of sustainable
More recently, the ‘liveability debate’ has development are central to the research
focused attention on ensuring liveable activities it promotes.
conditions that can maintain the dignity and The report begins by reviewing the
needs of all. conceptual linkages between sustainable
At the European level too, some important development and social inclusion, giving
legislative and regulatory changes have found particular attention to the need to consider
their way into UK policy. Most notable perhaps questions of social equity within the developing
are the Human Rights Act 1998, the 1998 research agenda. The strengths and weaknesses
UNECE (Aarhus) Convention on Freedom of of the SDR-Network are then assessed, the
Information, Public Participation and Access to scope and content of its first conference
Justice in Environmental Decision Making, and reviewed from a social inclusion/regeneration
the Local Government Act 2000. perspective, and the potential of additional
The need to balance environmental, social areas for future research highlighted.
and economic objectives is thus a prominent Next, the relevance of two of the fundamental
and recurring challenge across all areas of principles of sustainable development – public
government policy. Equally clear, however, are participation and access to information – are
the competing priorities and practical dilemmas explored, and suggestions made as to how
4
Towards a socially inclusive sustainable development research agenda
sustainable development could be made more Development, 1987; author’s emphasis). It is

relevant to excluded communities through the therefore a fundamental contradiction to the
research process itself. Finally, some lessons and principles of sustainable development to believe
recommendations for key audiences – including that it can be achieved without improved social
the Network itself – are outlined. equity and social progress.
However, prior to 1997, the social progress
dimension of sustainable development went
Joining up the social, economic and
largely unrecognised within UK policy: the
environmental
emphasis was on high economic growth,
The concept of sustainable development has environmental protection and prudent use of
always had at its heart the principles of natural resources. Busy in the simplistic fight of
promoting equity and equality. ideologies – environmental protection versus
In 1972, the UN Conference on the Human economic development – few stopped to see that
Environment clearly stipulated that any agenda the people most affected by the consequences of
for sustainable development needed to integrate environmental and commercial decision making
the rights of people to a healthy and productive were not only alienated by this increasingly
environment. A decade later the Brundtland narrow debate but were insufficiently protected
Commission identified the following strategic by environmental or economic policy.
imperatives: This ‘environment–economy’ framing is still
all too often evident in research on sustainable
• reviving growth
development issues, leaving multiple gaps in
• changing the quality of growth our understanding of the conflicts and synergies
between social inclusion and the environmental
• meeting the essential needs for jobs, food,
and economic components of sustainable
energy, water and sanitation
development. This lack of integration is not
• ensuring a sustainable level of population helped by the fact that environmental concerns
often receive little prominence in mainstream
• conserving and enhancing the resource
socio-economic research.
base
Decisions affecting sustainable development
• reorienting technology and managing risk are therefore made in the absence of the
information and evidence that would inform a
• merging environment and economics in
socially inclusive policy approach – and this
decision making.
may end up being to the detriment of the
Running through these imperatives are the original policy intention. The failure to
themes of equality of opportunity and social recognise and address the social impacts of
inclusion, linked to a core concept of need – introducing an escalating environmental tax on
essentially the needs of the world’s poor ‘to fuel can be cited as an example of this, leading
which the overriding priority should be given’ to a policy U-turn that benefited neither the
(World Commission on Environment and economy, the environment, or social progress.
5
Equity and differential impact/access Despite this caution, there is growing interest
in the links between social exclusion and the
Over the last few decades, international forums
environment, and understanding these links
on sustainable development – Brundtland in the
must be an important component of developing
1980s, the Rio summit in the 1990s, and most
genuinely socially inclusive sustainable
recently the Johannesburg summit – have done
development policies. Although research in the
much to galvanise discussion of how the
UK on the negative impacts of environment on
unsustainable practices of wealthy nations may
poverty and vice versa is still in its early stages,
impact upon poorer countries. Rio in particular
there is evidence to show that environmental
did much to highlight the linkages between
impacts and access are inequitably distributed,
poverty on the one hand, and environmental
and that this uneven distribution is linked to
degradation and economic policies on the other.
social exclusion (ESRC, 2001). The box below
However, the inequality of access to
highlights some recent research findings.
environmental ‘goods’ (i.e. healthy living
conditions) and the inequitable impacts of
environmental ‘bads’ (i.e. pollution) are not just Environmental inequality in the UK
global North/South concerns. They are highly
• People living in the 44 most deprived
relevant to social inclusion debates within the
areas in England listed pollution, poor
UK.
public transport and the appearance of
Obviously, as one of the wealthiest countries
their estate as major concerns about
in the world, the UK does not witness the worst
where they lived (Social Exclusion
extremes of poverty seen in parts of the
Unit, 1998)
developing world. Nevertheless, in spite of its
• The 44 most deprived areas in England
relative affluence, social and economic exclusion
contain four times as many people
has grown in the UK. For example, the number
from minority ethnic groups as other
of children living in households with incomes
areas (Seraaj, 2001)
below 50 per cent of the average increased by 35
• Families living on incomes of less than
per cent between 1979 and 1997.
£5,000 are twice as likely to live next to
The government’s response since 1997 has
a polluting factory than families with
been to publicly commit itself to improving the
incomes of £60,000 or more (FOE, 2001)
quality of life of the poorest sections of UK
• Of all carcinogenic chemicals emitted
society. However, its actions to date have largely
into the air, 66 per cent come from
been economic (minimum wage, employment
factories in the most deprived 10 per
maximisation through measures like New Deal,
cent of communities in England (FOE,
neighbourhood improvements through
2001)
measures such as the Single Regeneration
• Pollution is a major factor in poor
Budget). Action to reduce the negative impacts
health and health inequalities, with
of environmental degradation on poor
continued
communities has been slower to come forward.
6
substance consent sites (Walker et al., 2000).

over 24,000 people affected by
What is less clear in the UK context (though
environmental-related illnesses
this is far better researched in the USA) is the
(Acheson, 1998)
degree to which ethnic descent and/or poverty
• Child pedestrians from poorer
compounds the social impacts and inequalities
communities can be five times more
of unsustainable environmental, economic and
likely to be killed by vehicles than
social policy (West and de Silva, 1999). The same
children from the most affluent areas
is also true of disability, age, gender and
(ESRC, 2001)
geography. There is thus much to be done.
• Over 700,000 people in Scotland live in
relative fuel poverty, spending more
Environmental ‘goods’ and equity
than 10 per cent of their income on
Research on access to environmental goods such
heating (Scottish Executive, 2002)
as heating, housing, transport and green space
• One in four older people living alone
also shows an unequal distribution between
occupy homes with the worst level of
wealthy and poor communities. The
energy efficiency (Scottish Executive,
government currently estimates that 4.5 million
2002).
UK households live in fuel poverty (defined as
spending 10 per cent or more of income to
Environmental ‘bads’ and equity achieve adequate levels of warmth) and this
Correlations are thus emerging on the links contributes to an estimated 30,000 unnecessary
between poverty and pollution (FOE, 2001); winter deaths every year (ESRC, 2001). Fuel
between air pollution and health (see paper by poverty throws up a number of questions
Pless-Mulloli and Phillimore in Chapter 3); and related to housing quality, health and household
between road accidents, young children and energy consumption. The latter in particular
poverty (DETR, 2001). Moreover, there is raises issues of how to reconcile policies to
evidence to suggest that those on the receiving reduce energy consumption (ostensibly good for
end of some of the environmental ‘bads’ (e.g. sustainable development) with the needs of the
traffic pollution) are least likely to enjoy the fuel-poor.
associated social/economic benefits (e.g. car Inequitable access to nutritional food, by
ownership). way of cost and proximity of purchase, also
Research on social inclusion and illustrates the difficulties facing low-income
environment has demonstrated that there are households. Research suggests a number of
ethnic dimensions within these externalities – reasons for this. Particularly the lack of local
caused in part by the high concentrations of facilities and the impact of travel poverty/
black, Asian and minority ethnic communities mobility constraints (Lucas et al., 2001), which
living in deprived areas and low-income also diminish people’s capacity to access
households. Some links have also been found mainstream jobs, education and social
between ethnicity and exposure to opportunities, and may put a simple trip to a
environmental risks such as hazardous supermarket out of their reach.
7
Inequitable access to green space is another The SDR-Network

issue that is coming to the fore in current policy
The following section reviews the work of the
debates (framed as improving quality of life and
SDR-Network based upon the proceedings of its
‘liveability’), and the government is also
first annual conference and interviews with key
consulting on health inequalities. These
stakeholders.
developments provide a context receptive to the
development of a socially inclusive sustainable
Strengths and weaknesses
development research agenda.
First, the SDR-Network has a unique remit to
act as a network for sustainable development
Developing the agenda
research and, despite having only recently been
In the USA, the environmental justice
established, has assisted in establishing links
movement, born out of the civil rights approach
between different sectors within the research
adopted by black and Hispanic communities to
community. It also has a clear commitment to
address environmental inequities, has been
developing a socially inclusive research agenda,
supported by a growing evidence base on the
and has the ability to encourage those entering
linkages between poverty and environmental
the field to hook in to the synergies between
policy. Amongst the real changes that have been
sustainable development and social inclusion.
made is the issuing of an executive order
Main strengths of the SDR-Network can be
requiring regulatory agencies to audit their
summarised as:
work against environmental justice indicators.
In comparison to the USA, the UK is at the • a willingness to develop a sustainable
early stages of developing the sort of political development research agenda that
movement and the body of research evidence embraces social inclusion issues
that could foster such developments. Socially
• a capacity to develop its membership
inclusive and genuinely integrative research
outside of the traditional research
thus potentially has a vital role to play.
community
If sustainable development is to act as a key
political driver in bringing the socially and • a growing reputation as a network with
economically excluded back into the the potential to facilitate the delivery of
mainstream, far greater attention will be high quality scientific advice and research
required to map the current UK distribution of
• good working relationships with the
social, environmental and economic impacts.
Research Councils, DEFRA and other
This could be a rich vein for research to provide
government departments
information, data and evidence to help move
sustainable development forward. • the potential to work with Research
Councils, other funding agencies and
communities to implement a socially
inclusive sustainable development
research agenda.
8
From a social inclusion perspective, concerns understanding are not to be lost, further
with the SDR-Network agenda lie largely with linkages between issues could and should be
its current definition of what constitutes made. This is not to imply that contributors did
sustainable development research. The adoption not/do not understand these additional
of an ‘environment plus’ definition means that synergies: rather, that the agenda as a whole needs
research within its ambit is allowed to exclude to give them more prominence.
one of the three pillars of sustainable This need for integration is apparent in the
development, thus perpetuating the current SDR-Network’s New Agenda paper, but it will be
neglect of social concerns. Moreover, unless the important to ensure that this is not undermined
Network makes explicit attempts to include by the concentration of ‘relevant’ issues within
those who are commonly excluded, the just one of the four overarching themes set out:
opportunity to maximise synergies between that concerned with ‘environment and society’.
sustainable development and social inclusion In fact, as the paper itself makes clear, issues of
may be lost. The Network therefore needs to: inequality and inequity – social, economic, and
environmental – run through and join up all
• build further links to the social exclusion
four of the themes (including ‘governance and
agenda and organisations/agencies
regulation’, ‘social and technological
working with or for socially excluded
innovation’ and ‘business and sectoral
communities
strategies’).
• give greater attention to the specific needs Professor Lawton’s paper on behalf of the
of socially excluded groups, such as Research Councils demonstrates a real
women, Asian, black and ethnic commitment to taking sustainable development
minorities and disabled people. issues seriously and overcoming barriers to
multidisciplinary research. However, much
This perspective on the strengths and
more remains to be done, particularly to
weaknesses of the SDR-Network is confirmed
promote interdisciplinary working and extend
by considering the proceedings of its first
funding programmes to support cross-cutting
annual conference. Table 1 overleaf highlights
research in areas such as spatial planning,
the main social inclusion/regeneration themes
environmental justice and health inequalities.
dealt with in each of the conference papers, and
Given its focus on the need for scientific and
identifies some of the research gaps and
technological research into new forms of
opportunities that remain to be addressed
sustainable energy, Professor King’s paper has
within the broad topic headings.
relatively little to say about social and economic
The edited conference papers can be found
research. However, the recent report of the Chief
in Chapter 3 of this report. As the summary
Scientific Advisor’s Energy Research Review
table overleaf shows, all of the papers presented
Group (OST, 2002), chaired by Professor King,
did, in fact, have direct relevance to social
did call for more socio-economic energy
inclusion/regeneration agendas. However, if
research and a new multidisciplinary national
the opportunities for a truly holistic
energy research centre. From a sustainable
9
Table 1 First annual SDR conference proceedings

