Paint is any liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition which Some pigments are toxic, such as the lead pigments

pigments that are

after application to a substrate in a thin layer is converted to an used in lead paint. Paint manufacturers began replacing white
opaque solid film. It is most commonly used to add color and/or lead pigments with the less toxic substitute, titanium white
texture to objects. (titanium dioxide), even before lead was functionally banned in
paint for residential use in 1978 by the U.S. Consumer Product
History Safety Commission. The titanium dioxide used in most paints
today is often coated with silica or alumina for various reasons
Cave paintings drawn with red and yellow ochre, hematite, such as better exterior durability, or better hiding performance
manganese oxide, and charcoal may have been made by early (opacity) via better efficiency promoted by more optimal
Homo sapiens as long as 40,000 years ago. spacing within the paint film.

Ancient colored walls at Dendera, Egypt, which were exposed Binder, vehicle, or resins
for many ages to the open air, still possess a perfect brilliancy
of color, as vivid as when they were painted about 2,000 years The binder, commonly referred to as the vehicle, is the actual
ago. The Egyptians mixed their colors with some gummy film forming component of paint. It is the only component that
substance, and applied them separated from each other must be present; other components listed below are included
without any blending or mixture. They appeared to have used optionally, depending on the desired properties of the cured
six colors: white, black, blue, red, yellow, and green. They first film.
covered the field entirely with white, upon which they traced
the design in black, leaving out the lights of the ground color. The binder imparts adhesion, binds the pigments together, and
They used minium for red, and generally of a dark tinge. strongly influences such properties as gloss potential, exterior
durability, flexibility, and toughness.
Pliny mentions some painted ceilings in his day in the town of
Ardea, which had been executed at a date prior to the Binders include synthetic or natural resins such as alkyds,
foundation of Rome. He expresses great surprise and acrylics, vinyl-acrylics, vinyl acetate/ethylene (VAE),
admiration at their freshness, after the lapse of so many polyurethanes, polyesters, melamine resins, epoxy, or oils.
centuries.
Binders can be categorized according to drying, or curing
Paint was made with the yolk of eggs and therefore, the mechanism. The four most common are simple solvent
substance would harden and stick onto the surface applied. evaporation, oxidative crosslinking, catalyzed/cross linked
Pigments were made from plants, sands, and different soil polymerization, and coalescence. There are others.
types
Note that drying and curing are two different processes. Drying
Components generally refers to evaporation of the solvent or thinner, [1]
whereas curing refers to polymerization of the binder. (The
Pigment term "vehicle" is industrial jargon which is used inconsistently,
sometimes to refer to the solvent and sometimes to refer to the
Pigments are granular solids incorporated into the paint to binder.) Depending on chemistry and composition, any
contribute color, toughness, texture or simply to reduce the particular paint may undergo either, or both processes. Thus,
cost of the paint. Alternatively, some paints contain dyes there are paints that dry only, those that dry then cure, and
instead of or in combination with pigments. those that do not depend on drying for curing.[2]

Pigments can be classified as either natural or synthetic types. Paints that dry by simple solvent evaporation and contain a
Natural pigments include various clays, calcium carbonate, solid binder dissolved in a solvent are known as lacquers. A
mica, silicas, and talcs. Synthetics would include engineered solid film forms when the solvent evaporates, and because the
molecules, calcined clays, blanc fix, precipitated calcium film can re-dissolve in solvent, lacquers are not suitable for
carbonate, and synthetic pyrogenic silicas. applications where chemical resistance is important. Classic
nitrocellulose lacquers fall into this category, as do non-grain
Hiding pigments, in making paint opaque, also protect the
raising stains composed of dyes dissolved in solvent and more
substrate from the harmful effects of ultraviolet light. Hiding
modern acrylic based coatings such as 5-ball Krylon aerosol.
pigments include titanium dioxide, phthalo blue, red iron oxide,
Performance varies by formulation, but lacquers generally tend
and many others.
to have better UV resistance and lower corrosion resistance
Fillers are a special type of pigment that serve to thicken the than comparable systems that cure by polymerization or
film, support its structure and simply increase the volume of the coalescence.
paint. Fillers are usually made of cheap and inert materials,
Latex paint is a water-borne dispersion of sub-micrometre
such as diatomaceous earth, talc, lime, barytes, clay, etc. Floor
polymer particles. The term "latex" in the context of paint
paints that will be subjected to abrasion may even contain fine
simply means an aqueous dispersion; latex rubber (the sap of
quartz sand as a filler. Not all paints include fillers. On the
the rubber tree that has historically been called latex) is not an
other hand some paints contain very large proportions of
ingredient. These dispersions are prepared by emulsion
pigment/filler and binder.
polymerization. Latex paints cure by a process called
coalescence where first the water, and then the trace, or Solvent-borne, also called oil-based, paints can have various
coalescing, solvent, evaporate and draw together and soften combinations of solvents as the diluent, including aliphatics,
the latex binder particles and fuse them together into aromatics, alcohols, ketones and white spirit. These include
irreversibly bound networked structures, so that the paint will organic solvents such as petroleum distillate, esters, glycol
not redissolve in the solvent/water that originally carried it. ethers, and the like. Sometimes volatile low-molecular weight
Residual surfactants in the paint as well as hydrolytic effects synthetic resins also serve as diluents. Such solvents are used
with some polymers cause the paint to remain susceptible to when water resistance, grease resistance, or similar properties
softening and, over time, degradation by water. are desired.

Paints that cure by oxidative crosslinking are generally single Additives

package coatings. When applied, the exposure to oxygen in
the air starts a process that crosslinks and polymerizes the Besides the three main categories of ingredients, paint can
binder component. Classic alkyd enamels would fall into this have a wide variety of miscellaneous additives, which are
category. Oxidative cure coatings are catalyzed by metal usually added in very small amounts and yet give a very
complex driers such as cobalt naphthenate. significant effect on the product. Some examples include
additives to modify surface tension, improve flow properties,
Paints that cure by "catalyzed" polymerization are generally improve the finished appearance, increase wet edge, improve
two package coatings that polymerize by way of a chemical pigment stability, impart antifreeze properties, control foaming,
reaction initiated by mixing resin and curing agent/hardener, control skinning, etc. Other types of additives include catalysts,
and which cure by forming a hard plastic structure. Depending thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, texturizers, adhesion
on composition they may need to dry first, by evaporation of promoters, UV stabilizers, flatteners (de-glossing agents),
solvent. Classic two package epoxies or polyurethanes would biocides to fight bacterial growth, and the like.
fall into this category.[2] The word catalyst is a misnomer as
catalyst should not be part of the polymer. Cobalt driers are Additives normally do not significantly alter the percentages of
catalysts, iso cyanates and epoxy adducts are not.[citation needed] individual components in a formulation.[3]

