Review On Borassus Flabellifer Reinforced Composites

Carbohydrate Polymers 262 (2021) 117929
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Carbohydrate Polymers
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/carbpol
A review on Borassus flabellifer lignocellulose fiber reinforced

polymer composites
Jitesh Kumar Singh a, b, Arun Kumar Rout a, *, Kanchan Kumari c
a
Department of Production Engineering, Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla, Odisha, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, OP Jindal University, Raigarh, C.G., India
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Parala Maharaja Engineering College, Odisha, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Natural fiber composites play an important role for developing high performance engineering materials due to its
Borassus flabellifer fiber facile availability, recyclability and eco-friendly nature. Borassus flabellifer products are significant and
Composites economical for urban and rural areas, and its fruit, leaf stalk and leaves are used in domestic purposes and some
Coupling agent
of them are disposed as waste. This waste part of Borassus flabellifer serves as a potential resource for natural
Polymer
Surface morphology
fibers and utilized as raw material for reinforced polymer composites. The aim of this article narrates a
comprehensive overview of Borassus fibers and its composites. Alkali treatment techniques, different fabrication
methods, preparation of different matrices reinforced with bio-fibers and chemical, mechanical, thermal,
morphological properties of Borassus fibers and its composites have been studied. Overall, this review article
highlights, investigates and identifies gaps of the earlier research work, and provides the resourceful data for
future work in various streams with Borassus fiber as reinforcement.
1. Introduction materials reduces the dependency on synthetic fibers (Senthamar

aikannan & Kathiresan, 2018; Yashas Gowda et al., 2018). Natural fibers
Natural fiber plays an important role for developing green compos which are extracted from the different parts of the plant such as fruits
ites which helps to solve the ecological and environmental problems. At (Obi Reddy, Uma Maheswari, Shukla, Song, & Varada Rajulu, 2013),
present, the whole world is facing challenges to reduce the plastic usage stem (Indran & Edwin Raj, 2015), stalk (Balakrishna, Rao, & Rakesh,
because of their non- biodegradable material properties (Kabir, Wang, 2013), root (Moshi et al., 2020) and leaf (Kocak & Mistik, 2015) consist
Lau, & Cardona, 2012). Use of synthetic fiber reinforced plastics is of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and have hydrophilic nature that re
harmful to human beings and the environment. Natural fibers and duces the bonding strength between the fibers and matrices (Marathe,
bio-waste utilization are the best way to reduce the use of plastics as they Arun Torris, Ramesh, & Badiger, 2019). The factors affecting the per
are easily available, recyclable and have eco-friendly nature (Pickering, formance of natural fibers are the fibers strength, fibers orientation, fi
Efendy, & Le, 2016; Sanjay et al., 2018). Fiber crops can be developed bers extraction methods and fiber treatment methods. Surface treatment
with variation of fibers to fulfill the needs of the society. It reduces the of fibers improves the surface roughness of fibers that improves the
dependency on chemical and petroleum products and improves the fiber-matrix bonding of composites (Pickering et al., 2016; Senthamar
healthy environment (Alawar, Hamed, & Al-Kaabi, 2009; Alotaibi et al., aikannan & Kathiresan, 2018).
2019). From the last few decades, the academicians, scientists and in
dustries are continuously developing and improving the new green
composite materials. The growth of demand for green composite
Abbreviations: ASTM, American Standard Testing Methods; ANOVA, Analysis of Variance; BF, Borassus flabellifer; BFF, Borassus fruit fibers; DMA, dynamic me
chanical analysis; FTIR, Fourier Transform Infra-Red; HDP, high density polyethylene; NFC, nanofibrillated cellulose; NMR, nuclear magnetic resonance; P-3-HB,
poly-3-hydroxybutyrate; PE, polyethylene; PP, polypropylene; PCL, polycaprolactone; PHA, polyhydroxyalkanoates; PHB, polyhydroxybutyrate; PLA, polylactic acid;
SEM, Scanning Electron Microscope; TGA, thermo gravimetric analysis; TPPLA, treated powder (Borassus)/ polylactic acid; UPE, unsaturated polyester; XRD, X-ray
diffraction.
* Corresponding author at: Department of Production Engineering, Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla, Odisha, 768018, India.
E-mail address: arun.rout.6314@gmail.com (A.K. Rout).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.117929
Received 10 September 2020; Received in revised form 21 February 2021; Accepted 6 March 2021
Available online 15 March 2021
0144-8617/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J.K. Singh et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 262 (2021) 117929
1.1. Natural fiber composites Borassus akeassii (Ake Assi’s palmyra palm), (iv) Borassus heineanus
(New guinea palmyra palm), (v) Borassus madagascariensis (Madagascar
Natural fibers and its composites have existed in human society from palmyra palm), and (vi) Borassus sambiranensis (Sambirano palmyra
the beginning of modern civilization having various applications due to palm) etc. (Kocak & Mistik, 2015; Morton, 1988; Tambunan, 2010). The
their lower density, higher corrosion resistance, higher strength, high objective of these studies is to know the morphology, chemical
modulus, low maintenance, biodegradable characteristics and eco- composition and physical properties of Borassus fibers, and under
friendly nature as compared to synthetic fibers (Akil et al., 2011; Bis standing the structural properties of Borassus fiber composites for in
marck, Mishra, & Lampke, 2005; Mann, Singh, Kumar, & Singh, 2018; dustrial applications.
Nirmal, Hashim, & Megat Ahmad, 2015). Natural fiber-reinforced
composites can be produced by adding the natural fiber with polymer 1.3.1. Borassus flabellifer
which provides high strength and stiffness in the form of thermoplastics Borassus flabellifer is widely spread in South Asia. It grows extremely
and thermosetting (Mohammed, Ansari, Pua, Jawaid, & Islam, 2015; slowly and requires 15–20 years to reach maturity and inflorescence
Ramamoorthy, Skrifvars, & Persson, 2015). Natural fibers are used to (Bayton, 2007; Kocak & Mistik, 2015). Borassus flabellifer grows to a
produce composite components in automotive, sports, construction and height upto 20 m having trunk diameter upto 1− 3 meter/s. Its base has
other production industries as renewable reinforced composites (Dong, fringed with long adventitious roots with dense mass and bear narrow
2018; Naveen, Jawaid, Amuthakkannan, & Chandrasekar, 2019; Zhu, petiole scars. It produces one leaf per month and each leaf has divided
Wu, Ye, & Fu, 2017). Properties of fiber reinforced composites are into 60–70 segments and 3 m wide which provides excellent raw ma
dependent on fiber length, fiber treatment, matrix-adhesion and terial for a wide range of commercial applications and use. The length of
dispersion of fiber in matrix (Adeniyi, Onifade, Ighalo, & Adeoye, 2019). petiole is 0.7–1.2 m long which has serrated margins and woody fibers.
The use of chemical treatment (alkali, silane, grafting, acetylation) and The leaf’s laminas are split to half of its radius and have approximately
physical treatment methods (ultraviolet bombardment, cold plasma, 30 induplicate leaflets. The most commonly used Borassus flabellifer are,
corona discharge) reduces the moisture gain and improve the surfaces of corypha umbraculifera or talipot palm, raphia farinifera or raffia palm,
natural fibers (Cheung, Ho, Lau, Cardona, & Hui, 2009; Obi Reddy et al., corypha taliera and sabal maritima (Bayton, 2007; Davis & Johnson,
2013; Thakur, Thakur, & Gupta, 2014). 1987; Morton, 1988; Tambunan, 2010).
1.2. Natural fibers 1.3.2. Cultivation & uses of Borassus flabellifer