Social inclusion/regeneration Other relevant social inclusion/
Conference papers research themes highlighted regeneration research themes
Opening address: sustainable Energy efficiency Community safety
energy Participation, transparency and
access to justice
Socio-technological systems
Spatial planning
A new agenda for UK Spatial planning
sustainable development Environmental justice
research Socio-technological systems
Participation, transparency and
decision-making
Capacity building
Regeneration
Gender and diversity
Sustainable development Participation Environmental inequality
research – a Research Energy efficiency Gender and diversity
Council perspective Rural economy Health inequalities
Socio-technological systems Spatial planning
Transport
Towards a sustainable rural Employment Food production
economy: lessons from foot Regeneration Gender and diversity
and mouth Participation Access to food
Spatial planning
Transport
Pollution, social exclusion, Health inequality Participation, transparency and
equity and health Environmental inequality access to justice
Employment Tackling racism
Regeneration, rural and urban
Spatial planning
Community safety
Gender and diversity
Developing tools for Participation, transparency Capacity building
sustainability appraisal and decision-making
Quality of life and sustainable Social progress Environmental inequality
development Participation Gender and diversity
Employment Access to education
Health inequality
10
development perspective it will be important in Whilst not specifically mentioned in the paper,
broadening out the kind of socio-economic environmental justice is closely intertwined
issues addressed to include issues such as: the with research questions on health and pollution.
social and distributional impacts of the different Wood highlights the potential of
economic, regulatory and technological options sustainability appraisal (SA) tools to improve
for meeting future energy demand; overcoming integration of social, economic and
current socio-economic and organisational environmental factors in decision making, and
barriers to the uptake of existing energy- hence promote sustainable development. A key
efficient technologies; and wider aspects of target for future research into SA tools should be
demand management and reduction, such as their application to urban regeneration plans
the promotion of sustainable lifestyles. By and initiatives, where there has all too often
casting the energy research agenda in this been a failure to take adequate account of social
broad-based way, it is more likely that some of and environmental issues. Research is also
the problems that have beset energy policy in required to facilitate the post hoc evaluation of
the past may be avoided. decisions informed by SAs in order to improve
Donaldson, Lowe and Ward’s paper shows the validity and robustness of the SA tools used.
the rural economy as a complex but Ekins and Levett’s discussion of quality of
interdependent system with lessons of interest life highlights the importance of creating social
for the delivery of sustainable development progress that recognises the needs of everyone.
research. The paper makes links between the Understanding how people make consumption
rural economy, land use, regeneration, and lifestyle choices is key to this challenge.
employment and the participation of farmers Turning to participation issues, a number of
and others in the decision-making processes the papers refer to the importance of engaging
concerning ‘rural issues’ such as the foot and with stakeholders and, of course, this is to be
mouth disease crisis. There are a number of welcomed. However, few give explicit
other synergies between the diversification of consideration as to how excluded groups could
the rural economy and its impact on the socially be brought into this equation. If participation is
and economically excluded communities living to be extended beyond the ‘usual suspects’ – of
in rural (and urban areas) that could be experts and professionals working in the
explored. One such area would be the role of particular field – then further attention will need
women, who have been identified as taking the to be given to techniques for structuring citizen/
lead in the diversification of rural enterprises. expert dialogue, and ways found to counteract
Another is the issue of food poverty and the the imbalance in power and resources that
production of accessible healthy food. different groups bring to the table. This is an
Although Pless-Mulloli and Phillimore’s issue that will be returned to below.
paper directly addresses the issue of social
exclusion, its literature review reveals just how Opportunities and threats
rare considerations of environmental factors are Sustainable development is itself an all-
in studies of social and health inequalities. encompassing theme. The uniqueness of the
11
Network and the nature of sustainable Applying SD principles to research

development leave numerous pathways that it
The Brundtland Report, Agenda 21 and the UK
could follow. In the midst of so many
Strategy for Sustainable Development embody a
opportunities, there is a risk that its current
number of principles whose adoption by the
commitment to exploring the social dimensions
SDR-Network could ensure that a social
of sustainable development could be missed. In
perspective was properly integrated into
order to deal with this threat, two main steps
sustainable development research – definition
suggest themselves. First, the SDR-Network
and practice. At the heart of these documents is
needs to set a strategy over the next two to three
the notion of public participation and access to
years that will help to prioritise where its
information in decision making, articulated
resources are most effectively used. Second, the
through:
strategy must be linked to long-term support
and funding. This is particularly important if • the preservation of values that promote
the SDR-Network is to build its capacity to the protection and respect of any
work with multiple stakeholders. individual, group or community – in
There are potential conflicts between the particular disadvantaged people
needs of ‘community’ stakeholders and the
• the prioritisation of the democratic
institutional culture of traditional research.
principle that all citizens have equal
These included conflicts between:
political rights and responsibilities
• research that uses traditional
• the provision of resources and
methodology that focuses on the technical
mechanisms which empower people,
aspects of the process versus
especially those who are disenfranchised
methodologies that focus on the social
or poor.
aspects of empowering communities
These same principles are illustrated in
• the need to publish prestigious research
environmental justice, defined as ensuring that
papers versus the need for accessible
no person or group of people should shoulder a
user-friendly information.
disproportionate share of the negative
The SDR-Network could play a role in environmental impacts resulting from the
smoothing these conflicts. execution of domestic and foreign policies and
If the challenges ahead are to be met, there initiatives. It has been further defined by three
will be a role for research activity that applies objectives (Adebowale, Church et al., 2001),
the principles of sustainable development in echoing those above:
engaging the people carrying the burden of the
• the right to know (the right to information)
inequitable distribution of unsustainable
policies in both the development of the research • the right to participate in decision-making
agenda and in the research itself. processes (the right to be consulted and
participate in proposals, plans or activities)
12
• the right of access to justice (a guaranteed

Range of stakeholder participation
right to enforce the rights to know and
processes and outcomes
participate via courts or other independent
bodies). • Non-exploitative methods
• Accessible information
The SDR-Network should consider the
• Management and governance
extent to which these guiding principles of
• Decision making.
sustainable development are also relevant to the
process of research. If research is to be made
more valuable to non-traditional users, such as Research that understands and engages in
excluded communities, then greater emphasis stakeholder participation is important for two
arguably needs to be placed on: main reasons:
• including social equity issues in the • First, it draws in information from a wide
design and articulation of research range of interested parties allowing for
programmes, projects and questions more informed and effective outcomes.
• community participation in the design, • Second, it generates a greater

management and dissemination of commitment to ensuring the success of
research activities the policies and initiatives which it
underpins.
• the use of participatory research methods
(such as action research). Thus, for sustainable development, socially
inclusive research could provide data, indicators
Engaging excluded communities and information that would allow policy
Excluded communities can be engaged in choices to be made that support social progress
research both by getting them involved in the and recognise the needs of everyone. Questions
research process, and by allowing communities around what meets the needs of socially
to take part in or wholly control the setting of excluded people can only really be answered by
research questions and agendas. The former including the perspectives of the people
involves participation in any of the research affected: thereby fully taking into account their
stages (design, delivery or dissemination). The views on main objectives and how to achieve
latter moves away from the traditional construct them. This way of working is encouraged in
of research by putting control in the hands of current government thinking, including its
the participants rather than leaving it solely modernisation agenda.
with the researchers. Some research methods can give control and
management to socially excluded groups, so
allowing for a ‘bottom up’ approach. Research
used to increase community participation in this
way is called ‘action’ or participatory research,
13
where the researcher is directly involved in Women’s Environmental Network to run a UK-
encouraging and taking part in action for wide project which aimed at assisting women
change with the research participants. The outside of the research community to map their
methodology is based on the belief that research local area showing individual cases and clusters
can also be used to build knowledge, skills and of breast cancer. Amongst the Research
capacity amongst those outside the traditional Councils, the Engineering and Physical Sciences
research community. This can be in some or all Research Council (EPSRC) has funded the
stages of the research process (see box). project, ‘Society and Scientist’. A series of
seminars specifically aimed at improving
dialogue and partnerships between the research
Seven dimensions of action-led research
community and non-traditional research users
1 The content of the situation from socially and economically excluded groups
• providing data; the participants are (Capacity, 2002). One of the aims of which is to
informants develop a consortium made up not only of
• interpreting data; the participants interdisciplinary researchers, but also of
are interpreters community representatives and organisations to
• planning change; the participants work together in future research projects.
are planners and decision makers Action research is sometimes criticised
• implementation; the participants within the academic community as lacking the
are implementers. degree of rigour and objectivity of more
traditional research methods. However, these
2 The research process
reservations need to be set alongside a broader
• managing the process of data
understanding of what the approach hopes to
collection and interpretation; the
achieve and the additional benefits it can bring.
participants are facilitators
For sustainable development – where social
• designing the overall study; the
progress is one of the guiding principles – these
participants are researchers or co-
advantages could be significant.
researchers.
3 Process, content, or both

Lessons and recommendations
• being kept informed about the
study and its implications; the A number of lessons emerge from this analysis.
participants are recipients only.
For the SDR-Network
Source: Dick (1997).
Overall, the messages for the SDR-Network are
positive. The conference papers, policy reviews
Some organisations have taken a lead by and interviews with relevant decision makers
supporting research in which the users are suggest a clear role for the SDR-Network in
active participants. For example, the facilitating ‘socially inclusive’ research within
Community Fund provided finance to the the context of sustainable development.
14
To do this, however, the SDR-Network must If policy makers are to reap the benefits that
manage a shift from research centred on participative research can bring – including the
‘environment plus’ to research that has social increased likelihood of ownership and
equity as a central theme. This means amending commitment by communities themselves – then
the Network’s current definition of ‘sustainable they need to encourage the use of such methods
development research’. and be realistic about the time and resources
The SDR-Network also needs to be required. Forecasting emerging policy areas will
accessible to communities, groups and therefore be important in providing reasonable
organisations that are outside the traditional timeframes for high quality outputs.
research sector. This will mean developing
dialogue with community-led networks in order For research funders
to meet the needs and interests of those groups Funders need to review their funding remit
most affected by social exclusion (and, as through a sustainable development lens by
discussed above, negative environmental developing their own sustainable development
impacts). strategy. They need to develop a clear
The SDR-Network’s ability to deliver in this understanding of what sustainable
area will be highly dependent on building its development is and how it impacts on their
resources. This will involve gaining long-term work programmes.
funding over and beyond its present income, A number of the papers presented to the first
and developing a strategic understanding of the conference welcomed initiatives by the Research
role it could play vis-à-vis social inclusion. Councils to encourage multidisciplinary
Within available resources, the Network should research. All, however, stated that more needs to
develop systems of prioritisation that recognise be done. Taking into account the complex nature
the importance of social equity. of sustainable development, it is suggested that
multidisciplinary work in this area should be
For policy makers the rule rather than the exception. This will
Successful integrative sustainable development require a commitment to the provision of
and social inclusion policies are based on training and opportunities for researchers to
unlocking and understanding the commonalities develop careers in multidisciplinary research; a
of the inequitable impact and distribution of commitment to funding for research delivered
environmental policy, initiatives and law on by non-traditional research users (such as
socially and economically excluded people. individuals and groups from socially and
Socially inclusive research requires a economically excluded communities); and
‘people-based approach’ as its central principle. developing a dialogue between researchers and
In practice this should mean that initiatives communities on best practice for working
have a social dimension and, where possible, together to deliver robust and meaningful
use methods that allow for the participation of evidence.
socially and economically excluded The funding bodies and Research Councils
communities. have the potential to develop socially inclusive
15
sustainable development research by ensuring • First, that social inclusion/social equity

that their funding criteria support work that can should be given greater prominence
demonstrate synergies with and between social within sustainable development research,
inclusion, the environment and economics; by and sustainable development should be
encouraging multidisciplinary research given greater prominence in single ‘social
consortia consisting of researchers and non- inclusion’ research areas. Research
traditional research users; and by opening up councils, community networks and
funding streams for participatory research relevant policy makers should develop
methods. They should also review whether their detailed guidance on how this could be
cultural and institutional structures create done. The SDR-Network could
barriers to achieving this sort of change and, if potentially play a crucial facilitating role
so, work within the research community to in this.
overcome them.
• Second, the use of ‘non-traditional’
Sustainable development research has great
research methods should be given greater
potential to underpin integrated policy
support from funding bodies, in
initiatives that encompass the dimension of
particular participative research which
social inclusion. However, to fulfil this potential,
works with excluded communities rather
it needs to be supported by long-term funding
than on excluded communities. Again,
strategies from all funding sources that
this could be facilitated and encouraged
recognise the contribution it can make. In doing
by the SDR-Network.
so, the strategies need to take into account the
extended timelines required if genuine research • And finally, a transparent strategy for the
partnerships between communities and long-term funding of sustainable
researchers are to be facilitated. development research should be
developed between government,
Concluding recommendations Research Councils and other funding
By way of conclusion, three broad bodies in partnership with researchers,
recommendations stand out from the discussion charitable organisations, community
above: networks, etc. Without this – and without
the assurance of some degree of longevity
for the Network itself – strategic planning
will be problematic.
16
3 Edited papers of the first annual
Sustainable Development Research
conference
Opening address: sustainable energy recently been achieved in the negotiations on the
David King implementation of the Kyoto Protocol.
We are facing sea level rises of a significant
My involvement in sustainable development
magnitude. We also face increased rainfall and
arose originally from research at the Chemistry
an increased frequency of storms. How are we
Department in Cambridge, where I was Head,
going to tackle such problems?
into depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer
over the Antarctic. Working with the
Future world demand for energy
Mathematics Department, our team was able to
As a society, we need to look at alternative ways
produce a complete model of what was
of using energy. Of course, we should begin by
happening in the stratosphere, including the
considering how to use energy more efficiently.
reaction of CFCs and ozone (O3) in the presence
That, however, may be insufficient in itself. We
of sunlight. Once the presence of ice crystals
must also take account of the sources from
had been factored in, a remarkably good
which our energy is drawn.
agreement was obtained with monitoring data
Figure 1 shows Shell’s forecast from a few
on the depletion of the ozone layer. This work
years ago of the future availability of various
led to the Montreal Protocol restricting the use
energy sources. It illustrates how there is going
of CFCs throughout the world. It provided a
to be a reduction in the availability of oil and
model for dealing with other environmental
other fossil fuels. Furthermore, even if we did
problems, including the most pressing facing
not face the prospect of such diminishing
the world today: global climate change.
resources, we would still have to consider the
impact on our global climate of continuing to
The challenge of global climate change
burn fossil fuels at current rates. We are going to
The forecasts of climate modellers, endorsed by
have to find an enormous amount of renewable
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
energy capacity to meet the predicted growth of
(IPCC), clearly show that, without further action,
energy demand around the world.
average global temperatures will soon be higher
Whilst one may argue with the detail of this
than they have been in the last thousand years.
forecast, it nevertheless illustrates that the world
This will take us into uncharted territory. Because
is facing a major problem in terms of future
of the time lag between causes and effects in the
energy demand, particularly if levels of carbon
climate systems, we can do little to alter the next
emissions are to be reduced.
twenty years of warming. It is within our scope,
however, to avoid the more extreme impacts of
The Kyoto targets and beyond
global climate change that threaten us over the
The Kyoto Protocol is just a first step towards
longer term. That would depend upon massive
the reduction of global carbon emissions we
international collaboration exceeding what has
17
Figure 1 Shell ‘Sustainable Growth Scenario’

