Fingerprint

Kurdistan Regional Government-Iraq
Ministry of Higher Education and
Scientific Research
University of Zakho
DNA fingerprinting
Prepared by : Serdar A.karim Agid
Subject(molecular biology)
6 th semester
Supervised by
Dr. Ahmed Basheer
2021A.D 2717K 1438A.H
1
Abstract
DNA fingerprinting, one of the great discoveries of the late 20th

century, has revolutionized forensic investigations. This review
briefly recapitulates 30 years of progress in forensic DNA analysis
which helps to convict criminals, exonerate the wrongly accused,
and identify victims of crime, disasters, and war. Current standard
methods based on short tandem repeats (STRs) as well as lineage
markers (Y chromosome, mitochondrial DNA) are covered and
applications are illustrated by casework examples. Benefits and
risks of expanding forensic DNA databases are discussed and we
ask what the future holds for forensic DNA fingerprinting.
2
List of contents
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….2
List of contents ………………………………………………………………….3
List of figures ……………………………………………………………………4
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………5
How was the first DNA fingerprint produced……………………………….5
DNA profiling……………………………………..……………………………….9
How is a DNA profile produced today………………….…………………….9
Solving crime………………………………………….……………………….12
How are DNA profiles stored…………………………………………………..14
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………….16
3
List of figures
the steps in DNA fingerprinting…………………………………………………7
the steps in DNA profiling…………………………………………..…………..10
comparison of a DNA fingerprint………………………………………………….12
the DNA profiles of two parents and their child……………………………….14
4
DNA fingerprinting
DNA fingerprinting was invented in 1984 by Professor Sir Alec

Jeffreys after he realised you could detect variations in human DNA,
in the form of these minisatellites.
DNA fingerprinting is a technique that simultaneously detects lots of

minisatellites in the genome to produce a pattern unique to an
individual. This is a DNA fingerprint.
The probability of having two people with the same DNA fingerprint
that are not identical twins is very small.
Just like your actual fingerprint, your DNA fingerprint is something

you are born with, it is unique to you.
How was the first DNA fingerprint produced?
1)The first step of DNA fingerprinting was to extract DNA from a

sample of human material, usually blood.
2)Molecular ‘scissors’, called restriction enzymes?, were used to cut

the DNA. This resulted in thousands of pieces of DNA with a variety
of different lengths.
3)These pieces of DNA were then separated according to size by a

process called gel electrophoresis?:
5
The DNA was loaded into wells at one end of a porous gel, which
acted a bit like a sieve.
An electric current was applied which pulled the negatively-charged

DNA through the gel.
The shorter pieces of DNA moved through the gel easiest and
therefore fastest. It is more difficult for the longer pieces of DNA to
move through the gel so they travelled slower.
As a result, by the time the electric current was switched off, the
DNA pieces had been separated in order of size. The smallest DNA
molecules were furthest away from where the original sample was
loaded on to the gel.
4)Once the DNA had been sorted, the pieces of DNA were
transferred or ‘blotted’ out of the fragile gel on to a robust piece of
nylon membrane and then ‘unzipped’ to produce single strands of
DNA.
5) Next the nylon membrane was incubated with radioactive probes.
Probes are small fragments of minisatellite DNA tagged with

radioactive phosphorous.
6) The minisatellites that the probes have attached to were then

visualised by exposing the nylon membrane to X-ray film.
6
When exposed to radioactivity a pattern of more than 30 dark bands
appeared on the film where the labelled DNA was. This pattern was
the DNA fingerprint.
To compare two or more different DNA fingerprints the different DNA

samples were run side-by-side on the same electrophoresis gel.
7
Illustration showing the steps in DNA fingerprinting. Image credit: Genome Research Limited.
8
DNA profiling
Modern-day DNA profiling is also called STR analysis and relies on

microsatellites rather than the minisatellites used in DNA
fingerprinting.
Microsatellites, or short tandem repeats (STRs), are the shorter