There are paints called plastisols/organosols, which are made Color changing paint
by blending PVC granules with a plasticiser. These are stoved
and the mix coalesceses. Various technologies exist for making paints that change color.
Thermochromic paints and coatings contain materials that
Still other films are formed by cooling of the binder. For change conformation when heat is applied, and so they
example, encaustic or wax paints are liquid when warm, and change color. Liquid crystals have been used in such paints,
harden upon cooling. In many cases, they will resoften or such as in the thermometer strips and tapes used in fishtanks.
liquify if reheated. Photochromic paints and coatings contain dyes that change
conformation when the film is exposed to UV light, and so they
Recent environmental requirements restrict the use of Volatile change color. These materials are used to make eyeglasses.
Organic Compounds (VOCs), and alternative means of curing
have been developed, particularly for industrial purposes. In Electrochromic paints change color in response to an applied
UV curing paints, the solvent is evaporated first, and hardening electric current. Car manufacturer Nissan has been reportedly
is then initiated by ultraviolet light. In powder coatings there is working on an electrochromic paint for use in its vehicles,
little or no solvent, and flow and cure are produced by heating based on particles of paramagnetic iron oxide. When subjected
of the substrate after electrostatic application of the dry to an electromagnetic field the paramagnetic particles change
powder. spacing, modifying their color and reflective properties. The
electromagnetic field would be formed using the conductive
Solvent metal of the car body.[4] Electrochromic paints can be applied
to plastic substrates as well, using a different coating
The main purposes of the solvent are to adjust the curing chemistry. The technology involves using special dyes that
properties and viscosity of the paint. It is volatile and does not change conformation when an electric current is applied across
become part of the paint film. It also controls flow and the film itself. Recently, this new technology has been used to
application properties, and affects the stability of the paint achieve glare protection at the touch of a button in passenger
while in liquid state. Its main function is as the carrier for the airplane windows.
non volatile components. In order to spread heavier oils (i.e.
linseed) as in oil-based interior housepaint, a thinner oil is Art
required. These volatile substances impart their properties
temporarily—once the solvent has evaporated or disintegrated, Since the time of the Renaissance, siccative (drying) oil paints,
the remaining paint is fixed to the surface. primarily linseed oil, have been the most commonly used kind
of paints in fine art applications; oil paint is still common today.
This component is optional: some paints have no diluent. However, in the 20th century, water-based paints, including
watercolors and acrylic paints, became very popular with the
Water is the main diluent for water-borne paints, even the co- development of acrylic and other latex paints. Milk paints (also
solvent types. called casein), where the medium is derived from the natural
emulsion that is milk, were popular in the 19th century and are After liquid paint is applied, there is an interval during which it
still available today. Egg tempera (where the medium is an can be blended with additional painted regions (at the "wet
emulsion of egg yolk mixed with oil) is still in use as well, as edge") called "open time." The open time of an oil or alkyd-
are encaustic wax-based paints. Gouache is a variety of based emulsion paint can be extended by adding white spirit,
opaque watercolor which was also used in the Middle Ages similar glycols such as Dowanol (propylene glycol ether) or
and Renaissance for manuscript illuminations. The pigment commercial open time prolongers. This can also facilitate the
was often made from ground semiprecious stones such as mixing of different wet paint layers for aesthetic effect. Latex
lapis lazuli and the binder made from either gum arabic or egg and acrylic emulsions require the use of drying retardants
white. Gouache, also known as 'designer color' or 'body color' suitable for water-based coatings.
is commercially available today.
Paint application by spray is the most popular method in
Poster paint has been used primarily in the creation of student industry. In this, paint is atomized by the force of compressed
works, or by children. air or by the action of high pressure compression of the paint
itself, which results in the paint being turned into small droplets
Application which travel to the article which is to be painted. Alternate
methods are airless spray, hot spray, hot airless spray, and
Paint can be applied as a solid, a gaseous suspension any of these with an electrostatic spray included. There are
(aerosol) or a liquid. Techniques vary depending on the numerous electrostatic methods available.
practical or artistic results desired.
Dipping used to be the norm for objects such as filing cabinets,
As a solid (usually used in industrial and automotive but this has been replaced by high speed air turbine driven
applications), the paint is applied as a very fine powder, then bells with electrostatic spray. Car bodies are primed using
baked at high temperature. This melts the powder and causes cathodic elephoretic primer, which is applied by charging the
it to adhere (stick) to the surface. The reasons for doing this body depositing a layer of primer. The unchanged residue is
involve the chemistries of the paint, the surface itself, and rinsed off and the primer stoved.
perhaps even the chemistry of the substrate (the overall object
being painted). This is commonly referred to as "powder Many paints tends to separate when stored, the heavier
coating" an object. components settling to the bottom and require mixing before
use. Some paint outlets have machines for mixing the paint by
As a gas or as a gaseous suspension, the paint is suspended shaking it vigorously in the can for a few minutes.
in solid or liquid form in a gas that is sprayed on an object. The
paint sticks to the object. This is commonly referred to as The opacity and the film thickness of paint may be measured
"spray painting" an object. The reasons for doing this include: using a drawdown card.