1500
Surprise
Geoth.
Renewable Contribution to
World Energy Demand Solar
1000
Biomass
Exajoules
Wind
Nuclear
500 Hydro
Gas
Oil & NGL
Coal
0 Trad Bio.
1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060
Source: Shell, The Evolution of the World’s Energy Systems, 1995.
need to achieve. The European Union’s target from the atmosphere through sequestration
under the Protocol is an 8 per cent reduction in technology.
greenhouse gas emissions by 2008–12,
compared with 1990 levels. Within that, the Research into new energy technologies
UK’s binding target is a 12.5 per cent reduction. In view of these problems, the UK needs to
The UK government also has a target of maintain a very broad menu of sustainable
achieving a 20 per cent reduction in CO2 energy options. Cross-cutting technologies will
emissions (compared to 1990 levels) by 2010. We be important. Although I am about to focus on
are already close to achieving the 12.5 per cent one particular potential energy source, I want to
target this year. But this is largely due to the so- stress that we should not now be trying to pick
called ‘dash for gas’. The UK made an easy winners. We must invest in research into a range
transition from coal to gas (which has a lower of alternative and renewable energy sources.
carbon content). The next stage is going to be This was the conclusion of a review of UK
considerably more difficult. energy research which I chaired last year and
The Royal Commission on Environmental which fed into the wider review of energy
Pollution (RCEP) has suggested that we aim at a policy by the Cabinet Office’s Performance and
reduction target for CO2 emissions of 60 per Innovation Unit (both published on 14 February
cent by 2050. In the longer term, I believe we 2002). Whilst emphasising the importance of a
should be aiming towards much lower broadly based research strategy, my review
emissions. Fossil fuels could still be used, but identified six key areas in which increased
the resulting CO2 would have to be removed support for research could have a particularly
18
Edited papers of the first annual SDR conference
significant impact on progress towards a low- A fusion reactor produces energy by heating
carbon economy. They were: CO2 sequestration; deuterium and tritium to a temperature of
energy efficiency; hydrogen production and around 100 million degrees centigrade so that a
storage; nuclear power; solar photovoltaics; and plasma (in which the electrons are separated
wave and tidal power. from atomic nuclei) is formed. The fusion of the
deuterium and tritium nuclei releases helium,
The prospects for nuclear fusion energy and a neutron. The process is sustained
Perhaps controversially, I now want to focus on as the neutron bombards the lithium blanket
nuclear fusion. This, of course, is an energy surrounding the reactor, and so produces
technology which has yet to be realised – but, if tritium. The helium ash from the process is not
it were, it would offer an enviable prospect of radioactive, so we avoid the problem of
clean, sustainable energy. Nuclear fusion is the radioactive waste associated with current
process that provides the sun’s energy and so nuclear fission technology.
indirectly sustains all life on earth. The JET reactor at Culham has effectively
Fusion research has been conducted widely achieved its objectives. In particular, it is
around the world, and has been promising releasing energy comparable to that applied
much over the last fifty years. There is little externally to heat the plasma. Obviously, a
doubt that Europe is currently the world leader. commercial reactor would need to generate far
The Joint European Torus (JET) experimental more energy than it took in.
reactor is at Culham, Oxfordshire, so the UK is a The next step is to build a larger version of
major contributor to European research activity JET, called ITER (International Thermonuclear
and well placed to benefit from it. Experimental Reactor). This would sustain the
Figure 2 A fusion reactor

The materials problem:
Fusion – the fuel cycle of an operating reactor How to contain the hot plasma and fast neutrons
Lithium
Blanket
Li
Deuterium T
Plasma T
Primary fuels
Vacuum DTn Helium (non-radioactive ash)

DT, He
4He 4 4 4
He He He
Fuel Processing
Heat Exchanger
Lithium
Generator
Turbine
Steam Generator
19
heating of the plasma whilst generating at least meantime, hybrid vehicle technology – in
ten times more energy. It has already been which, for example, an internal combustion
designed in a collaborative effort by the engine can be combined with an electric motor –
European Union, Japan, Russia and the US; the could reduce fuel use and CO2 emissions by up
US withdrew from the programme in 1999, but to 50 per cent.
may rejoin. The cost of building ITER is Although there is a lot of R&D effort
estimated at €4 billion. The UK has been directed at the on-board conversion of methane,
exploring actively how to accelerate progress. methanol or petrol to hydrogen, the current
One of the major research problems concerns industry view is that the first fuel-cell-powered
the materials required to withstand the heat and vehicles on the market will be fuelled direct by
neutron fluxes inside a commercial fusion hydrogen. In California and Germany, hydrogen
power station. It is proposed that a high-flux fuel stations are already being set up on an
neutron source be built so that materials could experimental basis.
be tested to destruction. If this were done in Hydrogen to fuel the transport system of the
parallel with the building of ITER, the timescale future could be produced by electrolysis of
for achieving a commercial reactor could be water using electricity from the national grid –
significantly reduced to 25 to 30 years. but that would greatly increase the demand on
Obviously, a great deal more research is the grid. Obviously, it would make little sense to
required, but I believe the effort is justified by meet that demand by increased use of fossil
the potential outcome. Fusion would emit no fuels.
greenhouse gases, and we have abundant We must continue to work hard to develop
supplies of deuterium (from seawater) and renewable energy sources. With increased
lithium (from the earth). support for research, there is a greater
likelihood of dramatic breakthroughs. But I do
Future challenges not think we can take for granted that these will
Energy consumed by the transport sector in the be achieved quickly enough for us to meet all
UK continues to rise, despite the fact that we our needs for non-fossil fuels over the next
have cars which use less petrol to travel more twenty or thirty years.
miles. We need to move away from vehicles that I have highlighted the contribution which
emit CO2. The hydrogen fuel cell is already at could be made by nuclear fusion, but even the
an advanced stage of development. Buses and most optimistic people, such as myself, feel that
depot-serviced vehicles operating in city centres 25 years is the shortest timescale in which we
may provide an initial market for fuel-cell- may expect to see working fusion power
powered vehicles. It is anticipated that cars stations.
using this technology will start to reach the I believe, therefore, that we need seriously to
market in 2003 or thereabouts on a small scale – consider whether nuclear fission technology
at least in California – although it may be at should be re-harnessed as an alternative to fossil
least 2010 before they start to reach the roads in fuels in the shorter term. Clearly there are major
any significant numbers in Europe. In the problems associated with the technology in
20
terms of radioactive waste. Indeed, my review sectoral strategies). Particular attention was also
of energy research recommended that, in drawn to two sets of generic issues (appraisal
relation to nuclear energy, priority be given to and evaluation tools; and data and indicators).
research into the handling and disposal of waste
Governance and regulation
that has already accumulated from the
The use of science in policy-making: effective use of
operation and decommissioning of fission
scientific knowledge, and management of
power stations.
uncertainty, is vital to understanding current
These are difficult challenges, and society as
and future impacts of human activities and
a whole must be engaged in the debate on how
hence effective governance for sustainable
to face them. But I am increasingly convinced
development. Improved epidemiological
that that debate must move forward as a matter
surveys and environmental monitoring and
of urgency if we are to overcome the threat of
surveillance, ‘integrated’ environmental and
global warming and build a sustainable future
socio-economic models, futures studies and
for our planet.
scenario techniques all have an important role
to play here, particularly in identifying
A new agenda for UK sustainable ecological limits, and setting strategic objectives
development research and frameworks for regulation.
Malcolm Eames Scaling issues include questions such as how
best to reconcile the differing temporal and
The following paper provides a summary of the
spatial scales of environmental and political
research priorities and policy recommendations
processes. For example, within our increasingly
developed by the SDR-Network. It is taken from
multilevel governance system, what is the
the Network’s report A New Agenda for UK
appropriate balance between ‘top-down’ and
Sustainable Development Research (2002): an
‘bottom-up’ policy processes, and how should
updated and revised version of the consultation
the principle of subsidiarity be applied? There is
document presented at the first annual
a particular need for research to address the
Sustainable Development Research conference
question of how regional scale governance can
in December 2001. Copies of the full report are
best contribute to sustainable development
available via the SDR-Network’s website at
given the increasing importance of this tier
www.sd-research.org.uk.
within the UK.
Policy integration is acknowledged as a
Needs, opportunities and priorities
corner stone of sustainable development. But
The SDR-Network’s analysis of current
what is the most effective balance between
knowledge gaps, research opportunities and
institutional specialisation and integration? For
policy needs for cross-cutting SD research was
example, is sustainable development best
organised around four distinct but interrelated
served having separate regulatory bodies
themes (governance and regulation;
responsible for protecting the interests of the
environment and society; social and
environment and consumers, or should such
technological innovation; and business and
21
functions be integrated? More broadly, how can What are the legislative barriers to sustainable
competing policy objectives best be reconciled development in the UK? How will local
and integrated approaches implemented, and authorities’ new ‘power of well-being’ be
how should policy and institutional integration interpreted and what will be the impact of
best be measured, assessed and evaluated? human rights legislation with respect to
Spatial planning potentially provides an environmental and sustainable development
important framework for integrating issues? Can overseas aid be used as a lever to
environmental, social and economic strengthen legal frameworks that support
considerations. Research questions include: to sustainable development in developing
what extent does the current planning system countries? What developments in international
contribute to environmental injustice? How can law are needed to support sustainable
ecological limits best be defined and development on a global basis?
operationalised in the context of spatial What is the most effective balance between
planning? What role could the planning system regulation, economic instruments and voluntary
play in improving the integration and action in promoting sustainable development?
management of factors such as energy, How can the effectiveness of regulatory, fiscal
transport, waste, biodiversity, land-use, and voluntary measures best be evaluated?
employment and social capital? What legal and What factors shape the public acceptability of
institutional changes would be required for the such measures, and what is the most
planning system to play such a role, and what appropriate mix of different types of policy
will be the impact of the current proposals for instrument under different circumstances?
planning reform in England? Since Rio, the right of citizens to participate in
Spatial or ‘territorial’ planning also has an environmental decision making has increasingly
important contribution to make in managing been accepted as central to the concept of
regional scale changes in the use of land and sustainable development. But what does this
other environmental resources, such as those mean in practice, in terms of access to
resulting from the current changes taking place information and the role of existing democratic
in UK agriculture, from broader changes in processes? What participatory processes are
demographic and trade patterns, or from the appropriate under different circumstances?
impacts of global climate change. The regional What constitutes participation and how should
scale ‘integrated’ modelling and assessment such processes be evaluated? How should
tools, supported by robust baseline monitoring issues of representation and accountability be
data, will be essential to this task. addressed? How should community/expert
How effective are legislative frameworks, such interactions best be managed, and scientific
as statutory requirements to promote knowledge mobilised? What weight should be
sustainable development? What are the factors given to conflict resolution and consensus, as
shaping legislative agendas, and where is new opposed to the recognition of diversity, in the
legislative action required as opposed to design of participatory processes? More
improved implementation and enforcement? fundamentally, does participation actually lead
22
to decisions that are more likely to promote How can research mapping environmental
sustainable development? injustice in the UK better inform policy? To what
extent are the socially excluded more
Environment and society
susceptible to the adverse health impacts of
The links between environment and social
pollution than richer sections of society, and to
structures and processes is the least well-developed
what extent are they disadvantaged in terms of
aspect of both SD research and policy making.
access to environmental resources? What are the
Economic welfare and development are integral
costs and benefits of addressing environmental
to this theme, but these are not the only priorities.
and health inequalities? To what extent can
There is a need for improved
regulatory and enforcement agencies currently
understandings of community processes. For
address such concerns? Are legislative and
example, does local environmental action
judicial reforms, or new appraisal and
improve social cohesion? Does participation
evaluation tools, required? What role can risk
generate social capital? How do communities
compensation play? How can environmental
respond to changing legal and institutional
policies and instruments be designed to better
frameworks? How are voluntary sector
protect disadvantaged and excluded groups?
organisations responding to the challenges of
Research is also needed to inform UK
sustainable development, and under what
policies aimed at reducing global poverty and
conditions can the public sector best facilitate
inequality, and to underpin the development of
the work of NGOs?
more equitable and accountable international
What are the environmental and resource
institutions and trading practices. This will
impacts of regeneration and development? How
include further work mapping the UK’s
can the protection of biodiversity and economic
ecological ‘footprint’ and the social,
development best be reconciled? What does the
environmental and economic impacts of
emerging discourse around ‘liveability’ mean
‘downstream’ industrial activities.
for the environment? How can viable
What do we mean by quality of life? Is the
sustainable communities be fostered and
concept useful? How should it be measured and
developed in different contexts?
communicated? What is the relationship
With respect to issues of social inclusion, there
between employment, labour productivity and
is a need to identify best practice for community
quality of life? What is the relationship between
initiatives integrating social, economic and
(natural, semi-natural or built) environmental
environmental concerns, and to improve
quality and quality of life? How important are
understandings of the environmental values
intrinsic values, such as appreciation of nature,
and behaviour of different ethnic, cultural and
and material consumption in people’s experience
economic groups. In particular, how do different
and assessment of their quality of life?
individuals and groups balance economic need
How can the impacts of consumer behaviour
against environmental and health risks, and
best be assessed? What are the barriers to more
what factors shape social perceptions of risk, both
sustainable lifestyles and how can such lifestyles
to and from the environment?
best be promoted? What contribution can
23
consumer-led ‘solutions’ such as green how can inertia in socio-technological systems