Borassus flabellifer is a versatile tree and each part of these trees are
Natural fibers are biodegradable and eco-friendly which are light in beneficial for the mankind. From ancient times the Borassus flabellifer
weight, cheap, corrosion resistance, high strength, non-synthetic, good trees are highly associated with human needs having great economic
thermal insulation, good acoustic properties and can be sourced from and social value. The petiole of Borassus flabellifer is a robust surface
plant (Chandrasekar, Ishak, Sapuan, Leman, & Jawaid, 2017; Thyavi which is rounded with an abaxial surface (Kocak & Mistik, 2015). From
halli Girijappa, Mavinkere Rangappa, Parameswaranpillai, & Siengchin, the past Borassus flabellifer leaves are used for making water tight
2019). It reduces the pollution and increases greenery of the earth and it buckets, hats, fancy boxes and for the strong wiry fiber. The old and
can be grown and harvested after a short period (Adeniyi et al., 2019). mature leaves are used to fashion into twine and for fencing and also
Natural fibers are the profitable material which replaces the synthetic used into the soil as organic manure enrichment. Its tough fibers from
material and gives high specific properties with lower price and easy the forked butt of the petiole have been used for making the brushes and
availability (Faruk, Bledzki, Fink, & Sain, 2012; Fuqua, Huo, & Ulven, brooms (Bayton, 2007; Davis & Johnson, 1987). At present, the fiber
2012). Natural plant fibers which forms from bamboo (Zhang, Huang, which is obtained by scraping young leaves of Borassus flabellifer, are
Yu, & Yu, 2019), jute (Ramakrishnan, Krishnamurthy, Rajasekar, & used in textiles industries, construction field, and production of ropes,
Rajeshkumar, 2019), sugar cane/bagasse (Onésippe et al., 2010), flax shoes and mats. Borassus flabellifer is also used for making sticks, sup
(Jia & Fiedler, 2020), kenaf (Omar, Jaya, & Zulkepli, 2020), sisal porting beams, roof covering, construction of thatched houses, making
(Chaitanya, Singh, & Song, 2019), hemp (Iucolano, Liguori, Aprea, & furniture’s, carpets, baskets, bags and so on. The leaf stalks and trunks
Caputo, 2018), abaca (Cai et al., 2015), ramie (Giridharan, 2018), coir are used as supporting for kutcha houses, pillars, pipes to supply water,
(Haque, Hasan, Islam, & Ali, 2009; Osti De Moraes, Magnabosco, window grills and in boats in coastal regions (Bhaskar, 2017; Kocak &
Bolognesi Donato, Prado Bettini, & Antunes, 2015), cotton (Alomayri, Mistik, 2015; Morton, 1988; Sudhakar et al., 2011). Table 1 shows the
Shaikh, & Low, 2013; Sharma et al., 2020), banana (Mohan & Kanny, various applications of Borassus flabellifer.
2019), pineapple (Todkar & Patil, 2019), henequen/silk (Han, Ahn, &
Cho, 2010), kapok (Mwaikambo, 2000; Prachayawarakorn, Chaiwa
tyothin, Mueangta, & Hanchana, 2013), etc. are, the eco-friendly ma
terials that have better reinforced in polymeric matrices (Lotfi, Li, Dao, Table 1
& Prusty, 2019). Natural fibers have also replaced the conventional Applications of Borassus flabellifer (BF).
material in building construction, medical, automobile, aircraft, elec BF Parts Applications Reference
trical and electronic industries, packaging, office products, recreation name
equipment, sports, ship and boats as an alternative material of glass Stem/Trunk Boat, pillars, water supply pipes, wood (Bayton, 2007)
fiber, steel, timber, concrete and so on (Jawaid & Abdul Khalil, 2011; fuel, supporting beams, making
Mohammed et al., 2015). furniture, charcoal
Leaves Water tight buckets, organic manure, (Davis & Johnson,
twine or rope, caps, hats and fancy 1987)
1.3. Borassus L boxes, shoes and mats, basket, fans,
umbrella, fuels, writing materials
The genus Borassus L. belongs to the palm (Arecaceae) family, is Petiole Brushes, brooms (Kocak & Mistik, 2015;
Tambunan, 2010)
beneficial for human beings and all part of trees are utilized from root to
Stalk Fencing, sticks, roof covering, thatch (Davis & Johnson,
fruits as household furniture, fruits as food and cultural and art goods houses, walking sticks, window grills 1987; Kocak & Mistik,
(Bayton, 2007). It has more than seven species depending on the tree 2015)
structure and tropical zones where they are grown (Davis & Johnson, Fibers (stalk/ Textile industries, construction field, (Kocak & Mistik, 2015;
1987). Some of them are- (i) Borassus flabellifer L. (Lontar, Asian palmyra fruit/ production of ropes, composites Morton, 1988)
leaves) manufacturing
palm, Siwalan, Tal), (ii) Borassus aethiopum (African palmyra palm), (iii)
2
2. Fiber extraction and chemical treatment of Borassus flabellifer immersed the leaf stalk in a water tank for 45 days. After 45 days, leaf
stalks were taken out from the water tank and manually removed sur
In nature, the cellulosic fibers are hydrophilic and their main con plus waste from the fibers by mashing and washing it with water.
stituents are cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin which strongly polar Shanmugam and Thiruchitrambalam (Shanmugam & Thiruchi
ized the hydroxyl groups. They limit the use of natural fibers in trambalam, 2013) extracted the leaf stalk fibers from palmyra palm tree.
industrial application because of moisture absorption from the envi They emerged the thorn out leaf stalk in water for 20 days. After removal
ronment and poor interfacial bonding with hydrophobic polymer- of leaf stalk from water, fibers were extracted from stalk by soft
matrices (Haque, Islam, & Islam, 2012; Sudhakara et al., 2013). hammering, washed it off to remove the impurities from the fiber sur
Chemical treatment of fibers helps to overcome the drawbacks of hy face and then dried it in sunlight to remove the moisture from the fibers.
droxyl bonding and promote better fiber-matrix bonding. Some of the Srinivasababu et al. (Srinivasababu, Suresh Kumar, & Reddy, 2012)
treatments are alkali treatment (mercerization), coupling agent treat extracted the petiole fibers from the palmyra palm tree. They dried the
ment, physical treatment and silane modification. This treatment palmyra palm sprout leaves for twelve months to know the ambient
removes the surface impurities from fiber and makes cleaner and condition & ability of petiole fiber to use as reinforcement for making
rougher surfaces of fibers (Megiatto et al., 2007; Tripathy, Rout, composites.
Mohanty, Misra, & Nayak, 2002).
2.2. Alkaline treatment

