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SOCIOLOGY

5. Geography - study of the natural

environment and how it influences
THE ROLE AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY social and cultural development
A. Nature of Sociology 6. Psychology - study of mental processes
Sociology - Sociology is the study of human and behavior with the goal of describing,
social relationships and institutions. Sociology’s explaining, predicting and changing
subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to behavior
religion, from the family to the state, from the 7. History - Study of past events;
divisions of race and social class to the shared systematic attempt to learn about and
beliefs of a common culture, and from social verify past events and to relate them to
stability to radical change in whole societies. one another and to he present
Nature of Sociology According to Robert ● Involves: Identifying,
Bierstedt: classifying, arranging,
● Sociology is an independent science patterning
● Sociology is a social science not a physical B. Scientific method
science 1. Observe
● Sociology is a categorical and not a normative 2. Define problems
discipline 3. Review the literature
● Sociology is a pure science and not an applied 4. Observe some more
science 5. Develop theoretical framework and formulate
● Sociology is relatively an abstract science not a hypothesis
concrete science 6. Choose research design
● Sociology is a generalizing and not a 7. Collect data
particularizing or Individualizing Science 8. Analyze data
● Sociology is a general Science and not a special 9. Draw conclusions
Social Science 10. Present findings
● Sociology is both a Rational and an Empirical C. Research Methods
Science 1. QUANTITATIVE
B. Branches of Social Science ● Correlation - determine trends among
1. Political Science - study of social variables; not causal relationship
arrangements to maintain peace and ● Experiment - allows causal inference;
order within a given society control
2. Economics - study of the ways in ○ Independent variable -
which men and women make a living manipulated; Dependent
3. Sociology - systematic study of variable - measured
relationships among people; Assume 2. QUALITATIVE
that behavior is influenced by people’s ● Observation (Laboratory or Naturalistic)
social, political, occupational and ● Case studies
intellectual groupings and by the ● Surveys (interviews and questionnaires)
particular setting in which they find
themselves at one time or another
ELEMENTS OF SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
4. Anthropology - Study of the
relationships between biological traits
and socially acquired characteristics Society, culture and Cultural Change
● Physical anthropology - A. SOCIETY - a group of people involved in social
influence of evolution of natural interaction which also shares the same
environment on physical geographical territory, and sometime, shares
characteristics of humans similar cultural practices and identities
● Cultural anthropology - study SOCIOLOGICAL TYPES OF
remains of extinct civilizations SOCIAL TIES (Ferdinand Tonnies)
that left no written records ● GEMEINSCHAFT: a group in which
(Archeology) individuals take into account the needs
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and interests of the group as much as, iif participate in order to further important group interests,
not more than, their own self interest provide order, coordination & avenue for social change
(equates to rural communities) 3. MATERIAL PRODUCTS - From knowledge of how
● GESELLSCAFT: a group in which, for to produce and use a variety of material products like
the individual, the larger group never food, clothing, houses, tools, machines and works of art
takes precedence over the individual’s 4. LANGUAGE - Body of words and system for usage
self interest, and these groups lack the common to a people of the same
same level of shared mores (equated to community/nation/geographical location or cultural
urban communities) tradition
B. CULTURE 5. SOCIAL VALUES - The motivating power that
- Total Pattern of human behavior and its makes institutions function effectively
products embodied in thought, speech,
action and artifacts that are passed on
from generation to generation F. CULTURAL INTEGRATION
- The shared language, norms, values & - The degree to which a culture is internally
other ways of thinking and doing that is consistent & homogenous
passed on from adults to children; - Diverse versus unified culture
slowly accumulates over many - Cultural universals - Aspects/ Traits that are
generations similar among all cultures
- A product of human societies and of the - Cultural alternatives - cultural characteristics
individuals who compose them nor necessarily shared by other cultures
- Character & personality of all humans - Enculturation - people learn about their own
are in large part reflections of the society culture formally and informally
in which they live - Acculturation - learning about a host culture
- Cultures creates societies and societies which require these actions
depend on culture G. SOCIAL CHANGE
C. CULTURAL EVOLUTION - Gradual ● Needed in order to adjust to new situations