consumerism, local purchasing and voluntary best be overcome? Are ‘incremental’ or ‘step’
simplicity make and how should these be changes in technology required, and how could
evaluated? What roles do factors such as necessary step changes in infrastructure
education, public policy, technology, the media technologies be promoted and financed? There
and popular culture play, both in shaping is also a need to develop improved
existing lifestyles and generating behaviour methodological and theoretical frameworks that
change? How can environmental and can help us to understand not only the social
sustainable development issues be communicated dimensions of technological change but also the
more effectively? potential of social innovation, and the
conditions and processes that govern it.
Social and technological innovation
One of the principal frameworks for
The transition to a sustainable economy will
approaching these issues is provided by the
inevitably require significant innovation in socio-
discourse of technological risk. Specific issues
technological systems – systemic changes in the
requiring further attention include: novel
technological processes, artefacts, and
approaches to balancing risk aversion and
associated social attitudes and behaviours that
innovation such as the use of insurance
shape our lives. Integrated environmental and
mechanisms to promote innovation in
socio-economic modelling and scenario
sustainable technologies; and the
techniques again have a role to play in
implementation of ‘precaution’ through the
illuminating both the scale and direction of the
concepts of variety, reversibility, vulnerability,
necessary changes. Equally, the question of the
adaptability and resilience in the design and
extent to which technological innovation can
management of socio-technological systems.
accommodate resource and ecological
Further consideration should also be given to
constraints must also be seriously addressed.
the development of ‘ecological’ approaches to
In addition to scientific and engineering
precaution and risk, within the context of
based research, development and
interdisciplinary research aimed at
demonstration projects to develop cleaner, more
operationalising the precautionary principle.
sustainable technologies, research is also
More broadly, further work is needed to
required to investigate the social, economic and
understand the long-term challenges of
political dimensions of such innovation processes.
managing macro socio-technological systems, at the
How should innovations in resource
scale of national energy, water and transport
productivity (factor 4/10), de-materialisation
infrastructures and entire cities, semi-urban and
(from products to services) and materials
rural regional economies. The conceptual and
substitution (to use renewable or less hazardous
empirical relationship between technological
materials) be evaluated? How can technological
innovation and productivity also requires critical
change be directed towards the goal of
attention. For example, what are the theoretical
sustainable development, and what role should
and practical tensions between: resource and
government play? What are the barriers to the
economic efficiency; the durability of goods and
uptake of more sustainable technologies and
24
employment; labour productivity and sectoral ‘good practice’ exist, and how can such
sustainability; and partial vs. whole system good practice be made the norm? Are current
productivity? sector organisations capable of delivering
change or are alternative institutional structures
Business and sectoral strategies
and legal frameworks required? How can
Research is also needed to inform business and
sectoral targets best be negotiated, monitored
sectoral strategies. Much of this work will need to
and enforced?
be undertaken in close collaboration with
Cross-sector issues include the need to better
industrial and business partners.
anticipate, model and evaluate the
With respect to the corporate sustainability
environmental and social impacts of pervasive
agenda, further work is needed to develop and
technological and socio-political changes, such
illustrate the ‘business case’ for sustainable
as the development of ITCs, e-commerce,
development (SD). The effectiveness of existing
globalisation, etc. Furthermore, prospective
tools, such as environmental management and
studies are also needed to examine what
auditing systems, supply chain management,
structural changes, both at the firm and sector
environmental and social reporting, etc. also
level, the transition to a sustainable economy
require rigorous evaluation. Corporate SD
will require, and how these changes should best
champions need effective, instrumental models
be achieved.
of organisational learning with which to change
behaviour, as well as appropriate performance Generic issues
indicators for different businesses. They also Integrated appraisal and evaluation – be it of
need access to understandable and relevant decisions, policies, institutional frameworks or
environmental information. Despite the best technological products and processes – is a
efforts of the scientific community, such access common thread running though the four
remains problematic. Social scientists have an overarching research themes outlined above, as
important role to play in developing tools and such research is actively required to examine the
techniques to improve the transfer of scientific institutional factors that facilitate or inhibit SD
knowledge to business and the wider appraisal and evaluation.
community. Despite recent progress, further work is also
The need for sector-specific applied research needed to develop robust methodologies, ‘tools’
to address problems and provide solutions in and best practice guidance for integrated
existing priority areas, such as energy, waste, (sustainability) appraisal, applicable across a
transport, and the rural economy, is widely wide range of institutional contexts and
established. Less well recognised is the need for problem settings. Networks are needed to allow
research into the current and prospective role of researchers and practitioners to share
the financial sector, as both driver and inhibitor knowledge and experience across
of sustainable development. organisational, disciplinary and sectoral
Furthermore, the development of sectoral boundaries.
sustainability strategies requires that a number of Improved social learning for sustainability
generic questions be addressed. What models of also requires much greater attention to
25
integrated post hoc evaluation studies and forward though collaboratively funded
techniques. These are particularly poorly research programmes, steered by
developed at the meso- and micro-levels, i.e. the committees including natural scientists,
evaluation of the sustainability impacts of social scientists and research users. They
specific decisions, policies and programmes. should also pay particular attention to
Both SD appraisal and evaluation require the those areas identified as key priorities for
definition and collection of extensive and future research, including: sustainability
diverse sets of data and indicators. Whilst the appraisal/evaluation; data and
routine collection and compilation of such data indicators; spatial planning; regulation,
and indicators are not in themselves research economic instruments and voluntary
tasks, there are a number of related topics, often action; community processes;
at the interface between the environmental and environmental justice; quality of life;
social sciences, which are in need of further consumption, behaviour and lifestyle;
research. These include: methods of assuring socio-technological systems and
input data quality; the definition of data and innovation processes; and corporate
indicator needs (including work on sustainability.
environmental base lines); the interpretation of
• Research Councils and government
data and indicator information; the design of
departments that sponsor science and
protocols and appropriate information systems.
engineering R&D programmes should
More generally there remains a need for
routinely incorporate strong socio-
interdisciplinary research to improve the
economic and environmental components
presentation, modelling and use of scientific
into their programmes. This is
information in decision making.
particularly the case for research
programmes in areas such as energy,
Recommendations from the New Agenda
transport, waste, resource-use and
report
agricultural production where there is
The SDR-Network report made a number of
growing awareness of the need for
specific recommendations to the research
sustainable solutions.
community, research funders, and policy
makers/practitioners concerned with sustainable • The Treasury should ensure that the need
development issues. These are outlined below: to provide appropriate support for cross-
cutting SD research is recognised in the
• The research community and both public
government’s 2002 Spending Review.
and private sector funding bodies should
review their existing programmes and • The Office of Science and Technology and
future plans in light of the knowledge the new Research Councils UK Strategy
gaps, research opportunities and policy Group should ensure that sustainable
needs outlined in the report. Where development objectives are properly
possible these priorities should be taken integrated into all of the Councils’
26
activities, and should instigate measures practitioners can have confidence in their
to remove institutional barriers to findings.
interdisciplinary research in this area (e.g.
• DEFRA and the DTI should consider
by ‘ring fencing’ specific resources for the
commissioning a review of the current
support of cross-cutting SD research).
provision of research dissemination and
• The Higher Education Funding Council consultancy services for sustainable
(HEFC) and the Research Councils should development, so as to ensure that relevant
review the provision of research training research findings are made widely
and career paths for both natural and available and integrated into professional
social scientists, with the objective of development, training, outreach and
improving the provision of appropriately advisory services.
skilled personnel capable of undertaking
high quality cross-cutting SD research.
Sustainable development research – a
Specific measures to encourage the
Research Council perspective
movement of experienced individuals
John Lawton
between academia, consultancy, public
administration and business should also The UK government’s Sustainable Development
be actively considered. Strategy aims to deliver economic growth,
whilst maintaining a healthy population and a
• The Research Councils and government
healthy environment. This is a huge challenge,
departments should examine the overall
which will require more than political will. It
balance of their expenditure to ensure
will need to be underpinned by excellent and
that sufficient support is available for
relevant science.
data collection, monitoring and indicator
It is clear that the government is taking this
development, including the production of
challenge seriously. Promoting sustainable
accessible web-based resources.
development across government is a key aim of
• The Research Councils, government the new Department for the Environment and
departments and industry bodies should Rural Affairs. In his foreword to the Cabinet
commission research synthesis and Office report Resource Productivity: Making More
systematic reviews to improve the use of with Less, the Prime Minister announced the
existing knowledge and support government’s desire to shift the UK economy
evidence-based policy making and onto a more sustainable footing, for example by
practices that are oriented towards using resources more efficiently. Also in
sustainable development. November 2001, the Chief Secretary to the
Treasury announced that Departmental Spending
• DEFRA should support the development
Review proposals, targets and innovation
of clear guidelines and standards for SD
strategies, including those of the Research
research synthesis and systematic reviews
Councils, should reflect the government’s
so as to ensure that policy makers and
27
sustainable development objectives. We should Energy supply, in all its forms, is arguably
take great encouragement from this, but also the fundamental issue on which the sustainable
recognise that more needs to be done to promote development agenda will succeed or fail. It has
the huge opportunities that sustainable been predicted that over about the next three
development could offer UK industry. generations fossil fuel reserves will decline,
The challenge now for the UK Research whilst a growing world population and
Councils and their communities is to develop economic growth will mean increasing demands
new and innovative ways of working together for energy. Over the same period, the
with other stakeholders to help deliver the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
sustainability agenda. Together we need to (IPCC) predicts that increased CO2 and other
identify and invest in national and international greenhouse gas emissions will push up global
priorities for sustainable development research temperatures by between 1.4 and 5.8 ºC. We will
and training. Two key priorities that we believe see significant rises in sea level, more stormy
we should focus on are sustainable energy and weather conditions and changing rainfall
the rural economy. We also need to create and patterns.
support new communities of scientists able to The challenge to the UK, and the rest of the
undertake work at the difficult interfaces world, is how to fill the predicted energy gap
between the physical and socio-economic with a secure and affordable energy supply,
sciences, and invest in transferring the outputs whilst minimising CO2 emissions and
and outcomes of research to develop sustainable contributing to sustainable development. This,
solutions. Research Councils are already in the view of many scientists, is the key issue
supporting a significant range of research, confronting human beings at present, and it is
training and exploitation activities but we unquestionably a key issue on the sustainability
recognise that in the past we have tended to agenda.
work within the ‘research silos’ of traditional Although the Kyoto Protocol sets agreed
disciplines. limits on greenhouse gas emissions for
We are beginning to break down the barriers developed nations, huge uncertainties remain
between Research Councils, particularly in about if and when the protocol will be
building on the outcomes from the government’s implemented. Even if the emissions targets are
2000 Spending Review, and in developing multi- met, this is only a small step in the right
and interdisciplinary proposals for the next direction. The Royal Commission on
Spending Review in 2002. The new Research Environmental Pollution estimates that the UK
Councils UK Strategy Group (RCUK) will and other nations may need to reduce their
strengthen this approach. This body will enhance annual emissions by 60 per cent by 2050 – that is
our collective leadership and influence, and is within one generation. This is a huge reduction
expected to develop a 10–15 year roadmap of in CO2 emissions, and will be very difficult to
opportunities for UK science. Sustainable achieve. The challenge for the sustainability
development objectives will no doubt be a major agenda is to uncouple economic growth from
consideration in shaping this roadmap. energy and resource usage. Moving toward this
28
goal, by making better use of resources, is a key particularly the Tyndall Centre and the
component of the government’s agenda, but to Engineering and Physical Sciences Research
achieve it will require significant technological Council’s (EPSRC) new SUPERGEN initiative.
and cultural changes. The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change is a
The Cabinet Office’s Performance and unique collaboration between nine UK research
Innovation Unit has recently undertaken a institutions that provides the national focus for
major review of energy policy on behalf of the interdisciplinary research on climate change. The
government. This includes an assessment of Centre is funded by the Natural Environment
future research and development needs, led by Research Council (NERC), EPSRC, the Economic
Professor David King, the government’s chief and Social Research Council (ESRC), and the
scientist. Research Councils were directly Department of Trade and Industry. It brings
engaged in this review, and we have also been together physical and social scientists to further
working with a wide range of stakeholders and the understanding of causes and consequences of
funders, including the DTI and Carbon Trust, to climate change, and to identify, develop and
identify the research and development priorities evaluate sustainable responses. The Centre
for sustainable energy. These have been supports an ambitious programme of research
developed into proposals for a new cross- and knowledge transfer activities including
Council initiative ‘Towards a Sustainable exploring and evaluating mechanisms for
Energy Economy’. reducing carbon emissions from fossil fuels,
The aim of this proposed programme is to looking at the effectiveness of low carbon energy
give the UK access to a secure, safe, diverse and systems and the social and economic barriers to
reliable energy supply at a competitive price, their introduction, and predicting long-term
whilst meeting the challenge of global warming. shifts in energy demand and consumption, and
One of the suggestions is that we should create their links to climate change.
a new Centre or Centres of Sustainable Energy Launched in November 2001, EPSRC’s
Research, bringing together experts in the ‘Sustainable Power Generation and Supply’
technological, social, economic, environmental (SUPERGEN) initiative is a new programme
and health aspects of energy. The Centre(s) which will support consortia of researchers,
would act as a UK and possibly European focus stakeholders and users to study ways to
for world class sustainable energy research. The overcome the challenges of generating and
priorities it might tackle could include carbon supplying sustainable power. Priority themes
management from the burning of fossil fuels, include electricity networks and grid
sustainable renewable energy such as wave and connection, biomass and biofuels, marine
wind power, energy markets, public energy, and hydrogen technology. This portfolio
acceptability, equity and risk. If funded, this of activities shows that Research Councils are
Centre would complement the work of other now beginning to work collaboratively to
groups such as the Carbon Trust and would support sustainable energy research, and that
build on the existing multi-disciplinary research we can help the UK move towards a low carbon
already funded by the Research Councils, economy.
29
Another key priority that needs to be At present the Research Councils are
addressed collectively by the Research Councils developing proposals for an integrated,
is the future of the rural economy. Over 76 per multidisciplinary research programme on the
cent of UK land is used for agriculture, an rural economy and land use. Working with
industry which employs 500,000 people. Over DEFRA and the devolved administrations in
the next 10–20 years there are likely to be major Scotland and Wales, this research aims to
shifts in agriculture and rural land use. These predict and evaluate the impacts of changes in a
will be driven by changes in government and range of social, economic, political and
EU policy, climate change, and socio-economic environmental drivers on the rural economy.
pressures such as urbanisation and industrial The science outcomes will help underpin
development, exploitation of natural resources government policy making to deliver a thriving
and the need to conserve our natural and rural economy, meeting social, economic and
archaeological heritage. environmental objectives, by reducing risks and
At present the way the UK countryside uncertainties.
operates is unsustainable on environmental and Although the Research Councils are being
socio-economic grounds. Despite investing proactive in developing new interdisciplinary
billions from the Common Agricultural Policy research programmes, there is a real need to
(CAP) in agriculture, we have seen a massive ensure that we have enough trained scientists,
loss of biodiversity, increasing groundwater social scientists, engineers and economists in the
pollution, and farmers going out of business. UK who have the expertise to tackle the
We have a lose–lose situation. complex, multidisciplinary challenges of the
CAP reforms are likely to move from sustainable development research agenda.
subsidising production to payments that meet Research Councils have a very good track
social and environmental objectives, resulting in record of training students within traditional
significant changes in the ways the land is disciplines, but we need to do more to train
farmed. In future we could see a more mixed individuals capable of working across these
approach to farming combining high intensity areas. NERC and ESRC already support a joint
crops, organic crops, GM crops, non-food crops studentship scheme to enable postgraduate
(for energy, biofuels and biomaterials), and non- students to work on environmental research
agricultural activities. This will require us to problems requiring a combined socio-economic
change the way we think about farming and and environmental approach. We are currently
rural land use. To help with this, we need to supporting 60 young people to work on projects
develop socio-economic models, carry out some as varied as the impact of climate change on
large-scale field trials and to develop exciting regional economies, urban air pollution and the
and innovative new ways of working with rural design of cities, and social and environmental
communities. Of course it is not possible to impacts of Agenda 21.
draw a line between urban and rural land use, However, we need to be more focused if we
and any programme of work would need to are to provide further training and recognised
reflect urban sustainability issues. career paths at the boundaries of traditional
30
disciplines, and to tackle priority issues where Towards a sustainable rural economy:
novel interdisciplinary approaches are required, lessons from foot and mouth
as they are in the sustainable energy area. We Andrew Donaldson, Philip Lowe and Neil
will need to review these objectives in the light Ward
of the Roberts Review on the provision of
Introduction
postgraduate training, published in early 2002.
The recent foot and mouth disease (FMD) crisis
Research Councils also recognise that
in the UK has provided an opportunity to
effective transfer of research outputs and
evaluate conceptions of the rural economy in
outcomes to business, policy makers and other
current policy. The nature of the rural economy
users is an essential part of the sustainable
as a complex interdependent system has been
development research agenda. We have to
dramatically laid bare. A harsh spotlight has
encourage users and potential users to
been cast on the role of expertise in the framing
participate in strategy and programme
and execution of public policy. Moves toward
development, and ensure that we have effective
rural sustainability must take into account the
knowledge transfer mechanisms built into
composition of the contemporary rural economy
research programmes at the outset. Research
and the perceptions of consumers.
Councils already support a number of activities
including LINK programmes, Faraday Centres
Conduct and impacts of the foot and mouth
and business plan competitions, but we need to
crisis
do more. One exciting new idea is the
An outbreak of foot and mouth disease in the
Sustainable Technologies Initiative (STI), funded
UK was confirmed on 20 February 2001. A
by the DTI, EPSRC, ESRC and Biotechnology
disease-control strategy that was ‘ultra-
and Biological Sciences Research Council
precautionary’ was adopted (see MAFF/DETR,
(BBSRC), and aimed at improving the
2001, para. 2) in order to protect the farming
sustainability and competitiveness of UK
industry. This coincided with predominant
business. Over five years £18 million will be
news values (particularly, the strong visual
invested in collaborative research aimed at
images of animals being shot and pyres of
decoupling economic growth from damaging
bloated carcasses) in determining the media’s
the environment.
treatment of the crisis as an animal plague
Within the Research Councils we recognise
visited on the country. Confronted with these
our responsibilities in helping to deliver the
grisly images and asked to stay away, the public
sustainability agenda; we want to build on our
obeyed, avoiding contact with farm animals, but
successes and ensure that sustainability is
also with market towns, village pubs and shops,
woven into all of our activities from the earliest
country hotels and visitor attractions too.
stage of priority setting and programme
FMD compounded many of the economic
development. By working together we will
pressures being experienced by the agricultural
make a significant contribution to supporting
industry in the UK. Over nine thousand farms
research, training and knowledge transfer for a
were left with no livestock; many more farms
sustainable future.
31
were adversely affected financially by but simply in terms of solving an agricultural