 The application mechanism is air and thus no solid Water-based paints tend to be the easiest to clean up after
object ever touches the object being painted; using—the brushes and rollers can be cleaned with soap and
water.
 The distribution of the paint is very uniform so there
are no sharp lines; Proper disposal of left over paint is a challenge. Sometimes it
can be recycled: Old paint may be usable for a primer coat or
 It is possible to deliver very small amounts of paint; an intermediate coat, and paints of similar chemistry can be
mixed to make a larger amount of a uniform color.
 A chemical (typically a solvent) can be sprayed along
with the paint to dissolve together both the delivered To dispose of paint it can be dried and disposed of in the
paint and the chemicals on the surface of the object domestic waste stream provided that it contains no prohibited
being painted; substances (see container). Disposal of liquid paint usually
requires special handling and should be treated as hazardous
 Some chemical reactions in paint involve the waste, and disposed of according to local regulations.[5][6]
orientation of the paint molecules.
Product variants
In the liquid application, paint can be applied by direct
application using brushes, paint rollers, blades, other  Primer is a preparatory coating put on materials
instruments, or body parts such as fingers. before painting. Priming ensures better adhesion of
paint to the surface, increases paint durability, and
Rollers generally have a handle that allows for different lengths provides additional protection for the material being
of poles which can be attached to alow for painting at different painted. It can also be used to block and seal stains,
heights. Generally, roller application takes two coats for even or to hide a color that is to be painted over.
color. A roller with a thicker nap is used to apply paint on
uneven surfaces. Edges are often finished with an angled  Emulsion paint is a water-based paint used for
brush. painting interior or exterior surfaces.
 Varnish and shellac provide a protective coating and marble walls, and on rougher surfaces that are
without changing the color. They are paints without difficult to clean. Non-bonding coatings are clear,
pigment. high-performance coatings, usually catalyzed
polyurethanes, that allow the graffiti very little to bond
 Wood stain is a type of paint that is very "thin," that is, to. After the graffiti is discovered, it can be removed
low in viscosity, and formulated so that the pigment with the use of a solvent wash, without damaging the
penetrates the surface rather than remaining in a film underlying substrate or protective coating. These
on top of the surface. Stain is predominantly pigment work best when used on smoother surfaces, and
or dye and solvent with little binder, designed especially over other painted surfaces, including
primarily to add color without providing a surface murals.
coating.
 Anti-climb paint is a non-drying paint that appears
 Lacquer is usually a fast-drying solvent-based paint or normal while still being extremely slippery. It is usually
varnish that produces an especially hard, durable used on drainpipes and ledges to deter burglars and
finish. vandals from climbing them, and is found in many
public places. When a person attempts to climb
 An enamel paint is a paint that dries to an especially objects coated with the paint, it rubs off onto the
hard, usually glossy, finish. Enamel paints sometimes climber, as well as making it hard for them to climb.
contain glass powder or tiny metal flake fragments
instead of the color pigments found in standard oil- Dangers
based paints. Enamel paint is sometimes mixed with
varnish or urethane to increase shine as well as assist Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in paint are considered
its hardening process. harmful to the environment and especially for people who work
with them on a regular basis. Exposure to VOCs has been
 A glaze is an additive used with paint to slow drying related to organic solvent syndrome, although this relation has
time and increase translucency, as in faux painting been somewhat controversial.[7]
and Art Painting.
In the United States, environmental regulations, consumer
 A roof coating is a fluid applied membrane which has demand, and advances in technology led to the development
elastic properties that allows it to stretch and return to of low-VOC and zero-VOC paints and finishes. These new
their original shape without damage. It provides UV paints are widely available and meet or exceed the old high-
protection to polyurethane foam and is widely used as VOC products in performance and cost-effectiveness while
part of a roof restoration system. having significantly less impact on human and environmental
health.
 Fingerpaint is a kind of paint intended to be applied
with the fingers; it typically comes in pots and is used Varnish is a transparent, hard, protective finish or film primarily
by small children, though it has very occasionally used in wood finishing but also for other materials. Varnish is
been used by adults either to teach art to children, or traditionally a combination of a drying oil, a resin, and a thinner
for their own independent use. or solvent. Varnish finishes are usually glossy but may be
designed to produce satin or semi-gloss sheens by the addition
of "flatting" agents. Varnish has little or no colour, is
 Inks are similar to paints, except they are typically
transparent, and has no added pigment, as opposed to paints
made using finely ground pigments or dyes, and are or wood stains, which contain pigment and generally range
designed so as not to leave a thick film of binder. from opaque to translucent. Varnishes are also applied over
wood stains as a final step to achieve a film for gloss and
 Titanium dioxide is extensively used for both house protection. Some products are marketed as a combined stain
paint and artist's paint, because it is permanent and and varnish.
has good covering power. Titanium dioxide pigment
accounts for the largest use of the element. Titanium After being applied, the film-forming substances in varnishes
paint is an excellent reflector of infrared, and is either harden directly, as soon as the solvent has fully
extensively used in solar observatories where heat evaporated, or harden after evaporation of the solvent through
certain curing processes, primarily chemical reaction between
causes poor seeing conditions.
oils and oxygen from the air (autoxidation) and chemical
reactions between components of the varnish. Resin varnishes
 Anti-graffiti coatings are used to defeat the marking of "dry" by evaporation of the solvent and harden almost
surfaces by graffiti vandals. There are two categories, immediately upon drying. Acrylic and waterborne varnishes
sacrificial and non-bonding. Sacrificial coatings are "dry" upon evaporation of the water but experience an
clear coatings that allow the removal of graffiti, usually extended curing period. Oil, polyurethane, and epoxy
by pressure washing the surface with high-pressure varnishes remain liquid even after evaporation of the solvent
but quickly begin to cure, undergoing successive stages from
water, removing the graffiti, and the coating (hence,
liquid or syrupy, to tacky or sticky, to dry gummy, to "dry to the
sacrificed). They must be re-applied afterward for touch", to hard. Environmental factors such as heat and
continued protection. This is most commonly used on humidity play a very large role in the drying and curing times of
natural-looking masonry surfaces, such as statuary varnishes. In classic varnish the cure rate depends on the type
of oil used and, to some extent, on the ratio of oil to resin. The Types
drying and curing time of all varnishes may be sped up by
exposure to an energy source such as sunlight, ultraviolet light, Violin
or heat. Many varnishes rely on organic solvents, or on organic
oils or resins for their binder; these are highly flammable in
their liquid state. All drying oils, certain alkyds, and many Violin varnishing is a multi-step process involving some or all of
single-component polyurethanes produce heat during the the following: primer, sealer, ground, color coats, and clear
curing process. Therefore, oil-soaked rags and paper can topcoat. Some systems use a drying oil varnish as described
smolder or ignite hours after application if they are bunched or below, while others use spirit (or solvent) varnish. Touchup in
piled together, or, for example, placed in a container where the repair or restoration is only done with spirit varnish.
heat cannot dissipate.
Drying oil such as walnut oil or linseed oil may be used in
History combination with amber, copal, rosin or other resins. The oil is
prepared by cooking or exposing to air and sunlight. The
refined resin is typically available as a translucent solid and is
Early varnishes were developed by mixing resin, like pine sap, then "run" by cooking or literally melting it in a pot over heat
with a solvent and applying them with a brush to get the golden without solvents. The thickened oil and prepared resin are then
and hardened effect we see in today's varnishes.[1] The ancient cooked together and thinned with turpentine (away from open
Egyptians were acquainted with the art of varnishing, but its flame) into a brushable solution.
origin appears to be far east of there in India, China and
Japan, where the practice of lacquer work, a species of varnish
application, was known at a very early date. It has been Some violin finishing systems use vernice bianca (egg white
claimed that Japan was acquainted with the art of lacquering and gum arabic) as a sealer or ground.
by 500 or 600 B.C.E., but the majority of authorities place its
first usage there to the 3rd century of our era, as an art Resin
acquired from their neighbors the Koreans. The natives of
China and India probably knew the art much earlier than the Most resin or "gum" varnishes consist of a natural, plant- or
Japanese. Varnish and lacquer work are, however, generally insect-derived substance dissolved in a solvent, called spirit
treated in the arts as separate and distinct. varnish or solvent varnish. The solvent may be alcohol,
turpentine, or petroleum-based. Some resins are soluble in
Etymology both alcohol and turpentine. Generally, petroleum solvents, i.e.
mineral spirits or paint thinner, can substitute for turpentine.
The word "varnish" comes from Latin vernix meaning odorous The resins include amber, dammar, copal, rosin, sandarac,
resin, the etymology of which comes from the Greek Berenice, elemi, benzoin, mastic, balsam, shellac, and a multitude of
the ancient name of modern Benghazi in Libya, where the first lacquers.
varnishes were used and where resins from the trees of now-
vanished forests were sold. Berenice comes from the Greek Synthetic resins such as phenolic resin may be employed as a
words phero (to bring) + nike (victory). secondary component in certain varnishes and paints.