accumulative process of how culture is changed ● Rate of social change - started slow then gains
D. SOCIALIZATION - Process that shapes momentum through the course of human social
personality of individuals so that they can adjust development
to and become members of a society ● Factors that affect social changes
E. ELEMENTS OF CULTURE ○ Development of agriculture
1. Social norms ○ Invention of writing and printing
a. Conventions - simple everyday ○ Rise of modern science
customs of a group of people ○ Industrial Revolution (Started in
that represent usual ways of England, mid-1700s)
behaving; ○ Rapid transportation and
b. Mores - customs that need to be communication
observed by all society for the ● Current status of social change:
culture to survive; Violations are ○ Increasing rate of technological change
not legally sanctioned by incur ○ Increasing interaction among cultures
social punishment through peer (especially in developing countries)
disapproval ○ Accelerated pace of spreading of
c. Laws - more exact; generally Western science and technology
recorded, codified & enforced as ○ Although there are still a lot of cultural
a means of securing public differences across different cultures, on
obedience; violations are legally the whole, differences are diminishing at
sanctioned (fines, a more rapid rate than before
imprisonment) ● CHANGE (old situations are replaced with new
ones)
2. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS - An established complex ○ Is NOT equal to evolution
pattern of behavior in which a number of persons ○ Is NOT equal to progress
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● THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE ● Culture refers to a group's language, beliefs,

○ Glorifying the past values, behaviors, and gestures. It includes the
○ Doctrine of inevitable progress (Europe material objects used by a group. It determines
& USAr)
what kind of people we will become.
○ Cycle theory of social change (Oswald
Sppengler & Arnold Toynbee) ● Social class is based on income, education, and
○ Supernatural, racial characteristics & occupational prestige. Large numbers of people
economic conditions, cultural infusion who have similar amounts of income and
or invention education and who work at jobs that are roughly
● FACTORS CAUSING CULTURAL CHANGE comparable in prestige make up a social class.
○ Technological Development ● Social status refers to the positions that an
■ Discovery: Learning something
individual occupies. A status may carry a great
that was not known before
■ Inventions: a new way of doing deal of prestige (judge or astronaut), or very
something or new object or little (gas station attendant or cook in a fast-food
mechanical device developed to restaurant).
serve some specific purpose ● Status set refers to all the statuses or positions
○ Cultural diffusionIdeas & ideology that an individual occupies.
○ Collective action ● Ascribed statuses are positions an individual
○ Geography & climate
either inherits at birth or receives involuntarily
● FACTORS STABILIZING CULTURE
○ Stability of social norms later in life. Examples include race, sex, and
○ Habit social class of parents.
○ Value attachment ● Achieved statuses are positions that are earned,
H. SOCIAL PROBLEMS - adversely affect the welfare accomplished, or involve at least some effort or
of large numbers of people and for which it is believed a activity on the individual's part. Examples
solution exists to bring about change
include becoming a college president or a bank
● CULTURAL LAG (William Ogburn) - the
slowness in the rate of change on one part of a robber.
culture in relation to other parts, resulting in ● Each status provides guidelines for how we are
maladjustment within a society to act and feel.
I. CONTRASTS AMONG CULTURES ● Status symbols are signs that people use who
● Ethnocentrism - belief of a group that its people want others to recognize that they occupy a
and its way of life are superior to all others; certain status. For example, wedding rings that
judge other cultures based on evaluator's own
are worn, fancy cars, living in expensive homes,
culture and its standards
● Cultural relativism - cultures develop in a way etc.
that best suits the population’s needs and the ● A master status—such as being male or
cultural traits within a culture have a specific female—cuts across the other statuses that an
purpose individual occupies. Status inconsistency is a
contradiction or mismatch between statuses. A
J. The Macrosociological Perspective: Social disability can become a master status for
Structure some. This condition can override other
statuses and determines others’ perception of
● Social structure is defined as the patterned this person.
relationships between people that persist over ● Roles are the behaviors, obligations, and
time. Behaviors and attitudes are privileges attached to a status. The individual
determined by our location in the social occupies a status, but plays a role. Roles are an
structure. Components of social structure are essential component of culture because they lay
culture, social class, social status, roles, groups, out what is expected of people, and as
and institutions.