movement and export restrictions, and there problem – thereby imparting the bulk of the
were knock-on effects on livestock-related short-term costs to those outside the agricultural
activities. However, the crisis also resulted in sector.
financial losses being incurred by other sectors. The way the campaign was conducted
A telephone survey of rural firms in the North further exacerbated the rural economy crisis.
East of England in early April found that 40 per Having effectively closed the countryside down
cent were adversely affected with 28 per cent at the start of the epidemic it proved a very
suffering losses of more than 10 per cent of protracted task to open it up again and attract
turnover. The worst affected sectors were back visitors (whom, it turned out, pose a
hospitality, recreation and culture, transport, negligible risk of spreading FMD). The grisly
and land-based professionals and businesses: in visual images of the eradication campaign
each of these sectors a majority of rural firms served as powerful deterrents. However
were suffering (Bennett et al., 2001). effective the eradication campaign was as a risk
management exercise, it was an exceedingly
Expert knowledge and outcomes of FMD crude and largely counterproductive exercise in
Foot and mouth disease has been known to risk communication.
science for centuries. The strategy for tackling These points (as well as issues of
the disease was devised by scientists and administrative capacity and farmer resistance)
scientists oversaw the management of the are crucial aspects on which social science could
disease. Yet there was a tension between two and should have contributed. However, social
groups of scientists: animal health scientists/ scientists were not consulted and few of them
veterinarians and epidemiologists. There is also pushed their views forward. There is no social
a persuasive argument that a more fundamental scientist on the Royal Society inquiry
failure was the diagnosis of the problem by committee. Where were the social scientists
policy makers. during the FMD crisis?
Superficially, the problem was one of a To some extent social scientists are
highly contagious disease – but FMD is not a constrained (as are scientists) by the pre-existing
threat to human health and it is not even policy problematisation of any situation. The
normally fatal to animals. From a public policy areas of expertise deemed applicable by policy
point of view, foot and mouth is entirely an makers and practitioners determine the ability
economic disease. The ability of the agricultural of those who conduct research and generate
sector to freely export (bestowed by disease-free knowledge to contribute in any given situation.
status) has an economic value. However, in The account of FMD given above aptly
assessing the eradication campaign there is a demonstrates the way in which the definition of
need to consider the economic costs and a problem also defines those who are able to act
benefits of alternative courses of action for the and those who are acted upon (and those who
whole economy. Unfortunately, it seems that the end up as armchair critics). The initial definition
problem was not defined in this holistic manner of FMD as an animal disease problem
32
prioritised knowledge of the disease and vulnerable even if the crisis had not been
sidelined knowledge of the rural economy. handled from such a single-minded perspective.
This is because the predominant image of the
The rural economy revealed countryside, which the crisis has tarnished, is a
The above sections illustrate how the treatment pastoral one based on extensively grazed
of FMD as an agricultural problem compromised landscapes. That is what the tourists and
a much wider range of rural business activities visitors appreciate. Agriculture’s wider role in
and precipitated a rural economy crisis. What this the countryside is thus mainly symbolic,
crisis has revealed above all is how much the aesthetic and ecological.
countryside has changed in recent years and The particular sectoral incidence and
how out of date are official and public geographical impact of the present crisis have
conceptions. Both the major Committee of highlighted the links between certain farming
Inquiry and the economic analysis of the 1967 systems and the touristic countryside. Because
FMD outbreak considered solely its impact on FMD largely took hold in sheep, the heavily
the agricultural sector (HM Government, 1969; affected areas have been those with extensive
Power and Harris, 1973). In those days the grazing systems and picturesque landscapes
countryside was largely a farming domain. (somewhat at odds with media commentary
Much has changed since then, with the great that FMD was another adverse consequence of
growth in rural tourism and leisure, in counter- intensive farming). What must be readily
urbanisation, in the urban–rural shift in certain apparent now is that the public good benefits of
types of employment and in the diversification pastoral farming in such areas far overshadow
of farm household incomes (a majority of farm the market value of its tradable products.
households these days have some non-farming More specific geographical dependencies
income). Yet public perceptions and official and vulnerabilities have been revealed by the
outlooks have not kept pace. particular incidence of the FMD crisis. First,
The UK public and government have been since the mid-1980s, on-farm diversification has
rudely awakened to the diversity of the been promoted as a means of strengthening
contemporary rural economy and agriculture’s rural economies and boosting farm incomes.
minor role within it. Leisure and tourism, Such non-agricultural enterprises have been
manufacturing and services are now the particularly affected by the quarantining of
mainstays of rural economies. However, policy farms, raising doubts over the wisdom of this
and official structures have failed to reflect this strategy. Second, the FMD crisis has revealed
change, and still largely view rural issues the still narrow basis of the economy of some
through an agricultural lens. rural areas. The peripheral areas where the
While demoting agriculture, the FMD crisis disease has hit hardest are heavily dependent on
has also revealed starkly the continuing primary industries and tourism, and
dependency of the countryside on farming. The consistently rank as the most deprived rural
rural economy remains vulnerable to an areas in England (Countryside Agency, 2001).
agricultural crisis, and would have still been Future rural development policy must question
33
the extent to which encouraging diversification of primary producers. That depends upon
from agriculture into tourism risks simply political leadership sensitive to a new
shifting local employment from one vulnerable understanding of the role of agriculture in
sector to another. contemporary society. This no longer rests on
The FMD crisis has raised profound agriculture’s contribution to GDP (less than 1
questions about the relationship between per cent) or to employment (just 1 per cent). The
agriculture and the rural economy, including more crucial consideration is that agriculture
how to secure sustainable agricultural occupies and manages 80 per cent of the land: it
livelihoods and how to promote more robust thus constitutes the countryside and is the
rural economies. The current system of primary determinant of the state of the rural
agricultural and rural support was borne out of environment. Agriculture is also a vital and
the priorities and concerns of the 1940s and critical element in a food supply chain.
1950s for food security and improved Agriculture, therefore, remains central to the
agricultural productivity. There is now new department, though not as a stand-alone
extensive support for a thorough review of the economic sector, but in its relationship to the
policy framework governing agriculture to rural economy and environment on the one
reflect better the nature of contemporary rural hand and the food supply chain on the other.
economies. The task ahead is to better integrate agriculture
into these broader functions. However, the
New direction industrialisation and globalisation of agriculture
The establishment of the Department for the have tended to detach farming from the rural
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) economy and to marginalise or impoverish the
brings together agriculture, the food industry rural environment. Certain consumer trends
and fisheries with environmental protection, could help to reverse this process and foster a
rural development, the countryside and reintegration of agriculture into the countryside.
wildlife. In many respects it represents a Successive farming-and-food crises have
welcome ‘joining up’ of policy: responsibilities heightened consumer concerns about the
that were at the margins of former departments provenance of food and food production,
are now centre stage, including the leading to demands for quality assurance,
environment, sustainable development and traceability, organic production, welfare friendly
rural policy. systems, and local and regional produce. These
However, the new department retains strong demands should serve to reconnect the final
links with producer groups, and some of the consumer with the primary producer by linking
most pressing issues it faces are traditional the qualities that consumers value in food to the
MAFF responsibilities. It is imperative therefore methods used to produce it.
that DEFRA represents the broad public interest Production systems could be made
in the spectrum of issues it covers and that the environmentally friendly (gaining public
interests of the environment, food consumers or support) and hence providing valuable
the rural economy are not subordinated to those attributes to the stock or crop. But to earn
34
income these attributes have to be marketed as British and European agriculture. Income
distinctive products. One distinctive sources from off the farm through some
characteristic of any primary production is household members going ‘out to work’ (in, for
location. Turning this to competitive advantage example, farm contracting, the local service
requires the strengthening of the marketing sector or a nearby town) are of much greater
chain to deliver an enhanced reputation of the significance than non-agricultural income
origin of the product. This will require generated on the farm (through activities such
innovation and imagination in product as farm tourism or food processing). The
development and new promotion and implication is that to diversify farm household
marketing systems, with an emphasis on incomes, the most appropriate strategy is to
increasing consumer perceptions of the stimulate diversification and economic growth
authenticity and quality of the product package in the rural economy. (Such a strategy has the
(Tregear et al., 1998). additional benefit of assisting non-farmers too.)
Thus the most pressing problems lie with those
Towards an integrated rural development localities where the rural economy is too
policy narrowly dependent upon agricultural
Public support systems must be changed to production. It follows that the focus of
assist this transformation, chief among them intervention to promote rural development and
being the Common Agricultural Policy. employment should be the rural and regional
Anachronistic production subsidies to farmers economy and not the agricultural sector.
must be replaced with measures that assist the
regeneration of rural economies overall. Under
Pollution, social exclusion, equity and
such an ‘Integrated Rural Development Policy’
health
the following arrangements would prevail:
Tanja Pless-Mulloli and Peter Phillimore
First, markets would largely determine the
income that farmers receive from growing crops Introduction
and raising livestock. How do problems of pollution and exposure to
Second, farmers would receive sufficient environmental hazards intersect with issues of
support for the environmental management poverty and social exclusion? We were asked to
functions of agriculture. provide a personal view of the current state of
Third, rural development would be given knowledge, the policy context, and approaches
much greater promotion, to assist in the to reducing gaps and uncertainties in
economic adjustment of rural areas and to help knowledge. We approach this task by reflecting
improve rural incomes and employment. on two enduring debates of the last century:
The priority must be to ensure that local research on inequalities in health and research
rural economies are more robust and versatile, on air pollution and health. We outline how
and based on sufficiently diversified income evidence emerged over time and how our own
sources. Multiple income sources for farm work fitted within these evolving debates. We
households are now a widespread feature of come to the topic from the perspective of
35
epidemiology and public health, which health in the UK has improved while at the
concerns itself with the distribution and same time income and health inequalities have
determinants of disease in populations with the grown (DETR, 1999a). Research on inequalities
purpose of reducing ill health. in health burgeoned after the Black Report with
We argue that debates around inequalities in fierce argument around measurement,
health and the health effects of air pollution methodology and causation. One strand of this
have so far very rarely overlapped, in either work concerned the mapping of small area
academic or policy contexts. Moreover, there are health inequalities using census indicators of
currently few arrangements to facilitate such wealth or deprivation to characterise the
dialogue. But we also show where attempts at a material conditions that underpin social
dialogue have been made. Certainly for our part inequalities. Peter Townsend, associated with
we have sought to explore such connections, as one of the best known ‘indices of deprivation’
the title of one of our recent papers indicates: (Townsend score) was unusual in recognising
‘Lung cancer, proximity to industry, and that a missing dimension of such an index
poverty in Northeast England’ (Pless-Mulloli et concerned the quality of the local environment
al., 1998). Our work supports a judgement that (personal communication). He gave thought to
inequalities in health reflect differential access to incorporating a measure of local land-use as a
clean environments, in the same way that they surrogate for environmental quality. He
reflect differential access to other kinds of recognised that polluted environments were
material and social benefits. unequally distributed, in a way that needed to
be mapped on to other forms of social and
Inequalities in health, research and policy in material disadvantage. Our own later work on
the UK industrial air pollution in Teesside, which
Past evidence included data on historical land-use, supports
The persistence of health inequalities in the UK Peter Townsend’s initial insight.
has been the driving force for much of the
Current evidence and research needs
Public Health Movement and for Public Health
Such glimpses towards the idea of
legislation since the times of Edwin Chadwick’s
encompassing pollution and the environment
report on ‘the sanitary conditions of the
within the wider consideration of social
labouring classes’ in 1842.
inequalities were the exception. By and large
Major contributors to the debate throughout
debates around health inequalities have
the twentieth century have been the 1942
acknowledged environmental impacts only in
Beveridge Report (Beveridge, 1942), the 1980
broad terms. Take the ‘Whitehead rainbow’,
Black Report (Black et al., 1982), its 1992 update
which conceptualised the wider impact of
entitled The Health Divide (Townsend and
environment on health at the outermost layer of
Davison, 1992; Whitehead, 1992), and the 1998
influences, alongside culture and general socio-
Acheson Report (Acheson, 1998). Recently A
economic factors (Acheson, 1998; DOH, 2001).
Better Quality of Life: A Strategy for Sustainable
While the rainbow acknowledges a potential
Development for the UK describes well how
36
impact, it scarcely models the synergies linking fresh examination of the impact of industrial air
people’s material circumstances, their health- pollution we investigated a wide range of health
related behaviour, and the wider environment indicators (mortality, self-reported morbidity,
of their neighbourhoods. We are still a long way GP consultations and cancer registration) in
from mapping and assessing how severely the equally deprived areas in Teesside and
impacts of economic disadvantage and social Sunderland. Somewhat surprisingly we found
exclusion may be compounded or compensated that while health in all neighbourhoods was
by the impact of a polluted or favourable very poor compared to national levels, the
environment. current levels of industrial pollution in Teesside
One example of an attempt to reconcile were not associated with differentials in acute ill
inequalities in health with consideration of health. In relation to mortality, however, we
economic development and environmental concluded, that for lung cancer (and less
inequity comes from the sustainable emphatically for other respiratory causes) the
development field itself. Corvalan and marked differentials between neighbourhoods
colleagues at WHO developed a ‘health and among women under 65 years pointed to the
environment cause–effect framework’ and contribution of industrial pollution in the past
subsequently used this to develop indicators for (TEES, 1995; Pless-Mulloli et al., 1998; Bhopal et
monitoring policies (WHO, 1997; Corvalan et al., al., 1998). Both conclusions – the absence of a
1999; DOH, 2001). These indeed cover both gradient between areas linked to industrial
poverty and air pollution, but again crucially do pollution for current respiratory illnesses, and
not make allowance for the interaction between the presence of such a gradient for certain
the two (WHO, 2000). causes of death – were to prove controversial in
Attempts have also been made to estimate Teesside.
the contribution environmental influences make The challenges in this kind of work related
to health and mortality in populations. But they both to the epidemiological methods and to the
suffer from having to extrapolate from very fact that we were conducting the study in a
limited amounts of data from only a few setting where major industries still dominated
countries. In pursuit of global views they flatten the regional economy. We were dealing with
out the localised variations which are critical to complex mixtures of inter-correlated exposures,
a deep understanding of the consequences of that varied over time; the relative risks from
inequality in locations with concentrations of air residential exposures were low compared to
pollution or social deprivation. occupational and smoking exposures; and we
Our own work since the mid-1980s had had to rely on exposure and health data
initially highlighted marked differentials in the collected for other purposes. A climate of
health of similarly poor populations. The poorest suspicion and distrust surrounded the reporting
areas of Teesside exhibited consistently higher of this study (Phillimore, 1997; Moffatt et al.,
mortality than comparable areas of Sunderland 2000; Phillimore et al., 2000) (see Box 1).
(Townsend et al., 1986; Townsend et al., 1988;
Phillimore and Morris, 1991; TEES, 1995). In a
37
(Logan, 1953; Anderson, 1999).