2.1. Fiber extraction (fruits, leaf stalk & petiole)
Alkaline treatment of fibers help to overcome hydroxyl bonding,
Reddy et al. (Reddy, Guduri, & Rajulu, 2009) extracted the Borassus promotes better fiber-matrix bonding & removes the surface impurities
fruit fibers from dried fruits. They dipped dried fruits in water for two from fiber (Megiatto et al., 2007; Tripathy et al., 2002). Obi Reddy et al.
weeks and utilized the same after removal of black skin out from the (Obi Reddy et al., 2013) treated the Borassus fruit fibers with 5% sodium
fruits. The coarse and fine fibers were separated and washed with the tap hydroxide solution for 1, 4, 8, and 12 h, washed it with tap water and
water and followed by distilled water and then dried it in the sunlight for dried in an oven for 24 h at 105 ◦ C. They determined the % content of
some days. Then, these fibers were kept in an oven for one day at 105 to cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin by chemical analysis. Boopathi et al.
110OC to remove the moisture from fibers. Boopathi et al. (Boopathi, (Boopathi et al., 2012) treated the Borassus fruit fibers with 5%, 10 %, 15
Sampath, & Mylsamy, 2012) extracted Borassus fibers from matured % in sodium hydroxide solution for half an hour at room temperature,
Borassus flabellifer fruits. They immersed the fruits in water for three neutralized with 2.5 % hydrochloric solution, washed with water and
days and after removal, flushing it for several times in tap water to dried it at room temperature for 24 h. The % of content of the cellulose,
remove the greasy materials. The fibers were taken out from water and hemicellulose and lignin was determined by the chemical analysis.
dried it in the shadow place for some days and again dried it in sunlight Further, Kumar et al. (Kumar et al., 2020) treated the dried Borassus fruit
to remove the moisture content. Dried fibers were rammed to remove fibers with 4, 8 & 12 % sodium hydroxide solution for 8 h at room
the unwanted short and small fibers. Kumar et al. (Kumar, Singh, Deb temperature. The treated fibers were washed with tap water, neutralized
nath, & Kumar, 2020) extracted the Borassus fibers from Borassus fruits with 2% HCl solution and again washed it and dried in sunlight for 72 h
manually. They immersed it in a water tank for seven days, then took out to remove the moisture. Dried fibers were heated at 100 ◦ C for 5 h in an
the fruits from the tank and removed the retted flesh and black skin, oven to remove the moisture. Kini et al. (Kini et al., 2018) treated the
repeated the same procedure for three days and repeatedly washed to Borassus fruit fine fibers with 5% vol. sodium hydroxide solution for 0.5
remove the unwanted materials (flesh) from the fruit fibers. In order to h, 1 h, 2 h, & 4 h to remove the hemicellulose, lignin and wax from the
remove the moisture content, the washed fibers were dried manually in fiber surface. Lastly, the fibers were then washed with tap water &
the sunlight followed up by induction heating in an oven (hot-air) at 100 neutralized it with 2.5 % dilute hydrochloric acid followed by distilled
◦
C for 5 h. water to remove the excess HCl acid. Finally, the fibers were dried for 24
Kini et al. (Kini et al., 2018) extracted the Borassus flabellifer h and kept it in an oven at 50 ◦ C to remove the extra amount of moisture
(palmyra palm) fine fibers from Borassus fruits in the three subsequent content.
steps. First, they immersed the fruit in a water tank for two weeks to Balkrishna et al. (Balakrishna et al., 2013) treated the Borassus fla
loosen the flaccid portion of the fruit fibers. Second, they have taken out bellifer leaf stalk fibers with 5% sodium hydroxide solution. They divided
the fruit from the tank and removed the loosened flaccid portion from the fibers into three groups. The first group was treated for 2 h, the
the fibers. In the third step, they immersed the fine fibers in a distilled second group for 4 h, and the third group was treated for 6 h. After
water-filled tank for two weeks, and then dried it over sunlight for treatment the fibers were washed with distilled water and dried at room
another two days, followed by oven heating at 50 ◦ C for one hour to temperature for 24 h to remove the moisture. Shanmugam and Thir
remove the moisture from the fruit fibers. Fig. 1 shows the image of uchitrambalam (Shanmugam & Thiruchitrambalam, 2013) treated the
Borassus flabellifer tree, Borassus fruits, Borassus fruit raw fine fibers and palmyra palm tree (Borassus flabellifer) leaf stalk fibers in 5% NaOH
Borassus fruits raw coarse fibers respectively. solution for half an hour and neutralized it with dilute HCl solution.
Balkrishna et al. (Balakrishna et al., 2013) extracted the leaf stalk Again, the fibers were washed with distilled water and dried in an oven
fibers from Asian palmyra palm tree (Borassus flabellifer). They at 70 ◦ C to remove the moisture. Srinivasababu et al. (Srinivasababu
Fig. 1. Borassus flabellifer [(a) Tree (b) Fruits (c) Fruit fine fibers (d) Fruit coarse fibers].
3
et al., 2012) treated the palmyra palm tree sprout leaf fibers with sodium hemicellulose and 5–21 % lignin which is shown in Table 2. Cellulose,
hydroxide solution for 12 h and washed with water to remove the excess hemicellulose and lignin are the largest constituents of any plant fibers
chemical solution and dried it and used it as a reinforcement for com (Jones, Ormondroyd, Curling, Popescu, & Popescu, 2017; Obi Reddy
posites. (Marathe et al., 2019) treated the Borassus fruit fiber powder et al., 2013; Sudhakara et al., 2013). Table 2 shows the chemical
(53–88 μm) with 5% sodium hydroxide solution for 8 h to remove the composition of raw Borassus flabellifer fruit fibers as documented by
hemicellulose and lignin to improve the crystallinity and made rough several researchers.
surface of the Borassus powder which develops the interfacial interaction Shanmugam and Thiruchitrambalam (Shanmugam & Thiruchi
between the Borassus powder and polymer. trambalam, 2013) examined the chemical composition of palmyra palm
(Borassus flabellifer) leaf stalk fiber. They reported that the cellulose,
2.3. Uses of coupling & bio-coupling agents hemicellulose, lignin & wax in palmyra palm leaf stalk fibers were 58.58
%, 22.8 %, 13.48 % and 0.35 % respectively.
Coupling agents act as a bridge between natural fibers and polymers
to improve their bonding (Ngo, 2018). Uses of coupling agents are one of 3.2. Physical and mechanical properties
the best methods to improve the physical and mechanical properties of
the composites which was proved by several researchers (Rocha & Rosa, The physical properties of fibers show the density, diameter and
2019). The use of coupling agents such as maleic anhydride grafted high weight gain by water absorption while the mechanical properties show
density polyethylene (MAPP) (Maheswari, Reddy, Muzenda, Shukla, & impact strength, tensile and flexural strengths (Adeniyi et al., 2019).
Rajulu, 2013), 3-amino propyltriethoxy silane (Reddy et al., 2015), Borassus fruit fibers had density 1.256 g/cc, diameter 140–280 μm,
silane (Siakeng, Jawaid, Ariffin, & Salit, 2018) have improved the tensile strength 50–120 MPa, young’s modulus 1.21–10.8 GPa and %
fiber-matrix interfacial adhesion. These coupling agents are easily elongation 31–47 at breaking point which is shown in Table 3. The
combined with alkali treated fibers. Maheswari et al. (Maheswari et al., properties of Borassus fruit fibers may depend on the source of fiber,
2013) used the maleic anhydride grafted high density polyethylene extraction methods and chemical treatment methods (Obi Reddy et al.,
(MA-g-HDPE) as a coupling agent with high density polyethylene to 2013). Boopathi et al. (Boopathi et al., 2012) investigated the density of
obtain the effective adhesion in between Borassus fruit fine fibers and Borassus fruit fibers is improved by alkali treatment and could be used as
noted that the interfacial bonding and thermal stability of composites reinforcement for making of the composite structure. They reported that
were improved. Reddy et al. (Reddy et al., 2015) showed that the use of the diameter of Borassus fruit fibers has been decreased with an increase
a coupling agent (3-amino propyltriethoxy silane) with alkali treated of alkali treatment percentages due to the removal of impurities from
Borassus fruit fibers enhanced the fiber-matrix interfacial adhesion. fiber surface. Shanmugam and Thiruchitrambalam (Shanmugam &
However, coupling agents are costly and toxic. So, many researchers are Thiruchitrambalam, 2013) examined the physical and mechanical
trying to find the bio-coupling agent to reduce the cost of natural fiber properties of palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer) leaf stalk fiber. They
polymer composites (Younesi-Kordkheili & Pizzi, 2020). found that the density, diameter, tensile strength, young modulus and
strain at break of palmyra palm leaf stalk fiber is 1.2 g/c3, 310 μm, 276
MPa, 8.9 GPa & 3.08 % respectively. Table 3 shows the physical and
3. Properties and characteristics of Borassus flabellifer fibers
mechanical properties of Borassus flabellifer fruit fibers in the term of %
elongation, tensile modulus and tensile strength as examined by several
In nature, the cellulosic fibers are hydrophilic and their main con
researchers.
stituents are cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Physical treatment
improves the wettability and interfacial strength of fibers which occurs
3.3. Surface morphology
by means of mechanical interlocking, chemical bonding, electrostatic
bonding and interdiffusion bonding where the mechanical interlocking
The surface morphology analysis can be carried out by Scanning
occurs when the fiber surface is rough and it improves the interfacial
Electron Microscope (SEM). After alkali treatment, the surface
shear strength (Nirmal et al., 2015; Pickering et al., 2016). In this section
morphology of fibers has shown the significant changes occurred on the
the chemical, physical, mechanical, thermal and surface morphology of
surface of Borassus fruit fibers. The fiber surfaces have gold coated
Borassus flabellifer fibers (fruit, leaf stalk) will be discussed.
before recording the micrographs (Madhua et al., 2020; Obi Reddy et al.,