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individuals perform their roles, those roles mesh

Child’s discernment of Parent’s discernment of
together to form the society. parent’s wishes child’s needs

● A group consists of people who regularly and Family as significant Family as generalized
consciously interact with one another and other other
typically share similar values, norms, and
expectations. When we belong to a group we Major types of socialization:
give up to others at least some control over our ● Primary or childhood - or basic or early,
lives. much of the personality make-up of individuals
● The control depends on the relationship and is forged at this period of life
● Secondary or adulthood - individuals take
amount of interaction that we have with that up new roles, reorienting themselves according
group. to their changes, social statuses and roles, as in
starting marital life; socialization process at this
stage may sometimes be intense
● De-socialization - adoption of adults of
radically different norms and life ways that are
more or less completely dissimilar to the
SOCIALIZATION previous norms and values, signifies rapid or
more basic changes in the adult life
Socialization - process whereby individual persons ● Re-socialization - typically precedes re-
learn and are trained in the basic norms, values, beliefs, socialization, stripping individuals of their
skills, attitudes way of doing and acting as appropriate to former lifestyles, beliefs, values and attitudes so
a specific social group or society, way by which culture is that they may take up other partially or totally
transmitted and individuals are fitted into the society’s new lifestyles, attitudes and values
organized way of life Other types of socialization:
● Anticipatory - process of adjustment and
Two modes of Socialization (Broom and adaptation in which individuals try to learn and
Selznick, 1973) internalize the roles, values and attitudes and
skills of a social status or occupation for which
Repressive Participatory they are likely recruits in the future
Socialization Socialization ● Reverse - process of socialization whereby the
dominant socializing persons such as parents,
Punishing wrong Rewarding good behavior happen to be in need of being socialized
behavior themselves by those whom they socialize, such
as children.
Material rewards and Symbolic rewards and
punishment punishment

Obedience of child Autonomy of child SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND SOCIAL

INTERACTION
Non-verbal Verbal communication Social organization - pattern of individual and group
communication relations
Social group - collectivity or set of people who involve
Communication as Communication as more or less permanent or enduring social interactions
command interaction and relationships
Basic features of a social group:
Parent-centered Child-centered 1. Members continue to interact with one another
socialization socialization 2. Membership requires living by norms special to
the group
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3. Members view each other as part of the group

school for
members feel some sense of identification with
learning the ways
the group and with one another there is social
of human
boundary between members and non-members
interaction and
4. Members are functionally integrated through
the give and take
role and status relationship in the group
of working and
structure
playing together
5. Others see members as group
Classification of groups:
Based on (a) quality of relationship between and among Quasi-groups - social groupings which lack the
members of the group, and (b) degree of group identity: essential features of social groups, there may be no
● Primary - “nursery of human interaction”, functional integration among member, little or no
where essential sentiment of human group
structured and patterned social relationships, lack
loyalty and concern for others could be learned
○ Dyads two-person e.g. husband and meaningful social structures and social interactions
wife, a two-person peer group Two types of quasi groups:
● Secondary - more formal types of groups to 1. Aggregates - two or more people are physically
which people belong, do not give people the together at a certain time and at a certain place,
feeling of close identity that primary groups give there is physical proximity without enduring
interactions no shared psychological identity.