relatives of minisatellites usually two to five base pairs long. Like
minisatellites they are repeated many times throughout the human
genome, for example ‘TATATATATATA’.
How is a DNA profile produced today?
1) DNA is extracted from a biological sample. STR analysis is

incredibly sensitive so it only needs a tiny amount of someone’s
DNA to produce an accurate result. As a result the DNA can be
extracted from a wider range of biological samples, including blood,
saliva and hair.
2) Unlike the original DNA fingerprinting method, DNA profiling does

not use restriction enzymes to cut the DNA. Instead it uses
the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)? to produce many copies of
specific STR sequences. PCR is an automated procedure that
generates lots of copies
9
of a specific sequence of DNA. It only requires small amounts of
DNA to start with and can even make copies from a DNA sample
that is partially degraded. In PCR small bits of DNA called primers?
bind to complementary sequences of the DNA of interest and mark

the starting point for the copying of the DNA of interest
In STR analysis the primers used in the PCR are designed to attach

to either end of the STR sequence of interest. The primers for each
STR is labelled with a specific coloured fluorescent tag. This makes
it easier to identify and record the STR sequences after PCR.
3) Once enough copies of the sequence have been produced by

PCR, electrophoresis is used to separate the fragments according to
size.
4) Each fragment passes by a laser which causes the fragments

with fluorescent tags to glow with a specific colour. The output is
displayed as a series of coloured peaks (as shown in the image
below) highlighting the colour and length of each STR sequence.
10
Illustration showing the steps in DNA profiling. Image credit: Genome Research Limited
The more STR sequences that are tested, the more accurate the
test is at identifying someone.
Other STRs used for forensic purposes are called Y-STRs, which
are derived solely from the male Y chromosome?. This is useful for
identifying a male perpetrator from mixed DNA samples.
11
Only one person in every 10 million million (10,000,000,000,000) will
have a particular STR profile. With the world human population
estimated at only 7,100 million (7,100,000,000) it is therefore
extremely unlikely you will share the same profile as someone else,
unless you are an identical twin.
Solving crime
DNA profiles are very useful in forensics because only a tiny sample
of human material left behind after a crime may be sufficient to
identify someone.
In the UK, a complete DNA profile consists of 11 STR sequences

plus a sex determiner to confirm if the profile is from a man or a
woman.
Now all new profiles include an additional five STR sequences to

provide consistency across borders in Europe.
In the USA, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) recommends

that 13 STR sequences are tested.
Many states are increasing the number of STR sequences tested to

enable more efficient investigations across state borders.
A match made between a crime scene profile and an individual

profile identifies a possible suspect.
12
A match made between different crime scene profiles indicates a
repeat offender at work.
The police may use this DNA evidence to support other evidence to
help prosecute someone for a crime. Complete DNA profiles give
very reliable matches and may provide strong evidence that a
suspect is guilty or innocent of a crime.
Illustration showing a comparison of a DNA fingerprint from a crime scene and DNA fingerprints
from two suspects. The DNA fingerprint from suspect 2 matches that taken from the crime scene.
Image credit: Genome Research Limited
13
How are DNA profiles stored?
The UK was the first country to set up a national database of DNA

profiles in 1995.
The UK National DNA Database holds the DNA profiles from a

select number of UK individuals, most of which are linked to serious
crimes.
The Protection of Freedom Act 2013 ensured that 1,766,000 DNA

profiles taken from innocent adults and children were deleted from
the UK National DNA Database.
Most countries now have a national DNA database.
Linking blood relatives
You get half of your DNA from your mother and half from your
father. STRs are therefore passed down from parents to their
children.
DNA profiling can be used to help confirm whether two people are
related to one another and is commonly used to provide evidence
that someone is, or is not, the biological parent of a child.
DNA profiling can also be used to identify victims of crime or major

disasters and help bring separated families back together.
14
DNA profiling has a high success rate and very low false-positive
rate.
Illustration comparing the DNA profiles of two parents and their child. You can see which STRs in
the child have been inherited from which parent. Image credit: Genome Research Limited.
15
References:
1) Ali S, Muller CR, Epplen JT (1986) DNA fingerprinting by oligonucleotide probes specific
for simple repeats. Hum Genet 74: 239–243CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2) Armour JAL, Patel I, Thein SL, Fey MF, Jeffreys AJ (1989a) Analysis of somatic mutations
at human minisatellite loci in tumours and cell lines. Genomics 4: 328–
334CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3) Boerwinkle E, Xiong W, Fourest E, Chan L (1989) Rapid typing of tandemly repeated
hypervariable loci by the polymerase chain reaction: application to the apolipoprotein b