2013; Reddy et al., 2009). Obi Reddy et al. (Obi Reddy et al., 2013)
3.1. Chemical composition examined the surface morphology of Borassus fruit fibers. They show
that the SEM images of untreated raw Borassus fruit fibers surfaces were
The chemical composition of Borassus fruit fibers has been estimated smooth, compact and no fibrillation whereas, alkali treated fibers have
by chemical analysis. Untreated Borassus fruit fibers indicate the pres distinguished surface roughness and fibrils over the fiber surface which
ence of hemicellulose, lignin and cellulose. Raw Borassus fruit fiber has increased the adhesion at the fiber-matrix interface in composites. Obi
cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and some other contents. The average Reddy et al. (Obi Reddy et al., 2017) examined the SEM analysis of
Borassus fruit fibers have ranged from 45 to 70 % cellulose, 14–32% Borassus fruit fibers and noted that the removal of hemicellulose & im
purities from fiber has improved the interaction between the Borassus
Table 2 fruit fibers and the polymer matrices due to improvement of rough
Chemical composition of Borassus flabellifer fruit fibers. surfaces.
Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Wax Moisture Reference(s) Boopathi et al. (Boopathi et al., 2012) investigated the surface
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) morphology of Borassus fruit fibers. They showed that the SEM images of
68.94 14.03 5.37 0.64 6.83 (Boopathi Borassus fruit fibers have multi cellular structure and alkali treated fibers
et al., 2012) were smoother than raw fibers. Obi Reddy et al. (Obi Reddy et al., 2017)
53.4 29.6 17 – – (Obi Reddy examined the morphology of Borassus fruit raw fibers, their (SEM) im
et al., 2013; ages, cross-section of raw fiber and found that the shape of Borassus fruit
Reddy et al.,
2009)
fiber was in cylindrical shape and average diameter approximately of
45.67 32.76 21.53 – – (Reddy et al., 140 μm (Fig. 2).
2009)
70 14 11 – – (Marathe et al.,
2019)
4
Table 3
Physical and mechanical properties of Borassus flabellifer fruit fibers.
Density (g/cc) Diameter (μm) Tensile Strength (MPa) Young Modulus (GPa) % Elongation Reference
Raw Alkali Treated Raw Alkali Treated Raw Alkali Treated Raw Alkali Treated Raw Alkali Treated
– – 280 – 50.9 53.5 1.21 1.63 41.2 41.9 (Maheswari et al., 2013; Reddy et al., 2009)
– – – – 65.2 90.7 4.9 9.87 47.2 58.5 (Reddy et al., 2009; Sudhakara et al., 2013)
1.25 1.31 241 169.5 118 175.5 – – 31.3 35.83 (Boopathi et al., 2012)
– – 140 112 70.8 121.3 10.8 35.2 34.8 58.1 (Obi Reddy et al., 2013)
140 90 70.8 100.1 10.8 25.7 34.8 41.6 (Obi Reddy et al., 2012)
Fig. 2. SEM Image of Borassus fruit fiber (a) Raw fiber (b) Cross section of raw fiber. [Adapted from Obi Reddy et al. (2017). Carbohydrate Polymers, 160, 203–211.]
(Obi Reddy et al., 2017).
3.4. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy fiber spectrum showed the presence of cellulose, hemicellulose and
lignin content in fiber. However, after analysis of alkali treated fiber
The NMR spectroscopy is used to determine the molecular structural spectrum of extracted cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin showed the
analysis and purity of organic compounds which is based on absorption removal of hemicellulose and lignin. Fig. 3 showed the NMR spectra of
& emission of energy of electromagnetic spectrum by radio frequency Borassus fruit raw fiber, and extracted and regenerated cellulose
range (Parlak & Guzeler, 2016). Reddy et al. (Reddy et al., 2009) used whereas’, C1-C6 are the carbon groups (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin)
the 13C NMR (CP-MAS) spectroscopy to find the molecular structure and at various signals pulse-position modulation (ppm).
to confirm the changes of alkali treated Borassus fruit fibers. They noted
that the alkali treated fibers at fixed operating frequency range and the
different speeds have shown a broad peak with moderate intensity. He 3.5. FTIR spectroscopy
examined the alkali treated coarse and fine Borassus fruit fibers and
showed the presence of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in fiber. The Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectroscopy (FTIR) spectroscopy is
spectral features indicated that the chemical treatment affects only the used to investigate the composition of samples. The functional group
hemicellulose component whereas’, cellulose and lignin components analysis of Borassus fruit fibers can be determined by using an FTIR
were unaffected. Obi Reddy et al. (Obi Reddy et al., 2017) examined the machine by attenuated total reflection (ATR) method. Cellulose, hemi
solid state 13C NMR spectra of Borassus fruit raw fiber and their regen cellulose and lignin contents in Borassus fruit fibers have several func
erated extracted cellulose, to investigate and analyze the structural tional groups such as hydroxyl (O–H), carboxyl (C–H), carbonyl
difference of regenerated and extracted cellulose. He noted that the raw (CO–– ), methyl groups (CH2 & CH3). The functional groups can be
altered by fiber treatment and can be reduced the hemicellulose & lignin
Fig. 3. 13C NMR spectra of Borassus fruit raw fiber, extracted and regenerated cellulose. [Adapted from Obi Reddy et al. (2017). Carbohydrate Polymers, 160,
203–211.] (Obi Reddy et al., 2017).
5
content from Borassus fruit fibers (Reddy et al., 2009). Several re
searchers have examined the functional group analysis of Borassus fruit
fibers. Obi Reddy et al. (Obi Reddy, Shukla, Uma Maheswari, & Varada
Rajulu, 2012) examined the functional group analysis of Borassus fruit
fine fibers (untreated and alkali treated) using FTIR analysis and found
the reduction of hemicellulose content in alkali treated fiber. Boopathi
et al. (Boopathi et al., 2012) studied the functional group analysis of
Borassus fruit fibers (5%, 10 % & 15 % alkali treated) by using FTIR
analysis and visualized that the surface impurities were removed and the
surface area of alkali treated fiber was improved for better interfacial
characteristics. Marathe et al. (Marathe et al., 2019) investigated the
FTIR spectra of untreated and alkali treated Borassus powder and noted
that hemicellulose content was removed by alkali treatment. Obi Reddy
et al. (Obi Reddy et al., 2013) analyzed the functional group of Borassus Fig. 5. X-ray diffraction spectra of Borassus flabellifer leaf stalk fiber (a) Raw (b)
fruit fine fiber with 5% alkali treated (for 1, 4, 8 & 12 h) by FTIR analysis Alkali treated (c) Bleached (d) Nanofibrillated cellulose. [Adapted from Athi
and found that 8 h chemical treated fiber has improved structure due to narayanan et al. (2020). Carbohydrate Polymers, 235, 115961.] (Athinarayanan
the removal of hemicellulose and lignin content which is shown in Fig. 4. et al., 2020).
3.6. XRD analysis 3.7. Thermogravimetric analysis
X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis is a method to determine the The thermal stability of a material can be inspected by using Thermo-
microstructural analysis and identification of crystallinity of materials, Gravimetric Analysis (TGA). TGA provides information by measuring
orientation of polymer and recognizance of the crystalline phase (Inan, the weight loss of samples. Thermal stability of fiber denotes the highest
2017). Reddy et al. (Reddy et al., 2009) noted that the intensity of sustaining temperature where the fiber can resist decomposition. Ther
crystalline peak of Borassus fiber (alkali treated) is higher than the raw mal degradation of fiber is related to decomposition of cellulose,
fiber (untreated). He examined that the crystalline index of alkali hemicellulose, lignin, pectin contents of fibers (Adeniyi et al., 2019;
treated fiber is higher than the untreated fiber due to removal of Moriana, Vilaplana, Karlsson, & Ribes, 2014). Obi Reddy et al. (Obi
amorphous hemicellulose from Borassus fibers. Obi Reddy et al. (Obi Reddy et al., 2013) showed that the Borassus fibers decompose in three
Reddy et al., 2013) investigated the XRD analysis of different periods of stages which indicate the three different constituents. Small weight loss
alkali treated Borassus fruit fibers and noted that the alkali treatment of the first decomposition was found at 70− 100 ◦ C due to moisture loss.
changes the fiber composition of the cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, The second decomposition was found at temperature 220− 300 ◦ C which
and reduces the hemicellulose content from the fibers. He proved that indicated the loss of hemicellulose and a small part of lignin and the
the increases of duration of alkali treatment improves the cellulose and third decomposition was observed at 300− 400 ◦ C which indicate the
lignin content and reduces the hemicellulose content from Borassus fi loss of cellulose. The lignin was decomposed starting from 200 ◦ C and
bers. Athinarayanan et al. (Athinarayanan, Alshatwi, & Subbarayan going upto 700 ◦ C. According to Obi Reddy et al. (Obi Reddy et al.,
Periasamy, 2020) examined the XRD analysis of Borassus flabellifer leaf 2017), thermogravimetric analysis was executed to relate the dissimi
stalk fiber (raw & alkali treated) and noted that the alkali treatment has larities in thermal degradation of Borassus fruit raw fiber, extracted
affected the crystalline structure (amorphous regions) of Borassus fla cellulose and regenerated cellulose films. They noted that the thermal
bellifer leaf stalk fiber and intensity of crystalline peak of alkali treated degradation of cellulosic material occurred in the range of 290− 420 ◦ C
fiber is higher than the untreated fiber. Fig. 5 showed the XRD spectra of and 270− 400 ◦ C for extracted cellulose and regenerated cellulose
Borassus flabellifer leaf stalk fiber of raw, alkali treated, bleached, and respectively. For Borassus fruit raw fiber, the thermal degradation
NFC cellulose. occurred at 220− 340 ◦ C and 340− 410 ◦ C due to thermal-oxidative
degradation of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. They noted that the
maximum degradation was found at 379 ◦ C for Borassus fruit raw fiber,
394 ◦ C for extracted cellulose, 368 ◦ C for regenerative cellulose film
respectively which was shown in Fig. 6.
4. Preparation of Borassus flabellifer fiber composites
The fabrication process is strongly influenced by the chemical