Primary Group Secondary Group 2. Category -consists of a plurality or collectively
of people who are physically dispersed, but who
● Face-to-face ● Little or no share common traits and interests
interaction emotional
Social relationship - any routinized, enduring
among members involvement
● High sentiment ● Members are patterns of interactions between individuals in society
or loyalty more competitive under the limits and influences of the social structure
● Group identity than cooperative Social status -position or rank a person or a group of
and close ● Less intimate persons occupy in the social system
cooperation ● Group identity is ● Ascribed social status - naturally given,
among members less relevant acquired by birth
● High level of ● Economic
emotional, efficiency is given ● Achieved social status - attained by
spiritual higher emphasis competitions, making efforts, commitments,
satisfaction to be than choices, decisions and other mechanisms
derived from psychological Note: There are some statuses which may be both
involvement in identity ascribed and achieved
primary social ● Group is mainly Note: Every person has at least two social statuses. Of
groups means to an end
these various statuses, one or two may be more
● Concern for rather than an
friendly relations end in itself dominant than others (salient status)
as an end in membership is Social roles - expectations, duties, responsibilities,
themselves, not unlimited obligations, etc. which are associated with a given social
as a means to an status
end often small in
size gives its
members their
“first
acquaintance
with humanity”
● For a child, a
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SOCIAL PROCESSES
SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION, DEVIANCE AND
SOCIAL CONTROL Social processes: certain repetitive, continuous forms
of patterns in the social systems that occur as
individuals, groups, societies, or countries interact with
social disorganization theory - asserts that crime is each other.
Modes of Social Processes:
most likely to occur in communities with weak social ties
● Competition - process whereby individuals,
and the absence of social control groups, societies and countries make active
The three major sociological paradigms offer different efforts to win towards getting their share of the
explanations for the motivation behind deviance and limited resources, may result in stratification,
crime. physical separation in a given society, balanced
● Functionalists point out that deviance is a social by cooperation
necessity since it reinforces norms by reminding ● Cooperation - people join hands towards
achieving common goals
people of the consequences of violating them.
● Conflict - involves disagreement and
Violating norms can open society’s eyes to disharmony, which results due to differences in
injustice in the system. ideology, living standard and other social
● Conflict theorists argue that crime stems from a factors, involves clash of interest between
system of inequality that keeps those with power individuals in a social group
at the top and those without power at the ● Accomodation - people try to accept one
bottom. another, avoiding the sources of conflict to live
in peaceful coexistences, a conscious adjustment
● Symbolic interactionists focus attention on the
and compromise among conflicting groups so
socially constructed nature of the labels related that they can live with one another without overt
to deviance. Crime and deviance are learned conflict
from the environment and enforced or
discouraged by those around us.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Social stratification - one of the outcomes of the
continuous occurring of social processes, segmentation
SOCIAL CONTROL of society into different hierarchical arrangement or
strata
Social control - all the mechanisms and processes Theories of Social Stratification:
employed by a society to ensure conformity ● Functionalist theory of social
● Conformists - members of a society or a group stratification - social stratification is
who abide by the rules and norms of the society functional and purposeful and also essential in
(or the group) any society
● Non-conformists - movement away from the ● Conflict theory of social stratification -
accepted social standards accept that social inequality exists in every
SOCIAL DEVIANCE - movement away from the society but do not believe that social
accepted social standards stratification is function, it is the way of
TYPES OF SOCIAL CONTROL: oppression one group of people by another
● Negative Social Control - involves Forms of Social Stratification:
punishment or regulating behavior of deviants Social class - groups of people who are stratified into
● Deviant - a person whose views and actions are different categories, an open and flexible system
different in moral or social standards from what Caste - based on religious and another strongly rooted
is considered normal or acceptable in the traditional belief that cannot be changed or are very
context of a certain social group difficult to change; some features include:
● Very rigid and closed system
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● People belonging to same stratum practice Social inequality is characterized by the existence of
endogamy unequal opportunities and rewards for different social
● Intermarriage between strate is not permitted positions or statuses within a group or society. It
● There are occupational differences between
contains structured and recurrent patterns of unequal
strata
distributions of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards,
and punishments.
GEOGRAPHY, DEMOGRAPHY, ECOLOGY & There are two main ways to measure social inequality:
SOCIETY
● Inequality of conditions - unequal
A. Geography - Focuses on spatial interaction of distribution of income, wealth, and material
human beings with each other with their goods.
physical environment ● Inequality of opportunities - refers to the
B. DEMOGRAPHY - study of the number and
characteristics of a population; concerned with unequal distribution of life chances across
factors that may be causing the population to individuals. (level of education, health status,
increase or decrease and treatment by the criminal justice system.)