3’ hypervariable region. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 86: 212–216CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4) Brookfield JFY (1989) Analysis of DNA fingerprinting data in cases of disputed paternity.
IMA J of Mathematics Applied in Medicine Biology 6: 111–131CrossRefGoogle Scholar
5) Higuchi R, Blake ET (1989) Applications of the polymerase chain reaction in forensic
science. In Banbury Report 32: DNA Technology, Forensic Science (eds J Ballantyne, G
Sensabaugh, J Witkowski; Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1989) pp 265–
281Google Scholar
6) Hill WG (1986) DNA fingerprint analysis in immigration test-cases. Nature 322: 290–
291CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7) Home Office (1988) DNA profiling in immigration casework. Report of a pilot trial by the
Home Office and Foreign and Commonwealth Office (Home Office, London)Google
Scholar
8) Hopgood R, Sullivan KM, Gill P (1992) Strategies for automated sequencing of human
mitochondrial DNA directly from PCR products. BioTechniques 13: 82–92Google Scholar
16

Fingerprint

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fingerprint

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fingerprint

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Kurdistan Regional Government-Iraq

Ministry of Higher Education and

Prepared by : Serdar A.karim Agid

Dr. Ahmed Basheer

2021A.D 2717K 1438A.H

DNA fingerprinting, one of the great discoveries of the late 20th

List of contents ………………………………………………………………….3

List of figures ……………………………………………………………………4

How was the first DNA fingerprint produced……………………………….5

How is a DNA profile produced today………………….…………………….9

How are DNA profiles stored…………………………………………………..14

the steps in DNA fingerprinting…………………………………………………7

the steps in DNA profiling…………………………………………..…………..10

comparison of a DNA fingerprint………………………………………………….12

the DNA profiles of two parents and their child……………………………….14

DNA fingerprinting was invented in 1984 by Professor Sir Alec

DNA fingerprinting is a technique that simultaneously detects lots of

Just like your actual fingerprint, your DNA fingerprint is something

How was the first DNA fingerprint produced?

1)The first step of DNA fingerprinting was to extract DNA from a

2)Molecular ‘scissors’, called restriction enzymes?, were used to cut

3)These pieces of DNA were then separated according to size by a

An electric current was applied which pulled the negatively-charged

5) Next the nylon membrane was incubated with radioactive probes.

Probes are small fragments of minisatellite DNA tagged with

6) The minisatellites that the probes have attached to were then

To compare two or more different DNA fingerprints the different DNA

Modern-day DNA profiling is also called STR analysis and relies on

Microsatellites, or short tandem repeats (STRs), are the shorter

How is a DNA profile produced today?

1) DNA is extracted from a biological sample. STR analysis is

2) Unlike the original DNA fingerprinting method, DNA profiling does

bind to complementary sequences of the DNA of interest and mark

In STR analysis the primers used in the PCR are designed to attach

3) Once enough copies of the sequence have been produced by

4) Each fragment passes by a laser which causes the fragments

In the UK, a complete DNA profile consists of 11 STR sequences

Now all new profiles include an additional five STR sequences to

In the USA, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) recommends

Many states are increasing the number of STR sequences tested to

A match made between a crime scene profile and an individual

The UK was the first country to set up a national database of DNA

The UK National DNA Database holds the DNA profiles from a

The Protection of Freedom Act 2013 ensured that 1,766,000 DNA

Most countries now have a national DNA database.

Linking blood relatives

DNA profiling can also be used to identify victims of crime or major

hypervariable loci by the polymerase chain reaction: application to the apolipoprotein b

You might also like