properties of the matrix. The manufacturing technology of thermoset
composite is much more mature than the thermoplastic composites.
Physical size, component geometry, and complexity of the design may
dictate the method of manufacturing (S & Hiremath, 2020; Venezuela &
Dargusch, 2019).
4.1. Uses of polymers and biopolymers
For the preparation of Borassus fruit fiber composites, polymers and

biopolymers are used as matrix martial by researchers to bind the fibers
together. The polymer is a long chain molecule containing one or more
repeating units of atoms & joined together by strong covalent bonds.
Polymers are divided into two groups namely thermoplastic & thermoset
Fig. 4. FTIR spectra of untreated and alkali treated Borassus fruit fine fibers. polymers which are matrix materials for composite. In thermoplastic
[Adapted from Obi Reddy et al. (2013). Composites Part B: Engineering, 44(1), polymer, the individual molecules are joined by intermolecular forces
433–438.] (Obi Reddy et al., 2013). and in thermoset polymer, the molecules are chemically joined together
6
Fig. 6. (a) Primary Thermograms of Borassus fruit raw fiber, extracted cellulose & regenerated cellulose film (b) Derivative Thermograms of Borassus fruit raw fiber,
extracted cellulose and regenerated cellulose film. [Adapted from Obi Reddy et al. (2017). Carbohydrate Polymers, 160, 203–211.] (Obi Reddy et al., 2017).
by cross-linked structures. The common polymers are polypropylene 4.2.1. Open moulding
(PP), polyethylene (PE), poly vinyl chloride, epoxy, polyester, poly Open moulding is used to make thermoset products and composites.
urethane, phenol-formaldehyde etc. (Guo, Ruan, Shi, Yang, & Gu, 2020; In this process, the gel coat is reinforced to mold the surface preparation
Nabi Saheb & Jog, 1999). Sudhakara et al. (Sudhakara et al., 2013) used and followed by manual or spray up process onto the previously gel
the polypropylene (PP) matrix to effective addition with Borassus fruit coated surface. Additional layers have been added to improve the
fibers to achieve the composites with enhanced properties. Maheswari strength as desired and then air is rolled out from the laminates by hand
et al. (Maheswari et al., 2013) used the high density polyethylene roller and left off for curing off that mould. This process is flexible for all
(HDPE) thermoplastic polymer as a matrix with Borassus fruit fine fibers composite fabrication and also used for large size products which could
to prepare the composites. Many researchers used the epoxy & polyester not be produced through automated processes (S & Hiremath, 2020;
polymer as matrix with Borassus fibers for fabricating the composites Shanmugam et al., 2016).
(Balakrishna et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2020; Reddy, Shukla, Maheswari, In open moulding, generally, the hand lay-up process is used. In this
& Rajulu, 2012, 2015; Shanmugam, Thiruchitrambalam, & Thirumur process, a mould release agent is applied onto the mould surface for ease
ugan, 2016; Srinivasababu, Kumar, & Reddy, 2014). Now, many re of removal of finished composite product. The composites are prepared
searchers are also using biopolymers because of their biodegradable by placing the fiber reinforced with resin in a mould. For consolidating
nature and low cost. Biopolymers are achieved from natural resources the composites, a roller is used and the composites are made layer by
which consist monomer units and contain covalent bonds as large layer. A chemical reaction is initiated in the resin by a catalytic agent
structures. Biopolymers can be thermoplastic, thermoset and elastomer which causes hardening to a final finished product. Hand lay-up tech
which are used in automotive, food packing, agriculture & medical fields niques are used where the production volume of the composite is low
(George et al., 2020). The common biopolymers are polycaprolactone (Rajak, Pagar, Kumar, & Pruncu, 2019). Many researchers (Kumar et al.,
(PCL), Polylactic acid (PLA), poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (P-3-HB), poly 2020; Marathe et al., 2019; Reddy et al., 2012, 2015; Srinivasababu
hydroxybutyrate (PHB), Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) etc. (Ngo, 2018). et al., 2014) have executed this technique in the fabrication of Borassus
Marathe et al. (Marathe et al., 2019) used the PLA powder as a fiber reinforced polymer composites.
bio-polymer matrix with Borassus powder to prepare the composite and
got the good mechanical and crystallization characteristics of compos 4.2.2. Extrusion
ites. Sarasini et al. (Sarasini et al., 2017) used the polycaprolactone This process is carried out by a screw extruder with the desired
(PCL) pallets as a bio-polymer matrix with Borassus fibers to prepare the extruder speed. In these methods the granules are compounded with
low-cost Borassus fibers composites. Obi Reddy et al. (Obi Reddy et al., natural fibers and matrices are fed into the heated extruder and mixed to
2017) used the chemical treatment process to obtain the cellulose from obtain a homogeneous mixture by using a screw. After extrusion, the
Borassus fruit raw fibers and again used this cellulose to prepare the extruded composites are cooled to form the desired shape through a die
cellulose film by chemical methods named regenerated cellulose which of defined cross section to fabricate the plates, profiles and long com
were used as green solvent for making of biodegradable polymer posite rods (Balla et al., 2019). This process has been used for fabrication
(polyethylene and polypropylene). of thermoplastic composites. It has been used by several researchers to
fabricate the fiber reinforced composites. This process gives an
4.2. Fabrication methods improvement in impact strength, stiffness, and strength to fiber rein
forced composites (Qaiss, Bouhfid, & Essabir, 2015). Several researchers
The methods used for fabrication of natural fiber polymer composites have used this technology to produce the Borassus flabellifer fiber rein
are the extrusion moulding, open moulding, injection moulding, and forced composites (Maheswari et al., 2013; Marathe et al., 2019; Sar
compression moulding (Marathe et al., 2019; Sudhakara et al., 2013). asini et al., 2017; Sudhakara et al., 2013).
Some conventional methods such as hand lay-up, extrusion, and injec
tion moulding are used in the incorporation of short fiber reinforced 4.2.3. Injection moulding
polymer composites. Some common methods are reported by S and Injection moulding is also used as one of the techniques in produc
Hiremath (S & Hiremath, 2020). tion of Borassus fiber, short fiber, powder, and fiber particles reinforced
composites (Maheswari et al., 2013; Sarasini et al., 2017; Sudhakara
et al., 2013). In this process, a compound in the form of granules is
7
prepared using twin screw extruders. Then the granules are fed inside possess feasible methods which will attract the researchers in the com
the mould through a hopper and a heated barrel. The shearing action of ing years also. Table 4 shows the treatment and preparation methods of
a reciprocating screw and heating process take place in the heated barrel Borassus flabellifer fruit fiber and leaf stalk fiber composites.
resulted the injection moulding compound to be melted. Then the
molten composites are injected into the mould to form a composite 6. Properties and analysis of Borassus flabellifer fiber composites
parts, and after curing the composite parts are ejected from the mould
(Qaiss et al., 2015; Sapuan & Yusoff, 2015). 6.1. Mechanical properties
4.2.4. Compression moulding The performance and mechanical strength of natural fiber compos
Compression moulding methods are of two types, first cold ites are dependent on the fiber concentration, fiber length, fiber-matrix
compression moulding and second hot compression moulding. In this bonding, fiber strength and fiber orientation. Mechanical tests are based
process, for thermal setting, moulding compound is used. In cold on the American Standard Testing Methods (ASTM). Common me
compression moulding, the curing method is taken place at room tem chanical tests are impact test, tensile test, and flexural test which were
perature by cross linking of the polymer chains through chemical pro performed according to standards ASTM D790, ASTM D638, ASTM
cess and in hot compression moulding, a process is occurred by applying D256 respectively (Kumar et al., 2020). Tensile strength draws conclu
heat to the mould and transferred to composites. Compression moulding sions as tensile strength index and used as the indication of service
is a high pressure, high volume molding process which is suggested for ability, dynamic stress and potential resistance of fiber reinforced
the thermoplastic moulding due to its low cost and uniform dimensional composites (Bajpai, 2018; Sanjay et al., 2018). The shear strength of
accuracy (Wang, Zheng, & Zheng, 2011; Zin et al., 2016). Researchers composites reflects the load transfer between fiber and resin and is
have also used this process for fabrication of Borassus flabellifer fiber responsible for the mechanical properties of composites (Yang & Liu,
reinforced composites (Srinivasababu et al., 2014). 2015). The Elastic modulus measures the resistance of composite to
being deformed elastically in the elastic region of composites (Gassan,
5. Evaluation of fabrication techniques reported for Borassus Chate, & Bledzki, 2001). By hybridization of fibers, mechanical prop
flabellifer fiber composites erties of natural fiber reinforced composites can be improved (Kumar
et al., 2020; Maheswari et al., 2013; Marathe et al., 2019; Reddy et al.,
The Table 4 narrates an overview of the production and treatment of 2012, 2015; Sudhakara et al., 2013). Balakrishna et al. (Balakrishna
Borassus flabellifer fruit fiber and leaf stalk fiber reinforced polymer et al., 2013) examined the 5% NaOH treated Borassus flabellifer leaf stalk
composites as studied by several researchers. From the table, it revealed fiber/epoxy (40:60) composites and noted that as per ASTM D3039
that the sodium hydroxide is used as common alkali agent to improve standard, the tensile strength & elongation (%) of composites were
the adhesion properties of fibers-matrix. The commonly used fabrication 27.28 MPa & 10.23 respectively. For improving the strength of Borassus
methods are hand lay-up injection moulding, compression moulding and fiber reinforced polymer composites, it is necessary to improve the
extrusions methods (S & Hiremath, 2020). This process has minimized tensile strength, shear strengths and elastic modulus of composites.
the dimensional problems associated with composite production and Table 5 shows the mechanical properties of Borassus fruit fiber com
posites reliably which depends on the fiber content of the composites
and on the matrix being used.
Table 4
Treatment and preparation of Borassus flabellifer fruit fiber & leaf stalk fiber 6.2. Water absorption properties
composites.
Borassus fiber/Resin Treatment Fabrication Reference The amount of water absorbed by the composites under some specific
process condition is known as water absorption properties of composites. ASTM
Borassus fruit fiber/ – Single screw (Maheswari D570-95 are used for water absorption tests whose property depends on
HDPE extrusion & et al., 2013) temperature, additives used, density, void content of the composites and
Injection
matrix used during the composites preparation (Megiatto et al., 2007;
Moulding
Borassus fruit fine 4% NaOH at Twin screw (Sudhakara Sudhakara et al., 2013). Sudhakara et al. (Sudhakara et al., 2013)
fiber/ Polypropylene room temp. extrusion & et al., 2013) examined the formulated composites of Borassus fruit fiber water ab
for 5 h Injection sorption characteristics. In this process they used the three dried samples
Moulding with different fiber composition in an oven at 50 ◦ C and cooled it at
Borassus fruit fine 5% NaOH at Hand Lay-up (Reddy et al.,
room temperature, after that, they immersed these samples in distilled
fiber/Epoxy 30 ◦ C for 8 h Process 2015)
Borassus fruit fiber 5% NaOH at Twin screw (Marathe et al., water for 24 h, taken out from water and removed unwanted water from
powder/Polylactice room temp. extrusion & Hang 2019) sample surfaces with the help of dry cloth and weighed. After testing,
acid (PLA) Pallets for 8 h Lay-up Process they found that the water absorption capacity of Borassus fruit fiber/PP
Borassus fruit fiber/ 5 wt% NaOH Twin screw (Sarasini et al.,
composites increases with the increase of fiber (%) in polypropylene
Polycaprolactone at room temp. extrusion & 2017)
(PCL) for 4 h Injection composites. Kumar et al. (Kumar et al., 2020) noted that the water ab
Moulding sorption properties of alkali treated Borassus fiber composites has
Borassus flabellifer (0.625 M) Hand Lay-Up & (Srinivasababu initially increased and after that decreased and maximum water ab
petiole fiber/ NaOH at room Compression et al., 2014) sorption property was observed when the specimens were treated with
Polyester temp. for 12 h Moulding
8% NaOH.
Borassus fruit fiber/ 4− 12% NaOH Hand Lay-Up (Kumar et al.,
Epoxy at 18 ◦ C for 8 h Method 2020)
Borassus fruit fine 5% NaOH at Hand Lay-Up (Reddy et al., 6.3. Wear behaviour
fiber/ Polyester room temp for Method 2012)
30 min
Wear behaviour of natural fiber composites depends on the dynamics
Borassus leaf stalk 5% NaOH at Hand Lay-Up (Balakrishna
fiber/ Epoxy room temp for Method et al., 2013) such as using methods and operating parameters (Sabeel Ahmed, Khalid,
2− 6 h Mallinatha, & Amith Kumar, 2012). Shanmugam et al. (Shanmugam
Borassus leaf stalk 5% NaOH at Open Moulding (Shanmugam et al., 2016) examined the wear behaviour of palmyra palm (Borassus
fiber/ Polyester room temp for Method et al., 2016) flabellifer) leaf stalk fiber reinforced composites as per the ASTM G99
30 min
standard and reported that the coefficient of friction and wear loss
8
Table 5
Mechanical properties of Borassus fruit fiber (BFF) composites.
Composites Fiber content Impact strength Flexural Tensile strength Young’s modulus Water absorption Elongation at Reference
(wt.%) (J/m) strength (MPa) (GPa) (%) break (%)
(MPa)
BFF/PP 15 28.61 45.34 29.29 2.584 0.61% – (Sudhakara et al.,