C. MALTHUSIAN THEORY - 2 Main Theories
● Thomas Robert Malthus “An Essay on There are two main views of social inequality within
the Principle of Population as it Affects sociology. One view aligns with the functionalist theory,
the Future Improvement of Society”
and the other aligns with conflict theory.
● Belief that population tends to outrun
the means of subsistence ● Functionalist theorists believe that inequality is
○ If there are no obstacles, inevitable and desirable and plays an important
population will increase rapidly function in society.
and without limit ● Conflict theorists, on the other hand, view
○ Geometric increase in inequality as resulting from groups with power
population versus arithmetic dominating less powerful groups.
increase in means of subsistence
○ Population growth would
necessarily tend to outrun
means of subsistence based on SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
the LAW OF DIMINISHING
RETURNS
Preventive checks may slow down population by Social institutions - practices based on similar
reducing birth rate but didn’t believe these principles that display some degree of regularity;
would be effective established pattern of behavior that is organized to
D. ECOLOGY perpetuate the welfare of society and to preserve its
● Environment - sum of all external form, each institution performs to types of social
influences that impinge on the human function
organism ● Primary function - includes family(nuclear and
○ Social environment extruded) economic institution, political
○ Natural environment institution, educational institution, religious
● Ecological balance - when each plant or institution
animal species has adjusted to ts ● Secondary functions
environment and survivE Note: A society is functionally integrated and held
together by social institutions
Major types of social institutions:
● Economic institutions - deal with economic and
SOCIAL INEQUALITIES property relations
● Policy and law - concerned with social control
and politics and law government, the police,
court, etc.
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● Religious institutions - concerned with the e. MATCHING FAMILY PATTERNS WITH

supernatural magic and religion FAMILY FUNCTIONS
● Family - based on principles of kinship, ● Dating - Allows people to get acquainted
meaning, social relations created by descent and with each other on an intimate and
marriage hopefully mature plane
● Educational institutions - deal with the need for ● Sex
training individuals in the roles, values, skills, ● Having children
knowledge, attitudes, etc. which are associated
with being a citizen and a worker RELIGION - The relationship between man a
FAMILY - a group of persons closely related by superhuman power he believes in and feels himself to be
marriage, blood or some other bond who deal as a unit dependent upon (Hans Joagquim Schoeps)
with the outside work; most important institution a. GREAT RELIGIONS:
a. KIND OF FAMILIES 1. HINDUISM - The religions and social
● Two-parent family system of Hindus in India
● Single-parent family - Believes that the soul inhabits
● Extended family successive bodies in its journey
b. NUMBER OF MATES through the universe, thus all
● Monogamy: one husband and one wife; life including insects and plant
most widespread worldwide life has a soul
● Polygamy: plural marriage; thought of - All beings, even the gods must
as two or more nuclear families boung die and be reborn in endless
together because has one common cycle
parent - Cycle can be escaped
● Cenogamy - Group marriage; several through asceticism
men married to several women but very - All life is sacred because all life
uncommon has a soul
c. SELECTION OF MATES - Caste System
● Eligibility rules - Differ across society 1. Scholars and priests
and within subgroups of a society (Brahmans meaning
● Rules governing actual choice of partner source of life or
- Arranged and personal choice expansive force)
● FAMILY CONTROL 2. Administrators of the
○ PATRIARCHY - Father is state
supreme authority; children 3. Commercial and
belong to him and has authority agricultural
over their lives (even have the entrepreneurs
right to give or sell them in 4. Workers who perform
marriage) tasks the three higher
○ MATRIARCHY - Mother is classes shun- sweeping
supreme authority floors, cleaning
○ EGALITARIAN/ bathrooms, repairing
PARTNERSHIP - Both shoes, etc
d. FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY IN SOCIETY
● Reproduce species otherwise it will end 5. Social differentiation
● Ensure young are reasonably well depends on the jobs you
adjusted so they don’t cause trouble for have; hereditary and
society and they grow up to be though the system has
productive in the biological and physical been outlawed for
sense decades, it has been
● Provide sufficient satisfaction for proven difficult to
parents to keep them well adjusted so eradicate and to
they don’t make trouble for society
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transfer to higher caste heavenly salvation (kingdom of heaven)

is very difficult. and not just to deliver the Jews from
Rome by establishing the earthly
2. BUDDHISM - Developed out of Hinduism and Kingdom of David
its main objective: to free people from endless ● Important teachings:
cycle of reincarnations ○ To believe in God, to do His will,
● Shakyamuni Gautama - young to believe in Jesus as the son of
Nepalese prince, aka Siddhartha (the God, that God is utterly good,
perfected, the complete one) supremely righteous and just,
● State of nirvana forgiving and merciful so trust
● Main teaching: gentleness, compassion, in him completely and regularly
rationality and moderation through prayers, to love one
○ All life is suffering another, and to observe the
○ Suffering comes from a burning golden rule.