Components of Classic Varnish Over centuries, many recipes were developed which involved
the combination of resins, oils, and other ingredients such as
Drying oil certain waxes. These were believed to impart special tonal
qualities to musical instruments and thus were sometimes
carefully guarded secrets. The interaction of different
There are many different types of drying oil, including linseed ingredients is difficult to predict or reproduce, so expert
oil, tung oil, and walnut oil. These contain high levels of finishers were often prized professionals.
polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Shellac
Resin
Shellac is a very widely used single component resin varnish
Resins that are used in varnishes include amber, kauri gum, that is alcohol soluble. It is not used for outdoor surfaces or
dammar, copal, rosin (pine resin), sandarac, balsam, elemi, where it will come into repeated contact with water such as
and others. In the 1900s in Canada, resins from local trees around a sink or bathtub. The source of shellac resin is a brittle
were used to finish pianos. As a result these now antique or flaky secretion of the female lac insect, Kerria lacca, found
pianos are considered difficult to refinish. However, shellac can in the forests of Assam and Thailand and harvested from the
be used over the existing resins provided sufficient time is bark of the trees where she deposits it to provide a sticky hold
allowed for thin coats to cure. Thus the original finish can be on the trunk. Shellac is the basis of French polish, which for
returned to its original lustre while preserving the colour and centuries has been the preferred finish for fine furniture.
age related crackle. Specified "dewaxed" shellac has been processed to remove
the waxy substances from original shellac and can be used as
[edit] Turpentine or solvent a primer and sanding-sealer substrate for other finishes such
as polyurethanes, alkyds, oils, and acrylics.
Traditionally, natural (organic) turpentine was used as the
thinner or solvent, but has been replaced by several mineral Prepared shellac is typically available in "clear" and "amber"
based turpentine substitutes such as white spirit or "paint (or "orange") varieties, generally as "three pound cut" or three
thinner", also known as "mineral spirit". pounds dry shellac to one US gallon of alcohol. Other natural
color shades such as ruby and yellow are available from
specialty pigment or woodworker's supply outlets. Dry shellac However, certain non-toxic by-products of the curing process
is available as refined flakes, "sticklac," "button lac," or are emitted from the oil film even after it is dry to the touch and
"seedlac." "White pigmented" shellac primer paint is widely over a considerable period of time. It has long been a tradition
available in retail outlets, billed as a fast-drying interior primer to combine drying oils with resins to obtain favourable features
"problem solver", in that it adheres to a variety of surfaces and of both substances.
seals off odors and smoke stains. Shellac clean-up may be
done either with pure alcohol or with ammonia cleansers. Polyurethane

Alkyd Polyurethane varnishes are typically hard, abrasion-resistant,

and durable coatings. They are popular for hardwood floors but
Typically, modern commercially produced varnishes employ are considered by some[who?] to be difficult or unsuitable for
some form of alkyd for producing a protective film. Alkyds are finishing furniture or other detailed pieces. Polyurethanes are
chemically modified vegetable oils which operate well in a wide comparable in hardness to certain alkyds but generally form a
range of conditions and can be engineered to speed up the tougher film. Compared to simple oil or shellac varnishes,
cure rate and thus harden faster. Better (and more expensive) polyurethane varnish forms a harder, decidedly tougher and
exterior varnishes employ alkyds made from high performance more waterproof film. However, a thick film of ordinary
oils and contain UV-absorbers; this improves gloss-retention polyurethane may de-laminate if subjected to heat or shock,
and extends the lifetime of the finish. Various resins may also fracturing the film and leaving white patches. This tendency
be combined with alkyds as part of the formula for typical "oil" increases with long exposure to sunlight or when it is applied
varnishes that are commercially available. over soft woods like pine. This is also in part due to
polyurethane's lesser penetration into the wood. Various
Spar varnish priming techniques are employed to overcome this problem,
including the use of certain oil varnishes, specified "dewaxed"
shellac, clear penetrating epoxy sealer, or "oil-modified"
Spar varnish (also called marine varnish) was originally polyurethane designed for the purpose. Polyurethane varnish
intended for use on ship or boat spars, to protect the timber may also lack the "hand-rubbed" lustre of drying oils such as
from the effects of sea and weather. Spars bend under the linseed or tung oil; in contrast, however, it is capable of a much
load of their sails. The primary requirements were water faster and higher "build" of film, accomplishing in two coats
resistance and also elasticity, so as to remain adhering as the what may require multiple applications of oil. Polyurethane may
spars flexed. Elasticity was a pre-condition for weatherproofing also be applied over a straight oil finish, but because of the
too, as a finish that cracked would then allow water through, relatively slow curing time of oils, the emission of certain
even if the remaining film was impermeable. Appearance and chemical byproducts, and the need for exposure to oxygen
gloss was of relatively low value, in comparison. Modified tung from the air, care must be taken that the oils are sufficiently
oil and phenolic resins are often used. cured to accept the polyurethane.