Box 1 Remarks about publication of the
Early policy efforts were directed towards
TEES study
avoiding such ‘killer episodes’. The Clean Air
Industry’s concern one week before
Act of 1956 led to the establishment of
publication at a briefing:
widespread monitoring networks for black
‘Industry causes lung cancer! Would you be smoke and sulphur dioxide. This monitoring
happy with that headline?’ documented the steady downward trend in
annual levels of pollutants, which was rightly
Local authority official on their attitude
interpreted as a public health success story.
towards the research and its findings:
However by focusing on this downward trend
‘I see my role in relation to the research … play it two important aspects were long ignored: the
down … we don’t need bad news about existence of variation across small geographical
Grangetown … We need to breathe confidence areas where local sources of pollution exist, and
into the area and attract industry, we need jobs.’ the link between the lower daily levels of
pollution and health.
Community members:
Current evidence and research needs
‘I don’t believe that industry has no effect on
There are broadly two types of studies linking
people’s health. I live here.’
air pollution and health: those that link short-
‘I wasn’t interested because nothing ever gets term changes of exposure over time with daily
done.’ counts of deaths or hospital admissions; and
those that study the effects of chronic exposure
on health with air pollution exposure varying
Air pollution and health, research and policy
between location (spatial variation) (Pope and
in the UK
Dockery, 1999). In the 1940s and 1950s there was
Early evidence and policy
little disagreement that high levels of air
In his historical record of air pollution in the
pollution such as those during the London fogs
UK, Brimblecombe quotes a document from as
could lead to increases in disease and death. But
early as 1285 mentioning air pollution in
it was not until the 1970s and 1980s that
London and its unequal distribution (1999).
researchers started to explore the link between
London was infamous for its fog: witness its
pollution outside such episodes and health. A
attraction to the French painter Claude Monet.
breakthrough came from the development of
The first attempts to quantify the health effects of
time-series modelling in the 1990s. Several
the London fogs were made in the 1920s (Logan,
major studies found small but significant
1953), but the emergence of air pollution
changes in daily mortality per unit increase in
epidemiology was closely linked to the London
the level of air pollution (Pope, 1991; Schwartz,
fog episode in 1952. This was a landmark
1991; Dockery et al., 1992), an association now
because of its scale, with an estimated 4,000
considered causal. The current estimate of effect
additional people dying following a four-day
for the UK is 24,100 deaths brought forward or
episode of extreme pollution in early December
38
additional annually (DOH, 1998). It is now off and tensions between employment and air
crucial to establish the extent of life-shortening pollution from industry (see Box 2).
and how this is distributed amongst susceptible
subgroups. The question whether poorer
Box 2 Extracts from annual reports by
populations are not only more likely to be
Medical Officers of Health
exposed but are also more susceptible due to
pre-existing disease, impaired defence systems ‘During the year the atmosphere has been very
and inadequate use of health care has been clear and the air pure owing to the fact that the
seriously considered (Kunst, 1997). large industrial works have been standing for
The quest to discover the causes for the lung most of the time … While we all deplore the fact
cancer pandemic has also influenced the course that the trade of the district is so bad, yet I am of
of this research. Once the strong link between the opinion that with greater care when the
smoking as a risk factor for lung cancer industries are in full swing much of the polluted
emerged, all air pollution epidemiology has smoke may be prevented.’ (MOH, Eston, 1921)
been complicated by its magnitude (Doll and
‘To judge by many activities in the area we seem
Hill, 1950; Wynder and Graham, 1950). The
to be on the threshold of major industrial
close link between the prevalence of smoking
developments … we cannot but wonder what
and socio-economic factors further complicates
effect this development will have on the health of
consideration of their influence in most
the people.’ (MOH, Eston, 1953)
epidemiological work, to the extent that it has
too readily been assumed that the impact of Source: Phillimore (1997).
ambient air pollution is negligible alongside
such major causative factors.
Yet years after the comments quoted in Box
Linking the two fields: old tensions, new 2, it can still be difficult in particular towns and
thinking cities (as we know from personal experience) to
In Victorian times, air pollution in Teesside draw attention to the cost in human health of
symbolised economic growth and prosperity links between environmental conditions and
and it was regarded with a sense of pride social conditions, poverty and pollution. It
(Briggs, 1968). This was clearly expressed in remains to be seen whether a recent initiative by
1887 by the mayor of Middlesbrough saying to Friends of the Earth will help force the issue
the Prince of Wales: ‘If there is one thing more more effectively (FOE, 1999). While at national
than another that Middlesbrough can be said to or international levels it is probably becoming
be proud of it is its smoke. The smoke is an easier to speak of these links in general terms, to
indication of plenty of work – an indication of do the same in areas dominated by their
prosperous times … We are proud of our location near industry is still problematic, not
smoke.’ Such attitudes did not outlast the least because the issues are easily separated, and
nineteenth century, but those key public health framed as job security versus environmental
officials, the local authorities’ Medical Officers quality (Phillimore et al., 2000).
of Health, were used to reflecting on the trade-
39
However, new links are being made. In a areas of known pollution and deprivation are
rare joining of forces, the air quality and health needed.
field has recently seen the creation of fora where Finally, central to the further development of
epidemiologists, toxicologists, clinicians and this area of research will be the issue of
regulators engage with emerging evidence and communication of risk and uncertainty to the
its impact on policy. Research gaps have been public, particularly after recent experiences
identified, driven by policy needs. Moreover, around BSE and the foot and mouth epidemic.
since 1997 the UK has established evidence- Distrust, stigma, inequality in access to
based National Air Quality standards (DEFRA, information and disempowerment all contribute
2001). The creation of interdisciplinary, multi- to how risks and uncertainty are perceived
agency fora for debate has had an enabling role (Bush et al., 2002; Crowley et al., forthcoming).
for policy makers, regulators and researchers, There may now be a desire to move these
and such structures offer one way to incorporate debates forward, to clarify the extent to which
a more rounded consideration of socio- poorer groups are disproportionately exposed
economic factors into the air pollution and to air pollution, and the extent to which their
health research agenda. susceptibility varies from that of the richer
sections of society. This requires structures to
Common themes, gaps, uncertainties and the
bring together relevant groups: we should learn
way forward
lessons from the past, and strive to engage the
Overall therefore there are parallel stories to be
Sustainable Development Commission with
told about the emergence of inequalities and
NHS Public Health Observatories, Research
health, and air pollution and health research.
Councils, regulators and representatives of the
While inequalities in health research largely
public to discuss the methodological and
ignored the possible contribution of
contextual challenges. Multilevel,
environmental hazards such as air pollution, air
interdisciplinary, and multi-agency thinking
pollution research gave socio-economic factors
will be required to design, conduct and
the role of confounders only, failing to consider
communicate research, with the eventual goal of
their independent or effect-modifying
a more equitable, that is a fairer, distribution of
contribution to air pollution and health links.
health risks associated with environmental
We know that socio-economic factors are not
pollution.
distributed independently of air pollution
exposure, that pollution is often an aspect of
Acknowledgements
poverty and compounds it. What we do not
We are grateful to Tricia Cresswell, Richard
know is by how much lives are shortened, how
Thomson, Madeleine Murtagh, Suzanne
this shortening is distributed across the
Moffatt, and Martin White, whose comments on
population, and whether the magnitude of
previous drafts helped to shape its final version.
effect varies by particle type. Both national
studies and studies considering local contexts in
40
Developing tools for sustainability achieve the environmental, economic and social
appraisal objectives by which sustainable development can
Christopher Wood be defined, in order that the performance of the
strategy and policy is improved.
Introduction
(DETR, 2000a, para. 2.1)
The widespread acceptance of the utility of
environmental impact assessment (EIA) in The ultimate aim of SA, like that of EIA and
improving the quality of decisions about SEA, is to contribute to decisions which render a
proposed projects has led to active particular policy, plan or programme more
consideration of, and growing practice in, likely to promote the achievement of sustainable
strategic environmental assessment (SEA) or the development. This aim can only be met by
environmental assessment of policies, plans and affecting the way decisions are taken during the
programmes (PPPs). This process (often termed development and implementation of the action.
environmental appraisal in the UK) is a Parsons (1995, p. 468) has noted that ‘the
consequence of the emerging awareness that essence of integrated assessment is providing a
project EIA may occur too late in the planning systematic way of integrating knowledge across
process to ensure that all the alternatives and disciplines, thought styles, resolutions and
impacts relevant to sustainable development degrees of certainty’. Like EIA and SEA, SA may
goals are adequately considered (Wood and involve screening, scoping, prediction,
Djeddour, 1992). consultation and participation and the
The same arguments have been applied to mitigation and monitoring of impacts. Clearly,
the extension of SEA into integrated assessment tools are needed to achieve all these tasks.
or appraisal (IA), usually called sustainability This paper discusses SA research, SA
appraisal (SA) in the UK, which involves the practice, the role of SA in decision making and
consideration of economic and social, as well as future development of the process. Conclusions
environmental, impacts. Interest in SA has are drawn.
increased since the mid-1990s because of the
increased prominence of sustainable SA research
development within policy making and need to Increasing attention is being paid to the
embed a proliferating array of PPP assessment development of SA methodologies (Ravetz,
techniques within a universal framework 2000a; Devuyst, 2001). Although SA is at a very
(Kirkpatrick and Lee, 1997). early stage of evolution, it is likely that the pace
Sustainability appraisal is concerned with of change in the field will be rapid as practice
bringing different forms of appraisal together burgeons and more research is undertaken.
prior to a decision being taken. SA is defined as: However, PPPs rarely develop in a smooth
linear fashion, and are not formulated and
A systematic and iterative process undertaken
implemented in a vacuum, resulting in great
during the preparation of a plan or strategy which
uncertainty. Consequently, when appraising
identifies and reports on the extent to which the
some actions, the focus of the appraisal effort is
implementation of the plan or strategy would
41
constantly changing. Even if the SA is based SA reports were becoming more common.
undertaken in a satisfactory manner, translating In practice, each of the aspects of assessment
the findings into an output appropriate to has generally nominally been weighted equally
decision makers may be difficult (Parsons, 1995; with each of the others (DETR, 2000a) though
Ravetz, 2000a). environmental parameters have often
It appears that there are limitations to the outnumbered economic and, especially, social
extent that currently available assessment tools impacts (Counsell and Haughton, 2002).
can be borrowed and applied to SA. High levels Nevertheless, the environmental assessment
of uncertainty in forecasting potential subsumed within SA to date generally appears
sustainable development impacts compound to have been less formal and less rigorous than
such methodological problems, as does the fact an SEA meeting the requirements of the
that the data required to undertake a European directive on SEA (Smith and Sheate,
‘comprehensive’ SA are difficult to obtain or 2001a). The Environmental Appraisal Taskforce
may not exist. (2001) suggested that environmental, social and
economic appraisals may need to be assessed
SA practice separately and then be brought together during
SA practice is not yet widespread, although decision making to increase the rigour of SA.
examples of SA practice are becoming much Counsell and Haughton (2001, p. 21)
more common. Devuyst (2000) suggested that, described SA reports as ‘rather bland and
of all the SA tools that existed, internationally uncontroversial documents’ and felt that there
the checklist was most widely used in practice. was a lack of stakeholder involvement in SA
In the UK, SA has been used in conjunction with (2002, p. 17). As Hulme and Taylor (2000, p. 81)
regional planning guidance (RPG) documents rather bluntly observed: ‘the majority of
and regional economic strategies and integrated appraisals remain informed
increasingly in relation to development plans guesswork parading around as objective
(especially structure plans). Smith and Sheate technical analysis’.
(2001b), in a survey of 13 SAs of regional
planning documents, found that the procedural SA and decision-making
and methodological approaches taken during SA, as yet, appears not to have influenced
the appraisals varied considerably. This was decisions on RPG (or development plans) in any
despite the existence of a DETR (2000a) guide meaningful way. Smith and Sheate (2001b, p.
outlining a generic good practice approach to 752) found that ‘in many instances the appraisal
SA. Counsell and Haughton (2001) found that may have had little real impact’. Counsell and
UK SA reports had often utilised a matrix of Haughton (2001, p. 21) concluded that SA had
ticked boxes, the performance of different ‘not yet played the pivotal role in the decision-
options against broad objectives being making process envisaged’. SA often appears to
summarised in the form of symbols. They have been used as a one-off process, rather than
suggested that the matrix had probably been being integrated into PPP formulation. SAs have
over-employed in the SA of RPG but that text- often been used by stakeholders in preparing
42
evidence for public enquiries, however • lack of funding