thirst for material and spiritual ● Communion or the Euchrist - entering
riches into a special relationship with christ
○ Suffering ceases when the thirst ● Middle Ages - Church dominated
is renounced by passing through religious & intellectual life, politics &
the eightfold path: economics of Europe
■ Right view, Right ● Renaissance - renewal of interest in art,
aspirations, Right literature and works of classical
speech, Right conduct, antiquity; grew out of feelings that
Right livelihood, Right Church was undergoing moral decay
effort, Right ● Reformation: urge that religion revert to
mindfulness, Right its sources
contemplation ○ Martin Luther in 1517 posted
3. JUDAISM - Developed out of the religion of an call for reform on the door of
ancient Hbrew tribe the church in Wittenberg,
● Waits for coming of the Messiah Germany
(descendant of King David) expected to ○ Ulrich Zwingli & John Calvin in
deliver the Jews and for a messianic Switzerland
age where kingdom of eternal peace ○ John Knox in Scotland
will prevail and all evil impulses ○ Protestants gained freedom
removed from human heart from control of Rome but wasn’t
● Anti-Semitism: feelings of hatred & able to form a major
dislike for Jews developed independent church body but
● 3 brands of Judaism in US & Europe: divided into considerable
○ Orthodox: resist change of number of sects/ denominations
beliefs and rituals 5. ISLAM - submission; Muslims: submitters to
○ Reform: reject much of Jewish the will of God
traditionalism and believe that ● Muslim’s goal: to perform one’s duties
Judaism should be regarded as as outlined int eh Qu’ran and as
a changing and developing exemplified by the acts of Muhammad in
religion his lifetime
○ Conservatives: cannot accept ● MUHAMMAD: believed he was chosen
the orthodoxy but who object to by God/Allah to be the messenger of the
an extreme break with divine revelation (from angel Gabriel)
traditions and seek a middle ● ABU BAKR: first successor who wrote
way down the messages shortly after his
4. CHRISTIANITY friend Muhammad’s death which
● Jesus believed he was sent by his Father became the Ou’ran
to show all of humanity the way to ● 5 PILLARS OF ISLAM
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○ Acceptance and frequent ○ Generalized reciprocity is a kin to simple

repetition of the creed: There is gift giving where the transaction is one
no God but Allah and way. The giving party does not expect
Muhammad is his messenger any good or service in return to the gift
○ Performing five times a day the ○ Balanced reciprocity is the transaction
prescribed prayers and rituals in which involved parties offer goods
○ Giving alms to the needy and services labor among each other. It
○ Fast during Ramadan is expected from parties to return favors
○ Pilgrimage to the Kaaba stone at within a short time frame/span.
Mecca once in a lifetime by ○ Redistribution is an economic practice
those who can afford it in which a specialized individual or a
● Major Islam denominations governing body collects resources from
○ SHITES (the sectarians) - the members of society. The goods are
Followers of Ali (Muhammad’s distributed subsequently. This is often
cousin) and follow a systemm of observed in highly stratified societies.