2013)
TPPLA 15 – – 50 3.1 – 6.6 (Marathe et al.,
2019)
BFF/HDP 10 85.6 17.7 20.9 – – – (Maheswari et al.,
2013)
BFF/Epoxy 16 – – 52.9 3.34 – – (Reddy et al.,
2015)
BFF/Epoxy 15 – 35.4 24.4 2.06 5.44 (Kumar et al.,
2020)
BFF/UPE 16 – – 34 2.52 – 1.88 (Reddy et al.,
2012)
reduced due to reinforcement of palmyra palm leaf stalk fibers. At high stability by measuring weight loss of samples. By TGA analysis of Bor
load with high speed condition the coefficient of friction and wear loss assus fibers, Sudhakara et al. (Sudhakara et al., 2013) reported that the
have reduced and it is shown that the good fiber matrix adhesion has removal of hemicellulose and moisture from the Borassus fibers show the
improved the wear performance of the composites. They also reported weight loss with the increases of temperature. Marathe et al. (Marathe
that the increase in speed, load, and sliding velocity has minimal effect et al., 2019) analyzed the thermal properties of Borassus powder/PLA
on the wear behaviour of composites. composites by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and reported
that the degree of crystallinity of composites could significantly be
6.4. Structural analysis increased and rate of crystallization of alkali treated borassus powder
(provides more sites for crystallization of polymer matrix) composites
The best way to analyze the structure of natural fiber reinforced were faster as compared to the untreated Borassus powder. Sarasini et al.
polymer composites is scanning electron microscopes (SEM) (Rahman, (Sarasini et al., 2017) reported the ability of crystallization, which could
Parvin, Hasan, & Hoque, 2015). It has been seen that the untreated fiber be enhanced by combining natural fibers (Borassus) with poly
gives poor fiber adhesion with composite reinforcement. The poor caprolactone (PCL) bio-based composites.
fiber/matrix adhesion reduces the interfacial bonding between matrix
and fiber, resulting in poor mechanical properties of composites 7. Effect of composite parameters on their properties
(Maheswari et al., 2013; Sarasini et al., 2017). Marathe et al. (Marathe
et al., 2019) reported that the alkali treated Borassus fruit powder The composite parameters have been dependent on the fiber treat
increased the crystallinity of the composites and enhanced the interac ment, fiber content, dispersion of fibers in matrix, composite prepara
tion between the Borassus fruit powder and polymer. Further from SEM tion techniques, fiber length, fiber matrix interfacial wetting and
analysis, Reddy et al. (Reddy et al., 2012) examined the morphology of properties of the polymer matrices (Reddy et al., 2012; Sarasini et al.,
Borassus fruit fiber reinforced composites using SEM analysis. They 2017). Many researchers had investigated all these parameters and
examined that the interfacial bonding between reinforcement and ma well-read their effect on the thermal, mechanical, structural, and
trix be improved by surface modification of fibers. Sudhakara et al. physical properties of Borassus flabellifer fruit fiber reinforced poly
(Sudhakara et al., 2013) reported through SEM analysis of Borassus fruit mer/epoxy composites. It has been seen from the Table 6 that the
fiber composites and derived that the poor fiber dilation and heap common factors studied are the treatment of the fiber loading. The
decreased the mechanical properties of fiber composites, while adhesion various characteristics of Borassus fiber i.e. the fiber diameter and the
between fiber and matrix make it strong. Fig. 7 shows the SEM micro structures have also affected the properties of composites. Sudhakara
graphs of tensile fractured interface analysis of Borassus fruit fiber et al. (Sudhakara et al., 2013) examined the effect of polypropylene
reinforced composites. epoxy with Borassus fruit fiber and found that the mechanical properties
of composites enhanced with increase of fiber content up to 15 wt.%/PP
6.5. Thermal stability analysis composites. Marathe et al. (Marathe et al., 2019) noted that the overall
performance of the composites was good at low content of Borassus fruit
Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) is used to find out the thermal fiber, compared to the PLA-fiber composites for wide application.
properties of natural fiber composites (Rahman et al., 2015). TGA pro Maheswari et al. (Maheswari et al., 2013) observed that the thermal
vides information related to degradation mechanism and thermal stability of composites was found better than that of Borassus fibers and
Fig. 7. SEM micrographs of tensile fractured Borassus fruit fiber [BFF (a) 10, (b) 15, (c) 20 wt.%/PP] composites. [Adapted from Sudhakara et al. (2013). Carbo
hydrate Polymers, 98(1), 1002–1010.] (Sudhakara et al., 2013).
9
Table 6 composites and reported that the mechanical properties of composites