When first developed, no varnishes had good UV-resistance. Unlike drying oils and alkyds which cure, after evaporation of
Even after more modern synthetic resins did become resistant, the solvent, upon reaction with oxygen from the air, true
a true spar varnish maintained its elasticity above other virtues, polyurethane coatings cure after evaporation of the solvent by
even if this required a compromise in its uv-resistance. Spar a variety of reactions of chemicals within the original mix, or by
varnishes are thus not necessarily the best choice for outdoor reaction with moisture from the air. Certain polyurethane
woodwork which does not need to bend in service. products are "hybrids" and combine different aspects of their
parent components. "Oil-modified" polyurethanes, whether
Despite this, the widespread perception of "marine products" water-borne or solvent-borne, are currently the most widely
as "tough" led to domestic outdoor varnishes being branded as used wood floor finishes.
"Spar varnish" and sold on the virtue of their weather- and uv-
resistance. These claims may be more or less realistic, Exterior use of polyurethane varnish may be problematic due
depending on individual products. Only relatively recently have to its heightened susceptibility to deterioration through ultra-
spar varnishes been available that can offer both effective violet light exposure. All clear or translucent varnishes, and
elasticity and uv-resistance. indeed all film-polymer coatings (e.g. paint, stain, epoxy,
synthetic plastic, etc.), are susceptible to this damage in
Drying Oils varying degrees. Pigments in paints and stains protect against
UV damage. UV-absorbers are added to polyurethane and
By definition, drying oils, such as linseed and tung oil, are not other varnishes (e.g. spar varnish) to work against UV damage
true varnishes though often in modern terms they accomplish but are decreasingly effective over the course of 2–4 years,
the same thing. Drying oils cure through an exothermic depending on the quantity and quality of UV-absorbers added
reaction between the polyunsaturated portion of the oil and as well as the severity and duration of sun exposure. Water
oxygen from the air. Originally, the term "varnish" referred to exposure, humidity, temperature extremes, and other
finishes that were made entirely of resin dissolved in suitable environmental factors affect all finishes. By contrast, wooden
solvents, either ethanol (alcohol) or turpentine. The advantage items retrieved from the Egyptian pyramids have a new and
to finishers in previous centuries was that resin varnishes had fresh appearance after 4000 years of storage [citation needed]. Even
a very rapid cure rate compared to oils; in most cases they are there, however, fungal colonies were present, and mildew and
cured practically as soon as the solvent has fully evaporated. fungus are another category of entities which attack varnish. In
By contrast, untreated or "raw" oils may take weeks or months other words, the only coat of varnish with near perfect
to cure, depending on ambient temperature and other durability is the one stored in a vacuum, in darkness, at a low
environmental factors. In modern terms, "boiled" or partially and unvarying temperature. Otherwise, care and upkeep are
polymerized drying oils with added siccatives or dryers required.
(chemical catalysts) have cure times of less than 24 hours.
Lacquer The term lacquer originates from the Portuguese word for lac,
a type of resin excreted from certain insects. [1] Regardless, in
The word lacquer refers to quick-drying, solvent-based modern usage, lac-based varnishes are referred to as shellac,
varnishes or paints. Although their names may be similarly while lacquer refers to other polymers dissolved in volatile
derived, lacquer is not the same as shellac and is not dissolved organic compounds (VOCs), such as nitrocellulose, and later
in alcohol. Lacquer is dissolved in lacquer thinner, which is a acrylic compounds dissolved in lacquer thinner, a mixture of
highly-flammable solvent typically containing butyl acetate and several solvents typically containing butyl acetate and xylene
xylene or toluene. Lacquer is typically sprayed on, within a or toluene.
spray booth that evacuates overspray and minimizes the risk of
combustion. While both lacquer and shellac are traditional finishes, lacquer
is more durable than shellac.
Outside America, the rule of thumb is that a clear wood finish
formulated to be sprayed is a lacquer but if it is formulated to
be brushed on then it is a varnish. Thus the vast majority of Etymology
wooden furniture is lacquered.
The French word lacre "a kind of sealing wax", from
Acrylic Portuguese lacre, unexplained variant of lacca "resinous
substance", from Arabic lakk, from Persian lak, the verb lac
Acrylic varnishes are typically water-borne varnishes with the meaning "to cover or coat with laqueur". [2] The root of the word
lowest refractive index of all finishes and high transparency. is the Sanskrit word laksha (लक्ष) meaning "one hundred
They resist yellowing. Acrylics have the advantage of water thousand", which was used for both the Lac insect (because of
clean-up and lack of solvent fumes, but typically do not their enormous number) and the scarlet resinous secretion it
penetrate into wood as well as oils. They sometimes lack the produces that was used as lacquer in ancient India and
brushability and self-levelling qualities of solvent-based neighboring areas.[3][4] Lac resin was once imported in sizeable
varnishes. Generally they have good UV-resistance. quantity into Europe from India along with Eastern woods. [5][6]
The modern Hindi-Urdu word lakh (लाख, ‫)الکھ‬, meaning
In the art world, varnishes offer dust-resistance and a harder "hundred thousand," is also derived from the same Sanskrit
surface than bare paint – they sometimes have the benefit of root-word.[3]
ultraviolet light resistors, which help protect artwork from fading
in exposure to light. Acrylic varnish should be applied using an Urushiol-based lacquers
isolation coat (a permanent, protective barrier between the
painting and the varnish, preferably a soft, glossy gel medium) According to Encyclopædia Britannica, varnish resin derived
to make varnish removal and overall conservation easier. from a tree indigenous to China, species Toxicodendron
vernicifluum (formerly Rhus vernicifluum), commonly known as
Two-Part the varnish tree. The manufacturing process was introduced
into Japan and remained secret for centuries.[7] These lacquers
Various epoxies have been formulated as varnishes or floor produce very hard, durable finishes that are both beautiful and
finishes whereby two components are mixed directly before very resistant to damage by water, acid, alkali or abrasion. The
application. Often, the two parts are of equal volume and are active ingredient of the resin is urushiol, a mixture of various
referred to as "part A" and "part B". True polyurethanes are phenols suspended in water, plus a few proteins.
two-part systems. All two-part epoxies have a "pot-life" or
"working time" during which the epoxy can be used. Usually Urushiol-based lacquers differ from most others, being slow-
the pot-life is a matter of a few hours but is also highly drying, water-based, and set by oxidation and polymerization,
temperature dependent. Both water-borne and solvent based rather than by evaporation alone. In order for it to set properly
epoxies are used. it requires humidity and warm temperature. The phenols
oxidize and polymerize under the action of an enzyme laccase,
Conversion yielding a substrate that, upon proper evaporation of its water
content, is hard. Lacquer skills became very highly developed
in India and Asia, and many highly decorated pieces were
Used when a fast-curing, tough, hard finish is desired, such as produced. The process of lacquer application in India is
for kitchen cabinets and office furniture. Comes in two parts - a different from that which is followed in China and Japan. There
resin and an acid catalyst. The first is a blend of an amino resin are two types of lacquer: one obtained from the T. Vernicifluum
and an alkyd. The acid catalyst is added right before tree and the other from an insect. In India the insect lac was
application in a set ratio determined by the manufacturer. Most once used from which a red dye was first extracted, later what
produce minimal yellowing. There are, however, two was left of the insect was a grease that was used for
downsides to this finish. The first is that as the finish cures, it lacquering objects. The fresh resin from the T. vernicifluum
gives off formaldehyde, which is toxic and carcinogenic. The trees causes urushiol-induced contact dermatitis and great
second is that the finish can crack or craze if too many coats care is required in its use. The Chinese treated the allergic
are applied. reaction with shell-fish.

n a general sense, lacquer is a clear or coloured varnish that The contemporary theory held that from China, knowledge of
dries by solvent evaporation and often a curing process as well lacquer technology was introduced to Korea, and from there to
that produces a hard, durable finish, in any sheen level from Japan. It was believed that Japan had also been using lacquer
ultra matte to high gloss and that can be further polished as from ancient times, but the systematic process of application
required. was developed by the Chinese. With the discovery of lacquer
ware in Japan dating back to Jōmon period, conflicting theories
claim that technology may have been independently developed the solvent, which is flammable, volatile and toxic; and the
in Japan. Trade of lacquer objects traveled through various handling hazards of nitrocellulose in the lacquer manufacturing
routes to the Middle East. Known applications of lacquer in process. Lacquer grade of soluble nitrocellulose is closely
China included coffins, plates, music instruments and furniture. related to the more highly nitrated form which is used to make
Lacquer mixed with powdered cinnabar is used to produce the explosives. They are not toxic after about a month after the
traditional red lacquerware from China. lacquer has dissolved all the solvents used to make this kind of
lacquer.
The trees must be at least 10 years old before cutting to bleed
the resin. It sets by a process called "aqua-polymerization", Acrylic lacquers
absorbing oxygen to set; placing in a humid environment
(called "furo" or "muro" in Japanese, meaning "a bath" or "a Lacquers using acrylic resin, a synthetic polymer, were
room") allows it to absorb more oxygen from the evaporation of developed in the 1950s. Acrylic resin is colourless, transparent
the water. thermoplastic, obtained by the polymerization of derivatives of
acrylic acid. Acrylic is also used in enamel paints, which have
Lacquer-yielding trees in Thailand, Vietnam, Burma and the advantage of not needing to be buffed to obtain a shine.
Taiwan, called Thitsi, are slightly different; they do not contain Enamels, however, are slow drying. The advantage of acrylic
urushiol, but similar substances called "laccol" or "thitsiol". The lacquer is its exceptionally fast drying time. The use of
end result is similar but softer than the Chinese or Japanese lacquers in automobile finishes was discontinued when
lacquer. Unlike Japanese and Chinese Toxicodendron tougher, more durable, weather- and chemical-resistant two-
verniciflua resin, Burmese lacquer does not cause allergic component polyurethane coatings were developed. The
reactions; it sets slower, and is painted by craftsmen's hands system usually consists of a primer, colour coat and clear
without using brushes. topcoat, commonly known as clear coat finishes.