(Counsell and Haughton, 2002, p. 17).
• problems associated with the fragmented
In practice, notwithstanding the tools
nature of the public sector
employed, the objective of ‘high and stable
economic growth’ has dominated decisions • limitations of available techniques and
involving SA. The problem may be that, to date, forecasting methods
SA has been based upon environmentally and
• issues of data availability
socially weak but economically strong
interpretations of sustainable development. • the diffuse nature of PPPs
Some SAs have used economic growth figures
• influence of SA outcomes on decisions
as the prime indicator of ‘sustainable
(Parsons, 1995; Ravetz, 2000a).
development’ to the detriment of social and
environmental measures. This has hindered the Developing intellectually robust, usable and
process of ‘integrating’ rather than ‘balancing’ effective SA methodologies, techniques and
objectives by finding more environmentally processes will not be easy. For SA to be applied
sensitive ways to meet needs and improve the across all sectors of society and scales of human
quality of life. activity, the tools employed must obviously be
flexible and adaptable to a broad range of
Further development of SA circumstances. It is also important that the tools
The widespread use of different tools, many of and procedures utilised are user friendly and
which involve objective and systematic that the outcomes of the sustainability
approaches, indicates that there is some assessment can be easily deployed. Particular
confidence in the notion that the concept of attention must therefore be paid to the decision-
sustainable development can be defined and making context into which the outcomes of the
measured. However, Parsons (1995, p. 470) appraisal will flow. Ultimately, therefore,
noted that ‘excessive and misleading precision’ guidance focusing on generic best practice
must be avoided in the treatment of the results principles is likely to be more appropriate than
of SAs, whilst Ravetz (2000b) has suggested that promoting specific sustainability appraisal tools.
a comprehensive and definitive SA is not It is also important that training and general
possible. awareness raising accompanies any guidance.
A range of constraints and difficulties facing Research on the intellectual robustness of
the development and application of SA SA, on the usability of the process and its
approaches has been identified. These may be outcomes, and on the effectiveness of SA is
summarised as: likely to lead to fruitful results. Concentrating
on SA tools will help to increase the reputation
• difficulties in defining the concept of
of SA. In addition, SA legislation, diffusion of
sustainable development
best SA practice, capacity strengthening,
• lack of political will improving data sources and greater stakeholder
involvement in SA are necessary.
43
Conclusion Quality of life and sustainable development