Factors affecting the properties of Borassus flabellifer fiber polymer composites. have improved, and proved that the composites design can be optimized
Matrix Parameter Properties Reference based on the need of the consumers. Obi Reddy et al. (Obi Reddy et al.,
2017) studied that the cellulose which forms from Borassus fruit raw
Polypropylene (PP) Surface Mechanical, (Sudhakara
treatment, Morphological, et al., 2013) fibers can be used as a green solvent to produce film based natural plant
Fiber Loading Water absorption cellulose for industrial application. Graupner et al. (Graupner, Narkpi
Polylactic acid Alkali Mechanical, (Marathe et al., ban, Poonsawat, Tooptompong, & Müssig, 2019) noted that toddy palm
(PLA) treatment, Crystallization, 2019) (Borassus flabellifer) fiber reinforced composite can be used for the
Fiber Loading Morphological,
Thermal
production of sustainable composites with lightweight materials. Athi
High-Density Fiber loading Mechanical, (Maheswari narayanan et al. (Athinarayanan et al., 2020) investigated the Borassus
Polyethylene Morphological. et al., 2013) flabellifer leaf stalk waste can be used for nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC)
(HDPE) Thermal fabrication, and NFC-based film may be provided an appropriate envi
Epoxy Alkali Chemical, (Reddy et al.,
ronment for stem cell differentiation and proliferation which can be
treatment, Mechanical, 2015)
Silane Morphological used in various biological fields. Fig. 8 showed the tensile, flexural and
treatment, impact strength (potential) of different natural fiber reinforced polymer
Fiber loading composites with Borassus fiber respectively where, Fig. 8(a) shows that
Polycaprolactone Fiber loading Mechanical, (Sarasini et al., the tensile strength of Borassus fiber with other natural fibers and has
(PCL) Thermal, 2017)
Morphological,
compared that the tensile strength of Borassus fiber is higher as
Biodegradable compared to coir fiber but less than from the jute, kenaf, abaca, flax and
Polyester Fiber Mechanical, (Srinivasababu sisal fiber respectively (Sudhakara et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2020;
treatment, Morphological et al., 2014) Reddy et al., 2012; Hasan, Hoque, Mir, Saba, & Sapuan, 2015; Shubhra,
Fiber loading
Alam, & Quaiyyum, 2013; Suharty, Ismail, Diharjo, Handayani, & Fir
Epoxy Alkali Mechanical, (Kumar et al.,
treatment, Morphological, 2020) daus, 2016; Punyamurthy, Sampathkumar, Ranganagowda, Bennehalli,
Fiber Loading Water absorption & Srinivasa, 2017; Wu, Lai, & Wang, 2016; Ibrahim, Jamiru, Sadiku,
Unsaturated Alkali Mechanical, (Reddy et al., Kupolati, & Agwuncha, 2016). Similarly, Fig. 8(b) shows that the flex
Polyester (UPE) treatment, Morphological, 2012) ural strength of Borassus fiber with other natural fibers and compared
Fiber Loading, Water absorption
that the flexural strength of Borassus fiber is higher as compared to coir,
Coupling agent
Epoxy Alkali Mechanical, (Balakrishna jute, kenaf, flax and sisal fiber respectively but less than from kenaf fiber
treatment, Morphological, et al., 2013) (Sudhakara et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2020; Hasan et al., 2015; Shubhra
Fiber loading Analysis of Variance et al., 2013; Suharty et al., 2016; Punyamurthy et al., 2017; Wu et al.,
(ANOVA)
2016; Ibrahim et al., 2016). Also, Fig. 8(c) shows the impact strength of
Epoxy (Polylactide) Alkali Mechanical, (Graupner et al.,
treatment, Morphological 2019) Borassus fiber with other natural fibers and comparison shows that the
Fiber loading impact strength of Borassus fiber is higher as compared to coir and sisal
fibers respectively but less than from jute and flax fibers (Maheswari
et al., 2013; Sudhakara et al., 2013; Hasan et al., 2015; Suharty et al.,
Borassus reinforced HDPE composites be an auspicious material for 2016; Wu et al., 2016; Ibrahim et al., 2016).
packaging and structural applications. Reddy et al. (Reddy et al., 2015)
concluded that the alkali treated Borassus fiber reinforced epoxy com 9. Knowledge gap
posites and alkali treatment with silane aqueous solution treated fiber
composites has greater tensile strength and higher modulus as compared An overview of Tables 4–6 shows that the commonly used polymers
to alkali treated fibers composites. Sarasini et al. (Sarasini et al., 2017) (Thermoplastic, thermoset, biopolymers) which are used for the pro
investigated the effect of the Polycaprolactone (PCL) based duction of Borassus flabellifer fiber polymer composites, are the poly
bio-composite with Borassus fruit fiber (10 wt.% to 30 wt.%) and found propylene (PP), polylactic acid (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL) and
that the crystallinity of the neat matrix has been improved. Kumar et al. unsaturated polyester (UPE). Other resins such as vinyl esters, polyvinyl
(Kumar et al., 2020) reported that alkali treated Borassus fruit fiber chloride, and polystyrene have not been documented for the production
reinforced composites have better mechanical properties as compared to of Borassus flabellifer fiber reinforced composites. Dynamic mechanical
untreated fiber composites. They noted that the modulus and tensile analysis (DMA) which predicts the viscoelastic behaviour of polymer
strength of composite had increased with the rise of sodium hydroxide composites under the continuous load and temperature, and wear
percentages up to 8% treated fiber. Reddy et al. (Reddy et al., 2012) characteristics of Borassus flabellifer fiber reinforced composites for
noted that the alkali and coupling agent treated short Borassus fruit fiber tribological application have not been reported broadly which are the
reinforced unsaturated polyester composites had increased the tensile, important parameters of the Borassus flabellifer fiber composites. The
flexural, and impact strength of composites with better water resistance. inorganic composition of Borassus flabellifer fiber, financial feasibility
Table 6 shows the various factors that affect the properties of Borassus and wide application of Borassus flabellifer fiber-based composites have
flabellifer fiber polymer composites. not been documented reported.
8. Potential applications of Borassus flabellifer fiber composites 10. Conclusion
Borassus fibers are bio-waste materials, easily available, eco-friendly The application of biomaterials for developing polymer composites
and shown the better result as reinforcement for production of com reduces the consumption of the synthetic materials as well as the cost of
posites in the light-weight material’s industry (Reddy et al., 2015). the composites. This analysis has highlighted the application of Borassus
Reddy et al. (Reddy et al., 2012) reported that the alkali and coupling fiber composites, fabrication of composite techniques, fiber reinforced
agent treated Borassus fruit fiber composites enhanced the mechanical polymers, chemical and surface treatment of Borassus flabellifer fibers to
property and better water resistance and shown that the promising re reduce the hydrophilic tendency for improving the fiber matrix adhesion
sults as reinforcements for production of bio-composites which can be properties. The mechanical, thermal, chemical, physical, water absorp
gain as low cost. Balakrishna et al. (Balakrishna et al., 2013) examined tion and morphological properties of Borassus flabellifer fibers have also
the alkali treated palmyra (Borassus flabellifer) fiber reinforced discussed. The researchers have used the Borassus flabellifer fruit fibers,
10
prospects of Borassus fibers composites are to create employment in