Raw lacquer can be "coloured" by the addition of small Water-based lacquers

amounts of iron oxides, giving red or black depending on the
oxide. There is some evidence that its use is even older than Due to health risks and environmental considerations involved
8,000 years from archeological digs in China. Later, pigments in the use of solvent-based lacquers, much work has gone in to
were added to make colours. It is used not only as a finish, but the development of water-based lacquers. Such lacquers are
mixed with ground fired and unfired clays applied to a mould considerably less toxic and more environmentally friendly, and
with layers of hemp cloth, it can produce objects without need in many cases, produce acceptable results. More and more
for another core like wood. The process is called "kanshitsu" in water-based colored lacquers are replacing solvent-based
Japan. Advanced decorative techniques using additional clear and colored lacquers in underhood and interior
materials such as gold and silver powders and flakes ("makie") applications in the automobile and other similar industrial
were refined to very high standards in Japan also after having applications. Water based lacquers are used extensively in
been introduced from China. In the lacquering of the Chinese wood furniture finishing as well.[citation needed]
musical instrument, the guqin, the lacquer is mixed with deer
horn powder (or ceramic powder) to give it more strength so it
can stand up to the fingering. Japanning

There are more than four forms of urushiol which is written as Just as "China" is a common name for Chinese ceramic,
thus: "Japan" is an old name for Japanese Lacquerware[8] (made
from the sap of the Lacquer Tree) and its European imitations.
As Asian and Indian lacquer work became popular in England,
Nitrocellulose lacquers France, the Netherlands, and Spain in the 17th century the
Europeans developed imitations that were effectively a
Quick-drying solvent-based lacquers that contain different technique of lacquering. The European technique,
nitrocellulose, a resin obtained from the nitration of cotton and which is used on furniture and other objects, uses varnishes
other cellulostic materials, were developed in the early 1920s, that have a resin base similar to shellac. The technique, which
and extensively used in the automobile industry for 30 years. became known as japanning, involves applying several coats
Prior to their introduction, mass produced automotive finishes of varnish which are each heat-dried and polished. In the 18th
were limited in colour, with Japan Black being the fastest Century this type of lacquering gained a large popular
drying and thus most popular. General Motors Oakland following.
automobile brand automobile was the first (1923) to introduce
one of the new fast drying nitrocelluous lacquers, a bright blue, Vitreous enamel, usually just called enamel, also porcelain enamel
produced by DuPont under their Duco tradename. in U.S. English, is a material made by fusing powdered glass to a
substrate by firing, usually between 750 and 850 °C (1380 and 1560
These lacquers are also used on wooden products, furniture °F). The powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, durable
primarily, and on musical instruments and other objects. The vitreous coating on metal, and also glass or ceramics, although the
nitrocellulose and other resins and plasticizers are dissolved in use of the term "enamel" is often restricted to work on metal, which
the solvent, and each coat of lacquer dissolves some of the is all that this article covers; enamelled glass is also called "painted".
previous coat. These lacquers were a huge improvement over The fired enameled ware is a fully laminated composite of glass and
earlier automobile and furniture finishes, both in ease of metal. The word enamel comes from the High German word smelzan
application, and in colour retention. The preferred method of (to smelt) via the Old French esmail.[1] Used as a noun, "an enamel"
applying quick-drying lacquers is by spraying, and the is a usually small decorative object, coated with enamel coating.
development of nitrocellulose lacquers led to the first extensive Enameling is an old and widely-adopted technology, for most of its
use of spray guns. Nitrocellulose lacquers produce a very hard history mainly used in jewellery and decorative art, but since the 19th
yet flexible, durable finish that can be polished to a high sheen. century applied to many industrial uses and in everyday day
Drawbacks of these lacquers include the hazardous nature of consumer objects, especially cooking vessels. "Enamelled" and
"enamelling" have a double "l" except in American English where Properties
"enameled" and "enameling" is preferred.
Enamel may be transparent or opaque when fired; vitreous enamel
History can be applied to most metals. The great majority of modern
industrial enamel is applied to steel in which the carbon is controlled
The ancient Egyptians applied enamels to pottery and stone objects, to prevent reactions at the firing temperatures. Enamel can also be
and sometimes jewellery, though the last less often than other ancient applied to copper, aluminium, [8] stainless steel,[9] cast iron[10] or hot
Middle Eastern cultures. The ancient Greeks, Celts, Russians, and rolled steel, as well as gold and silver.
Chinese also used enamel on metal objects.[2]
Vitreous enamel has many excellent properties: it is smooth, hard,
Enamel was also sometimes used to decorate glass vessels during the chemically resistant, durable, scratch resistant (5-6 on the Mohs
Roman period, and there is evidence of this as early as the late scale), long-lasting color fastness, easy-to-clean, and cannot burn.
Republican and early Imperial periods in the Levantine, Egypt, Enamel is glass, not paint, so it does not fade with UV light. [11] Its
Britain and the Black Sea. [3] Enamel powder could be produced in disadvantages are its tendency to crack or shatter when the substrate
two ways; either through the powdering of colored glass, or the is stressed or bent, but modern enamels are chip and impact resistant
mixing of colorless glass powder with pigments such as a metallic because of good thickness control and thermal expansions well-match
oxide.[4] Designs were either painted freehand or over the top of to the metal. Its durability has found it many functional applications:
outline incisions, and the technique probably originated in early 20th century and some modern advertising signs, interior oven
metalworking.[3] Once painted, enamelled glass vessels needed to be walls, cooking pots, exterior walls of kitchen appliances, cast iron
fired at a temperature high enough to melt the applied powder, but bathtubs, farm storage silos, and processing equipment such as
low enough that the fabric of the vessel itself was not melted. chemical reactors and pharmaceutical chemical process tanks.
Production is thought to have come to a peak in the Claudian period Commercial structures such as filling stations, bus stations and even
and persisted for some three hundred years, [3] though archaeological Lustron Houses had walls, ceilings and structural elements made of
evidence for this technique is limited to some forty vessels or vessel enameled steel. One of the most widespread use of enamel is in the
fragments.[3] production of quality chalk-boards and marker-boards (typically
called 'blackboards' or 'whiteboards') where the wear and chemical
resistance properties of the enamel ensure that 'ghosting' or
Enamel was at its most important in European art history in the unerasable marks will not occur from normal use as they will with
Middle Ages, beginning with the Late Romans and then the cheaper polymer boards. Also since standard enamelling steel is
Byzantines who began to use cloisonné enamel in imitation of magnetically attractive they may also be used as magnet boards.
cloisonné inlays of precious stones. This style was widely adopted by Some new developments in the last ten years include enamel/non-
the "barbarian" peoples of Migration Period northern Europe. The stick hybrid coatings, sol-gel functional top-coats for enamels,
Byzantines then began to use cloisonné more freely to create images, enamels with a metallic appearance, and new easy-to-clean
which was also copied in Western Europe. The champlevé technique technologies.[12]
was considerably easier, and very widely practiced in the
Romanesque period. In Gothic art the finest work is in basse-taille
and ronde-bosse techniques, but cheaper champlevé works continued The key ingredient of vitreous enamel is a highly friable form of
to produced in large numbers for a wider market. glass called frit. Frit is typically an alkali borosilicate chemistry with
a thermal expansion and glass temperature suitable for coating steel.
Raw materials are smelted together between 2100 and 2650 °F (1150
From Byzantium or the Islamic world the cloisonné technique and 1450 °C) into a liquid glass that is directed out of the furnace and
reached China in the 13-14th centuries; the first written reference is thermal shocked with either water or steel rollers into frit. [13]
in a book of 1388, where it is called "Dashi ('Muslim') ware". No
Chinese pieces clearly from the 14th century are known, the earliest
datable pieces being from the reign of the Xuande Emperor (1425– Color in enamel is obtained by the addition of various minerals, often
35), which however show a full use of Chinese styles suggesting metal oxides cobalt, praseodymium, iron, or neodymium. The last
considerable experience in the technique. It remained very popular in creates delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and
China until the 19th century, and is still produced today. The most warm gray. Enamel can be either transparent, opaque or opalescent
elaborate and highly-valued Chinese pieces are from the early Ming (translucent), which is a variety that gains a milky opacity the longer
Dynasty, especially the reigns of the Xuande Emperor and Jingtai it is fired. Different enamel colors cannot be mixed to make a new
Emperor (1450–57), although 19th century or modern pieces are far color, in the manner of paint. This produces tiny specks of both
more common.[5] The Japanese also produced large quantities from colors; although the eye can be tricked by grinding colors together to
the mid-19th century, of very high technical quality. [6] an extremely fine, flour-like, powder.