Imamah (true leader of ● Money and market exchange
Muslims) ○ Money exchange refers to economic
○ SUNNIS (the traditionalists) - practices which make use of a certain
followers of Abu Bakr form of currency. A certain value is
B. ROLE OF RELIGION IN SOCIETY ascribed to “money” which is then used
● Strong integrative factor and source of moral to purchase-goods and services.
values ○ Market exchanges are economic
● Tied to rules of behaviour and gave strong transactions in which the value or the
support to custom and tradition price of goods, labor and rent will
● Drew people together through participation of depend on supply and demand.
common rituals of prayer, praise & sacrifice
● Has impact on economic and political
FUNCTIONS & FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
institutions, education, arts and literature
● Can also be a source of social conflict
A. PRIMARY FUNCTIONS OF
GOVERNMENT
a. Maintain internal order and external
ECONOMIC SYSTEM security
b. Ensure justice
● Foraging - it is the simplest means of obtaining c. Safeguard individual freedoms
food from the environment. Foragers hunt, d. Regulate individual’s actions
gather and scavenge for food. Impact to the e. Promote the general welfare
environment may be kept to a minimum B. 3 VIEWS ON THE NATURE OF
● Pastoralism - is a practice of large scale animal GOVERNMENT
domestication in which animals are herded to a. Government as a necessary evil - Very
feed on natural pasture. Animal products are essence of government is to prohibit,
consumed and traded for other goods. restrain, regulae, compel and coerce
● Horticulture - is a small to medium production b. Government as a Positive Good -
of plant based nutrition sources by means of Necessary to supply the defect of moral
simple tools and methods virtue to enforce us to do what is right
● Agriculture - intensive cultivation of land using when our moral weakness would lead us
sophisticated tools and technologies in order to to injure one another
produce plant based nutritional sources. c. Government as an Unnecessary Evil -
● Reciprocity and redistribution - Reciprocity is an Promoted by the likes of Marx, Lenin
economic activity where individuals may give and Stalin who believe that governments
and receive non-monetary goods. are instruments of oppression special
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machinery for the suppression of one to be temporary until

class by another true equality & freedom
C. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT have been achieved and
a. DEMOCRACY - Greek “demos” - people; totalitarian rule no
“kratos” rule; ‘rule of the people longer has function
i. Characterized by 2. FACISM - Doesn’t see
1. Popular sovereignty - itself as a mere
people are source of all temporary stage but as a
political power complete system
a. “Consent of the capable of withstanding
governed” assaults
means the
power to
control
2. Democratic concept of SOCIAL CHANGE
the individual
3. Rationality and Social change - alteration, rearrangement or total
democratic way of life replacement of phenomena, activities, values or
4. Equality processes through time in a society in a succession of
5. Primacy of the events
individual Theories of social change:
ii. Alternative forms of democracy 1. Structural Functionalist Theory - social
- direct, representative, changes takes place as the diversification and
presidential, parliamentary, division of labor increases in the social system of
unitary, federal, republic a given society
b. AUTOCRACY - Government where a 2. Conflict Theory - social change takes place
single person or small groups of people due to the ever-present class conflicts in the
has or claims power social system, for the better or worse, social
i. Characterized by change is the result of social conflicts and is
1. Loyalty to the Party and essential and beneficial
the State 3. Cyclic Theory - society undergoes change in
2. Rule by Leaders circular manner, social change takes a cyclic
3. One-party monopoly form, from worse to better, back again from
4. Controlled press - better to worse
propaganda 4. Linear Theory - change takes place in linear
ii. Types of autocracy manner, direction of social change is from worse
1. Absolute monarchy, to better, simple to complex and backward to
authoritarian autocracy, modern
totalitarian autocracy 5. Modernization Theory - may be regarded as
iii. COMMUNISM & FACISM - Not an extension of linear, evolutionary theory;
forms of Government but change that is being experienced by most Third
different systems of social, World societies is by imitating or copying the
economic & political theory that values, experiences and models of already
have produced totalitarian modernized societies
governments
1. COMMUNISM -
Totalitarianism meant