urban and rural areas and facilitate the reduction of waste. The chal
lenges of Borassus fiber reinforced polymer composites are the hydro
philic nature and poor thermal properties of Borassus fiber. The
utilization of Borassus fiber as reinforcement for composites, minimizing
the use of synthetic fiber and improving the greenery are the future
advancement of the Borassus flabellifer in all spheres.
Acknowledgement
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the

online version, at doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.117929.
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Review On Borassus Flabellifer Reinforced Composites

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Carbohydrate Polymers 262 (2021) 117929

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

A review on Borassus flabellifer lignocellulose fiber reinforced

1. Introduction materials reduces the dependency on synthetic fibers (Senthamar

1.2. Natural fibers 1.3.2. Cultivation & uses of Borassus flabellifer

2.2. Alkaline treatment

3.6. XRD analysis 3.7. Thermogravimetric analysis

4. Preparation of Borassus flabellifer fiber composites

The fabrication process is strongly influenced by the chemical

4.1. Uses of polymers and biopolymers

For the preparation of Borassus fruit fiber composites, polymers and

BFF/PP 15 28.61 45.34 29.29 2.584 0.61% – (Sudhakara et al.,

Table 6 composites and reported that the mechanical properties of composites

8. Potential applications of Borassus flabellifer fiber composites 10. Conclusion

prospects of Borassus fibers composites are to create employment in

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the

You might also like

Review On Borassus Flabellifer Reinforced Composites

Uploaded by

Copyright:

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Review On Borassus Flabellifer Reinforced Composites

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Original Title

Copyright

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Review On Borassus Flabellifer Reinforced Composites

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Carbohydrate Polymers 262 (2021) 117929

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

A review on Borassus flabellifer lignocellulose fiber reinforced

1. Introduction materials reduces the dependency on synthetic fibers (Senthamar­

1.2. Natural fibers 1.3.2. Cultivation & uses of Borassus flabellifer

2.2. Alkaline treatment

3.6. XRD analysis 3.7. Thermogravimetric analysis

4. Preparation of Borassus flabellifer fiber composites

The fabrication process is strongly influenced by the chemical

4.1. Uses of polymers and biopolymers

For the preparation of Borassus fruit fiber composites, polymers and

BFF/PP 15 28.61 45.34 29.29 2.584 0.61% – (Sudhakara et al.,

Table 6 composites and reported that the mechanical properties of composites

8. Potential applications of Borassus flabellifer fiber composites 10. Conclusion

prospects of Borassus fibers composites are to create employment in

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the

You might also like

1. Introduction materials reduces the dependency on synthetic fibers (Senthamar