From more recent history, the bright, jewel-like colors have made There are three main types of frit. First, ground coats contain
enamel a favored choice for designers of jewelry and bibelots, such smelted-in transition metal oxides such as cobalt, nickel, copper,
as the fantastic eggs of Peter Carl Fabergé, enameled copper boxes of manganese, and iron that facilitate adhesion to steel. Second, clear
Battersea enamellers, and artists such as George Stubbs and other and semi-opaque frits contain little coloring material for producing
painters of portrait miniatures. Enameling was a favorite technique of colors. Finally, titanium white cover coat frits are supersaturated with
the Art Nouveau jewelers. titanium dioxide which creates a bright white color during firing.

Enamel was first applied commercially to sheet iron and steel in After smelting, the frit needs to be processed into one of the three
Austria and Germany in about 1850. Industrialization increased as the main forms of enamel coating material. First, wet process enamel slip
purity of raw materials increased and costs decreased. The wet (or slurry) is a high solids loading product of grinding the frit with
application process started with the discovery of the use of clay to clay and other viscosity-controlling electrolytes. Second, ready-to-use
suspend frit in water. Developments that followed during the (RTU) is a cake-mix form of the wet process slurry that is ground dry
twentieth century include enameling-grade steel, cleaned-only and can be reconstituted by mixing with water at high shear. Finally,
surface preparation, automation, and ongoing improvements in electrostatic powder that can be applied as a powder coating is
efficiency, performance, and quality.[7] produced by milling frit with a trace level of proprietary additives.
The frit may also be ground as a powder or into a paste for jewelry or layer that is co-fired with the cover coat in a very efficient two-
silk-screening application. coat/one-fire process.

Techniques of artistic enamelling The frit in the ground coat contains smelted-in cobalt and/or nickel
oxide as well as other transition metal oxides to catalyze the enamel-
 Basse-taille, from the French word meaning "low-cut". The steel bonding reactions. During firing of the enamel at between 760
surface of the metal is decorated with a low relief design to 895 °C (1400 and 1640 °F), iron oxide scale first forms on the
which can be seen through translucent and transparent steel. The molten enamel dissolves the iron oxide and precipitates
enamels. The 14th century Royal Gold Cup is an cobalt and nickel. The iron acts the anode in an electrogalvanic
outstanding example.[14] reaction in which the iron is again oxidized, dissolved by the glass,
and oxidized again with the available cobalt and nickel limiting the
 Champlevé, French for "raised field", where the surface is
reaction. Finally, the surface becomes roughened with the glass
carved out to form pits in which enamel is fired, leaving the
anchored into the holes.[21]
original metal exposed; the Romanesque Stavelot Triptych
is an example.[15]
 Cloisonné, French for "cell", where thin wires are applied Pigment VolumeConcentration (PVC)
to form raised barriers, which contain different areas of
(subsequently applied) enamel. Widely practiced in Europe,
the Middle East and East Asia.[16] When pigments are added to a particular coating that are added
 Grisaille, French term meaning "in grey", where a dark, based on the PVC.  What is PVC you say?  It is the pigment
often blue or black background is applied, then a palescent volume concentration.  The pigment volume concentration is
(translucent) enamel is painted on top, building up designs essential in determining the amount of a particular pigment that
in a monochrome gradient, paler as the thickness of the can be added to the polymer of the coating.  The pigment has to
layer of light color increases. have sufficient "wetting"  by the polymer to create a protective
 Limoges enamel, made at Limoges, France, the most coating.  By wetting I mean, that there must be sufficient
famous European center of vitreous enamel production. polymer, or binder, to completely wet or surround all the
Limoges became famous for champlevé enamels from the pigment particles.  There must be enough polymer to completely
12th century onwards, producing on a large scale, and then fill the voids between the pigment particles.  How do you
from the 15th century retained its lead by switching to calculate the PVC?  The following equation is used:
painted enamel on flat metal plaques.  
 Painted enamel, a design in enamel is painted onto a
smooth metal surface. Grisaille and later Limoges enamel % PVC = 100 * Vpigment / (Vpigment + Vnon-volatile
are types of painted enamel.[17] Most traditional painting on
binder)
glass, and some on ceramics, uses what is technically
Vpigment                   = pigment volume 
enamel, but is often described by terms such as "painted in
enamels", reserving "painted enamel" and "enamel" as a Vnon-volatile binder = non-volatile binder volume
term for the whole object for works with a metal base. [18]
 Plique-à-jour, French for "braid letting in daylight" where  
the enamel is applied in cells, similar to cloisonné, but with
no backing, so light can shine through the transparent or The point at which there is just sufficient polymer to wet the
translucent enamel. It has a stained-glass like appearance; pigment particles is known as the critical pigment volume
the Mérode Cup is the only surviving medieval example.[19] concentration (CPVC).  Below the CPVC there is sufficient
 Ronde bosse, French for "in the round", also known as polymer for pigment wetting and above the CPVC there is not. 
"encrusted enamel". A 3D type of enameling where a There are abrupt changes in the coatings properties at the
sculptural form or wire framework is completely or partly CPVC.  Below is a depiction of PVC and property changes that
enameled, as in the 15th century Holy Thorn Reliquary.[20] occur at the CPVC.
 Stenciling, where a stencil is placed over the work and the  
powdered enamel is sifted over the top. The stencil is
removed before firing, the enamel staying in a pattern, As you can see by the picture above that both gloss and blistering
slightly raised. properties decrease as one reaches the CPVC, while permeability
 Sgrafitto, where an unfired layer of enamel is applied over increase above the CPVC.  Permeability properties increase
a previously fired layer of enamel of a contrasting color, because above the CPVC there are voids in the coating filled by
and then partly removed with a tool to create the design. air and the coating becomes discontinuous.  Some of the
 Serigraph, where a silkscreen is used with 60-70in grade properties that can be evaluated above and below the CPVC are
mesh. blistering, gloss, rusting, permeability, enamel hold out, scrub
 Counter enameling, not strictly a technique, but a necessary resistance, tensile strength, and contrast ratio.
step in many techniques, is to apply enamel to the back of a
piece as well - sandwiching the metal - to create less The filling of pigments in a coating is similar to fillers in
tension on the glass so it does not crack. composites.  In a composite the polymer matrix must be in
intimate contact with the fiber reinforcing material.  If there is
Industrial Enamel Application not intimate contact then the fiber acts as a defect.  The same
theory applies here.  If there is not enough polymer to wet the
On sheet steel, a ground coat layer is put on first to create adhesion. pigment then the pigment becomes the defect and the properties
The only surface preparation required for modern ground coats is a of the coating decrease.
simply degreasing of the steel with a mildly alkaline solution. White
and colored second "cover" coats of enamel are applied over the fired Pigments are what give coatings their beautiful colors.  There are
ground coat. For electrostatic enamels, the colored enamel powder a wide variety of colors in coatings today so lets talk about the
can be applied directly over a thin unfired ground coat "base coat" different types of pigments and how they are used.  The main
categories for the pigments used in coatings are inorganic, Report insulating properties.
organic, metallic, and pearlescent.  When choosing a pigment for
a particular coatings some of the factors involved are: All of these compounds should possess the following qualities:

 Refractive index  Dry up soon after application to the surface.

 Hiding efficiency
 Color  Layer after drying should be everywhere uniform, hard and shiny
 pH (when used matt paint surface should be dull.)
 Bulking value
 Density  The surface layer must be flexible and have no cracks.
 Hardness
 Oil absorption  The layer should be stable with respect to atmospheric influences.
 Impermeability (barrier properties)
Lucky are the solutions of various substances, mainly resins in
The idea behind the pigment is to provide color and protect the solvents. As the solvents are different fatty-drying oils (linseed,
substrate.  To give color to a coating the pigment must create an poppy, wood, walnut, etc.), essential oils, turpentine, alcohol, ether,
opacity in the coating.  When a coating is opaque the pigment hydrocarbons, etc.
particles present scatter and/or absorb light sufficiently to
prevent it from reaching the substrate.  Whether or not the If the solvent is volatile, then when applying the solution on any
pigment imparts opacity is dependant on two characteristic surface it evaporates and the solute remains in the form of a thin film.
properties:  refractive index and particle size.  As you can see by Samples of these coatings are paints and alcohol tsaponovye. The
the diagram below if the particles do not have a high refractive first is a solution of resins in alcohol, the latter - a solution of
index, change the direction the light is traveling, there is celluloid or nitrokletchatki in the appropriate volatile solvent.
insufficient hiding of the substrate.  Therefore one can still see
the substrate.  There is a limit to the number of pigment particles When using as a solvent drying oils the whole mass of the induced
in a coating based on the pigment volume concentration (PVC).  varnish dries, forming a solid cover. Drying of the layer of varnish
This is why it is important to have pigment particles with a high (oil), which occurs under the influence of atmospheric oxygen and
refractive index. light, causes a profound inner change lacquer sdoya: lacquer film
becomes a solid, flexible and loses its stickiness. Also used are mixed
Based on the refractive index pigments can be separated into two paints, which are solvent-drying oil and volatile substances.
main categories:  hiding and extender pigments.
The main materials required for the production of lacquers, are as
Hiding pigments: follows:
These pigments possess refractive index values greater than 1.5. 
Examples of hiding pigments include titanium dioxide, zinc  Natural resin , of which the most common: copal, dammar,
oxide, lithophone, and antimony oxide. shellac, sandarac, rosin, amber, benzoin resin, mastic (sealant),
Extender pigments: turpentine .
These pigments possess refractive index values close to 1.5. 
Examples of extender pigments include calcium carbonate, Most of these resins of exotic origin, and sources of their production
silicas, alkali and alkaline earth metal silicates, and barytes. is gradually decreasing. Recently (1927) have become widely used
synthetic resins.
As said before particle size also has an effect on the effectiveness
of the pigment.  As the particle size of a pigment decreases, its  Artificial resins : Bakelite, an artificial shellac, rubber, coumaric
opacifying ability increases.  As shown figure below, a block of resin. Used as food processing colophony (rosin esters, salts of resin
glass is transparent while a stack of thin glass slides of the same acids), etc.
overall thickness has opacifying ability.  Similarly, a large crystal
of titanium dioxide appears colorless, but pigment grade titanium  Coloring tar : «dragon's blood, gamboge, akaroid etc.
dioxide has good opacifying ability.
 drying oils : linseed oil, poppy hemp, sunflower, etc.
Compositions for coating, polishing and coating surfaces represent
the solution of different substances in appropriate solvents or  Volatile solvents : alcohol wine, wood, turpentine, ether, acetone,
different drying oils in mixtures with mineral paints. As marked on carbon disulfide, hlorgidriny, gasoline, etc.
any subject, they quickly dry out and form a colored or colorless thin
layer. These drugs include various paints, varnishes, lacquers, deco-  dyes : turmeric, carbon black, aniline, mineral paints and other
enamel, etc. The use of these compounds has the following very natural and artificial dyes.
important goals:
 Other chemicals : the various oxides of lead and manganese,
 Making a clean beautiful view of the subject. lead sugar, smolyanokisly lead and manganese, lead and manganese,
lnyanokisly, etc., apply mainly way to increase the drying capacity of
 Protect the surface of the object from destructive atmospheric varnish.
influences.
The most widely used are oil paints, because of the strength and
 Make the subject of strength.
diversity of their properties. Usually they are used when you want to
protect subjects from exposure to air, moisture, dust, etc. The best oil
 Facilitate cleaning.
varnishes are made from copal, but can be successfully applied and
amber. Recently dug replace esters of resin acids, and finally for oil
varnishes applied asphalt.

It should be noted that the slower drying oil paints, so they are
stronger, and their elasticity depends on the amount contained in the
varnish of oil: the more oil, so they are more elastic. The quality of
paint depends primarily on the type of resin used, as well as the
quantity and quality of drying oils.

In order to avoid the difficult associated with greater loss of

substance and a known fire hazard melting of solid resin (which also
would be possible only in the factory setting), is now being
successfully applied various direct solvents, such as: acetylene
tetrachloride, monochlorobenzene, dichlorobenzene, hlorgidrin,
methyl ethyl ketone, acetone, cyclic ketones, etc. In a carbon
tetrachloride, most resins are not soluble. The addition of strong wine
spirit making them soluble. In addition, carbon tetrachloride, has the
property to decrease in the mixture with ether, alcohol, benzene, etc.,
their combustibility.

Experiments revealed that gasoline becomes combustible when

mixing one part of it with 9 volume parts chetyrehhlornstogo carbon.
A mixture of 6 parts of bulk gasoline with 4 volume parts of carbon
tetrachloride is ignited at room temperature when approaching a
match and burns very smoky flame.

A simpler method of manufacture is the production of paints

turpentine, gasoline and ether or alcohol varnish, as in this case for
the dissolution of resin or no heating is required, or it requires small
amounts. However, varnishes, obtained by this method, there is little
resistant to the impact of air and therefore suitable only for objects
that are inside buildings, mainly for furniture, metal, leather, paper,
etc. They are eye desiccation and give a good thin transparent coating
with a shiny surface.

When making a good alcoholic varnish usually applied shellac,

determine commitment transparent lacquer film.