SA is embryonic. There are some who fear that Paul Ekins and Roger Levett
the subordination of SEA to SA may ignore the
Introduction
lessons of the evolution of EIA (which was
The UK government’s Sustainable Development
originally developed to ensure that
Strategy (DETR, 1999a) identified sustainable
environmental costs – previously neglected –
development as ‘a better quality of life for
were adequately considered in decisions).
everyone, now and for generations to come’ (p.
Nevertheless, although its very desirability has
8). To determine how far these objectives were
been questioned, SA appears to be becoming
being met, the government proposed numerous
established. The success of SA is inevitably
indicators (DETR, 1999b). Few would dispute
limited by the availability of appropriate tools
that if all of these moved in the right direction
to make robust assessments. There is a danger
the UK would have a higher quality of life.
that potentially inappropriate tools may be
In reality some indicators have got better
taken ‘off the shelf’ in order to undertake tasks
and others worse. There is no guidance as to
and that the development of new methods and
how to interpret such situations. This is not
procedures may consequently be threatened. To
surprising. Quality of life is a very complex
progress it is likely that both new tools and
concept. Despite a huge literature, there is no
innovative thinking will be required.
definitive conceptualisation of ‘quality of life’,
A more holistic approach to problem solving,
and even if there were it is not clear that it could
focusing on linkages and interactions between
be unambiguously measured. This paper seeks
environmental, social and economic issues, is
to identify pressing and interesting avenues for
required. However, the economic, political and
future research.
social climate within which any sustainability
appraisal operates is fundamental. Politicians
Quality of life considerations
and senior bureaucrats in powerful departments
Quality of life and economic growth
are reluctant voluntarily to cede any role in the
One of the government’s key sustainable
making of decisions to external environmental
development objectives is the maintenance of
or other agencies. Whether or not part of a
high and stable levels of economic growth. It is
toolkit approach, the success of sustainability
worth asking why, given that:
appraisal will ultimately be dependent on the
enthusiasm of the political and organisational • increased aggregate consumption in rich
environment within which the process operates. countries bears little relation to increased
Research in political science may be every bit as quality of life (for example, Argyle [1998,
important as methodological research. p. 33] reports that ‘in the United States
since 1946, average after-tax incomes have
increased by a factor of four, but there has
been no increase in subjective well-being’)
44
• economic growth increases pressure on The components and indicators of quality of

the environment and resources (see Ekins, life
2000). Components of quality of life may be derived
either from expert opinion (e.g. from some
One obvious reason for including economic
theory of human needs), or by asking people
growth as a key objective is because of its link to
directly to describe elements of their quality of
employment. But then why not make high,
life. Pacione (1982, p. 498) reports that ‘lists of
stable employment the objective instead?
life concerns’ from different sources are
Quality of life and human needs remarkably similar. Grayson and Young’s (1994,
The satisfaction of human needs is closely p. 53) survey identifies six key quality of life
related to quality of life, and hence sustainable themes, of such breadth and complexity that
development. Needs have occupied an they note ‘a thorough-going analysis of even
important place since the Brundtland definition one quality of life theme would be a major
of sustainable development as development that multi-disciplinary research exercise in itself’.
‘meets the needs of the present without CoR (1999, pp. 14–15) suggests a similar list and
compromising the ability of future generations also distinguishes between four dimensions:
to meet their own needs’ (World Commission on
• the level of life in terms of material needs
Environment and Development, 1987, p. 8).
(e.g. health, food, employment and
Numerous formulations of human needs
income) and the satisfaction felt by people
exist, including Maslow’s hierarchy (Maslow,
with these; and
1954), supposedly universal conceptualisations
(Doyal and Gough, 1991; Max-Neef, 1992), an • the quality of life in terms of non-material
explicitly cultural approach (Douglas et al., life conditions (e.g. human relations,
1998), and rejection of the idea of needs in social, cultural and environmental
favour of capabilities (Sen, 1993) and freedoms conditions), and the happiness engendered
(Dasgupta, 1995). by these.
There have also been attempts to broaden
CoR (1999) calls the level and quality of life
out conceptions of quality of life from just needs
‘objective’ living conditions, and satisfaction
satisfaction (for example Mulgan, 1998; 6, Perri
and happiness ‘subjective’ living conditions.
and Christie, 1998). However, there has been a
The same distinction is made by Pacione (1982)
surprising lack of connection between these
in respect of indicators, ‘objective’ being ‘hard
theoretical formulations and recent work on
measures describing the environments in which
sustainable development indicators. It might be
people live and work’, and subjective ‘intended
interesting to bring them together to see how far
to describe the ways people perceive and
the formulations differed in terms of operational
evaluate conditions around them’ (Pacione,
measures, and how far the indicator sets
1982, p. 498), thereby bridging the gap between
overlook aspects of quality of life which theory
statistical descriptions of conditions and the
suggests are important.
sense of well-being they engender.
45
It would seem desirable for the largely transformation of the indicators or measures
objective approach taken in DETR (1999b) to be into a common metric before they can be
supplemented by research on how people combined, and consideration of whether the
subjectively perceive these themes and transformed indicators should be weighted to
indicators as contributing to their well-being. reflect relative importance. Weightings may
This raises the question: how to deal with reflect the views of citizens (as in Rogerson et al.,
people’s differing perceptions of the relative 1989), experts (as in DETR, 2000b) or policy
importance of different themes and indicators? makers. However, it is known both that
weightings from these groups can be
Different priorities in quality of life
significantly different, and that this difference is
In its discussion of human needs and
likely to affect the calculated index (Gehrmann,
sustainable development, the OECD noted ‘the
1978).
relative importance accorded to each of these
The many problems of weighting and
[needs] will vary according to individuals and
aggregation, and lack of consensus as to how
societies over time’ (OECD, 2001, p. 57). This
they should be resolved, caused the UK
greatly complicates decisions as to how
government to reject this approach (DETR,
elements should be traded off in order to
1999b, p. 18) in favour of a set of Headline
achieve a higher quality of life overall.
indicators. Perhaps further research could find a
Publications such as British Social Attitudes
more synthesised and compelling way of
regularly contain studies of such differences in
presenting quality of life outcomes other than
attitude (see for example Stratford and Christie,
via the current Headline indicators.
2000; Park, 2000).
There is a rich research agenda, getting
Individual and collective choices in quality of
clearer insights into changing perceptions of
life
quality of life between different groups of
Not all the elements of quality of life are either
people over time, and defining relevant groups
accessible to or can be adequately provided by
or ‘communities of interest’. This should help
individuals’ choices. Some are the outcome of
assess overall differences in quality of life if
collective decision-making processes. Individual
some indicators were getting ‘better’ and others
and collective choices and outcomes interact in
‘worse’.
two main ways.
Can different indicators of quality of life be
Firstly, individual choices may have
combined into a single index? The essential
uncompensated impacts on others, e.g.
procedure for the derivation of such an index is
externalities such as the congestion and air
set out in DETR (2000b). First the different
pollution caused by road traffic. Assuming
indicators under each dimension need to be
rational (i.e. self-interested) human behaviour,
appropriately combined to form a measure for
externalities can only be addressed, and quality
that dimension. Then the different dimension
of life increased, through collective (i.e.
measures need to be combined into an overall
government) action.
index. In each case the combination involves the
46
Secondly, through the collective provision of This suggests that ‘improving the quality of
goods which increase individuals’ quality of life within the carrying capacity of supporting
life, but which would not be available through ecosystems’ might be achieved by decoupling
their individual choices alone, e.g. the provision ‘quality of life services’ such as access to
of public infrastructures, universal access to amenities or comfort in the home from the
basic goods and services, and other inequality- resource-intensive means that industrial
limiting measures. societies have adopted for meeting them.
Furthermore, there is no logically necessary
There is rich research potential in seeking to
connection between improving at least some
better understand the relative roles of
aspects of quality of life and economic growth
individual and collective decisions in quality of
as conventionally measured. However,
life, and how current choices influence the
establishing whether the concept of quality of
choices available in the future.
life eco-efficiency is more than just a plausible
metaphor requires answers to:
Quality of life guiding policy
Pragmatism? • How are ‘quality of life services’ to be
How can the contested concept of quality of life chosen and defined? Could we know we
be brought to bear on policy making with some had identified all – or even most – of the
coherence and rigour? components? Does it actually matter?
Eco-efficiency of quality of life • Can components be defined any more

One way is to sidestep problems of aggregation rigorously and certainly than quality of
by concentrating on those components of quality life in the round – e.g. doesn’t
of life most affected by policy. For example, constructing a common measure of access
distinguishing the quality of life goal of access to raise exactly the same problems of
amenities and services from mobility, it becomes weighting and aggregation of non-
obvious that there are many ways to increase commensurable quantities, subjectivity
access while reducing travel – for example siting and multiple perspectives that bedevil a
amenities nearer to users, making local amenities single measure of quality of life?
good enough for people to want to use them, or
• Does the idea work for other policy areas
co-locating jobs, shops and recreations so people
– e.g. food and farming, where there are
can satisfy several needs in one journey.
important facets of both quality of life
Most people would say their quality of life
and environmental damage?
improved if they needed to make fewer, shorter
journeys to get the same choices and life • Does disaggregating quality of life risk
chances, and as a result they had more ‘free’ ‘un-joined-upness’ – e.g. pursuing less
time, experienced less traffic and congestion, transport intensity causing trouble in
and those without use of cars were less other policy areas?
disadvantaged.
47
Quality of life capital How can they be influenced? If people can be

Quality of life capital is based on the insight that encouraged to find a fulfilling way of life that
it is the benefits and services people get from minimises environmental resource
the environment, the economy and society that consumption, we have found a further way to
matter to them, not the things themselves. ‘improve the quality of life within the carrying
For example if housing is built on greenfield capacity of supporting ecosystems’.
land, it is not the hectares of land used that But this raises the spectre of government
matters, but the biodiversity that may be indoctrination. It can be argued that neoclassical
displaced, the opportunity for tranquil strolling economics’ treatment of people’s preferences as
lost and the housing needs that may be satisfied. exogenous and sovereign is the best safeguard
Thinking in these terms points to ways against ideological manipulation.
development can reconcile multiple needs (e.g. However, this assumes our society is a
providing an alternative leafy corridor through neutral, ideology-free backdrop, where what
new housing). Where different benefits people believe and say they want is an
unavoidably conflict, decisions should be undistorted reflection of what they really want.
informed by more detailed evaluation – how Proclamations of the ‘end of ideology’ and ‘end
important is each benefit to the people affected, of history’ claim this. But the resurgence of
how scarce is it, could it be provided another ideological conflict, the glaring failure of market
way, etc. This provokes further research consumer society to provide even minimal
questions: subsistence to a third of humanity, and lack of
evidence that it is making even the ‘winners’
• Can the list of ‘quality of life benefits’
happier than a few decades ago, make the belief
generated by the stakeholders involved in
that western consumer society is the apotheosis
a particular exercise be justified in any
of human social development look hubristic and
formal way? Are any of them nationally
parochial.
or universally ‘given’, and how should
Perhaps acquisitive selfish material
these be articulated with more local
consumerism is not the natural, universal goal
concerns?
of human existence, but merely the way our
• Does the idea of substitution of benefits aspirations are channelled by our current social
rather than things offer a middle way structures and relations. Moreover this
between ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ channelling is deliberate and colossally funded.
sustainability: human made capital can After decades of sophisticated and manipulative
substitute for natural capital if and only if marketing and advertising persuading people
it produces the same quality of life that identity, success and happiness depend on
services. the acquisition of novel branded goods, the
survival of non-consumerist values at all is
Influencing the meaning of quality of life
strong evidence that consumerism is not
Where do quality of life preferences and
enough. Perhaps public programmes to make
priorities come from? How are they formed?
people want and value different things should
48
not be seen as a sinister interference in freedom times – and can legitimately be objects of policy.
and autonomy, but as an attempt to correct this A society where the ambitious compete through
bias. elaborate tombs or artistic patronage has one
This is not to claim that materialism is new. less driver of unsustainability than one where
People have always yearned for gluttony and competition is for the grossest gas-guzzling
luxury. All that has changed is that now many sport-utility vehicle.
of us can afford it. Cars and planes are Urgent research questions include:
technological realisations of atavistic dreams of
• How do basic impulses and needs attach
speed and free movement. Thinking of them
themselves to particular iconic objects?
solely as practical tools misses the point. But
modern societies routinely and systematically • How can they be moved to others that are
thwart many atavistic appetites (aggressive, less damaging?
sexual) for the common good. Restrictions for
• How can governments legitimately seek
the sake of the environmental are just the same.
to influence this?
Traffic rules already do this. The question is not
whether to restrict people’s impulses to drive • What is the status, and justifiable limits
fast, but by how much. on, marketing and advertising?
The distinction between assets and benefits, or
between needs and satisfiers, offers a clue. The Conclusion
non-practical benefits of cars – prestige, status, This survey shows that quality of life opens up a
self-image, and dangerous competition – have rich research agenda. Although the question of
been achieved in all sorts of ways in different which of the issues mentioned are the most
societies. Perhaps prestige is a need. But how important – and indeed which of them are valid
prestige is demonstrated and what sort of things at all – is itself a contentious research question!
people compete over varies between places and
49
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Sustainable development and

Edited by Malcolm Eames

The Sustainable Development Research (SDR) Network is a DEFRA funded initiative,

© Policy Studies Institute 2002

First published 2002 by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation/YPS

ISBN 1 84263 117 9 (paperback)

Cover design by Adkins Design

Prepared and printed by:

Contributors’ biographies vii

1 Introduction and overview 1

2 Towards a socially inclusive sustainable development research agenda 4

3 Edited papers of the first annual Sustainable Development Research conference 17

Aims and objectives of the SDR-Network conference papers, UK

Introduction that arise from the simultaneous pursuit of

sustainable development could be made more Development, 1987; author’s emphasis). It is

substance consent sites (Walker et al., 2000).

Inequitable access to green space is another The SDR-Network

Table 1 First annual SDR conference proceedings

Network and the nature of sustainable Applying SD principles to research

• the right of access to justice (a guaranteed

• community participation in the design, • Second, it generates a greater

3 Process, content, or both

sustainable development research by ensuring • First, that social inclusion/social equity

Figure 1 Shell ‘Sustainable Growth Scenario’

Source: Shell, The Evolution of the World’s Energy Systems, 1995.

Figure 2 A fusion reactor

Vacuum DTn Helium (non-radioactive ash)

consumer-led ‘solutions’ such as green how can inertia in socio-technological systems

were adversely affected financially by but simply in terms of solving an agricultural

(Logan, 1953; Anderson, 1999).

evidence for public enquiries, however • lack of funding

Conclusion Quality of life and sustainable development

• economic growth increases pressure on The components and indicators of quality of

Eco-efficiency of quality of life • Can components be defined any more

Quality of life capital How can they be influenced? If people can be

Crowley, P., Cummins, G. et al. (2002, Devuyst, D. (2001) ‘Sustainability assessment at

Max-Neef, M. (1992) ‘Development and human Phillimore, P. (1997) ‘Uncertainty, reassurance

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