Afr Heroic Epic P Daniel P Biebuyck

The African Heroic Epic
Author(s): Daniel P. Biebuyck

Source: Journal of the Folklore Institute, Vol. 13, No. 1 (1976), pp. 5-36
Published by: Indiana University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3813812
Accessed: 06/01/2010 13:35
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless
you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you
may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.
Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=iupress.
Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed
page of such transmission.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Indiana University Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of the
Folklore Institute.
http://www.jstor.org
THE AFRICANHEROICEPIC
Daniel P. Biebuyck
THE DOCUMENTATION
Detailed syntheses of Africianheroic epics are not yet available.' In her

pioneering study on African oral literature, Finnegan pays almost no
attention to the African epic, and she dismissesit with the assertionthat "all
in all epic poetry does not seem to be a typical African form."2 Surely, in
contrast to the wide-ranginginformation that we possess about other literary
genres, our published documentation on the African heroic epic is very
limited and sometimes sketchy. This fact is not entirely astonishing.Epics are
long, orally transmittedpoetic narrativespresentedin an episodic mannerand
intermittently. They occur in many versions and are built around central
thematic cores and plans by many, frequently unrelated, and independently
working, bards. These individuals, and the "schools" or "systems of
tradition" that they represent,perform, create, and recreatethe specific epic
tradition in their own manner. Therefore performanceand content may vary
according to the occasion or the particular audience. Epic narrativesare
formulated in a rich, highly poetic, difficult African language.They are also
sung, which makes the performanceeven more complex. Parts of the epic
themes, characters,episodes and events are sometimes known, in a more or
less fragmentarymanner, to common storytellers who construct short tales
around such fragments. In the light of these and other facts it is easy to
understandwhy such long and difficult texts may escape the attention of the
foreign researcheror surpasshis linguisticand ethnographicalcapabilities.It is
also easy to understandhow such texts may sometimes be abstracted and
5
6 Daniel P. Biebuyck
summarizedby the outsider, or only more or less coherent fragmentsmay be

recorded. Epics per se are not secret in the ethnic groups where they occur;
many are publicly sung before a large and diverseaudience, and the themes
are known to the general public. Yet, it is my experience that sucli huge
texts, which contain an extraordinaryamount of information about insti-
tutions, values, modes of thinking, behavior,and history, are not easily given
away to foreignresearchers.It is also possiblethat the lack of informationfor
large parts of Africa is partially due to the fact that heroic epics are less
widely distributedthan one might be inclined to think.
DISTRIBUTION
The present evidence points to a strong occurrenceof heroic epics in

two major areas: the Mande-speakers(Mandeka, Bambara,Soninke) and
groups closely interrelated with them (Fulani) in West Africa; several
Bantu-speakingethnic groupsrangingfrom the Gabon Republic(Fang) to the
Zaire Republic (Mongo, Lega, Nyanga, Mbole and Tetela clusters). But,
outside this generalareaof concentration,epics were also recordedamong the
Bantu-speakingSotho of South Africa, the Swahili of East Africa, the
Benamukuni of Zambia, the Ijaw of Southern Nigeria, and among the
Adangme of Ghana. Beyong this immediate evidence, it is difficult to assess
from published sources the degree to which texts known to us as myths or
tales might be fragmentsof largerunrecordedepic wholes.3
The presently known heroic epics occur in societies that exhibit a wide
range of social structures, political and religious systems, and historical
backgrounds. Although no easy explanations for the phenomena can be
found, nor any fully significantcorrelationscan as yet be constructed, it is
worth stressingthe following points. The two majortraditionsof heroic epics
seem to occur, respectively, among Mande-speakingpeoples in West Africa
and some Bantu-speakinggroups of Central Africa. In both areas of
occurrencea common epic patrimony exists, at the transtriballevel, amonga
number of more or less related ethnic groups. The heroic epics are found
among peoples like the Bambara,the Fang, the Mongo,the Lega,the Nyanga,
where hunting traditionsare ideologically and sociologically very significant.
In severalof these areas the cultural impact of Pygmies is explicit and deep.
Except for the Nyanga,who representa unique case, all epic-producingethnic
groups have elaborate traditions of migration, expansion and cultural
assimilation,or well-establishedtraditions of conquest and warfare.Some of
these societies are politically integratedinto kingdoms and chiefdoms, some
belong to ancient traditions of political systems of great amplitude, but
THE AFRICANHEROICEPIC 7
others have, as far as ethnohistory can be retraced,neverhad any centralized

political structure with kings, chiefs or rulers of great power. Two other
points are worth remembering.Among most of the ethnic groups involved
there exist extremely elaborate initiation systems connected with puberty
ceremonies, and membershipin voluntaryassociations.Such ethnic groupsas
the Bambara, Fang, and Lega have some of the most outstanding artistic
traditions of the African continent. Of all these observations, the most
fascinatingis probably that great heroic epic traditions do also occur among
people who have no traditions of conquest nor a centralizedpolitical system.
The Legaof the Zaire Republicare probablythe best example of such a social
context.
SCOPEOF THE STUDY
In the following pages, I wish to present a short summary of the

contents of some of the better known heroic epics. In this brief surveyI am
not concerned with the vast amount of praisesand heroic poems that have
been aptly analyzed for several East and South African populations in a
number of recent works.4 These heroic poems have a particularlystrong
distribution among various clusters of Bantu-speakingpeoples of South
Africa. The panegyricscelebratepersons(chiefs, warriors,common people) as
well as animals, plants, natural features, and objects. Some are very short,
others include hundreds of verse stanzas or "paragraphs."5Similar praises
addressedto divinities or chiefs, or evoking the names of social groups and
the deeds of persons, form part of the oral literatureof many other ethnic
groups. The heroic war poetry of Rwanda, the ijala salutes of the Oyo
Yoruba, the heroic hunters' songs of the Mande, the kasala songs of the
Luba-Kasaiare cases in point.6 The abundantanimalepic cycles, of which we
possess many more or less comprehensive examples for various parts of
Africa,also fall outside the scope of this study.7
Epic-like narrativesand recitations centered around ancestors, kings,
genealogies,migrations,places, battles, grouphistories,are not coveredin this
survey. Prominent examples of these epic-like narratives are: the royal
nshoong atoot recitations of the Kuba (Zaire Republic), the dispersalof the
Kusaof the Soninke(Mali Republic),the story of Wagaduof the Soninke, the
story of Wamaraand his descendantsamongthe Haya (Tanzania).8Finally, I
exclude from consideration the written epics of the Swahili of East Africa,
and some other epics more recently written by Africancreativewriters.9
In this study, I will limit myself to the discussion of a number of
well-established,adequately documented,and orally transmittedheroic epics,
mostly from Mande-speakingpeoples in WestAfricaand from Bantu-speakers

in CentralAfrica. The major focus is on the Sunjata,Monzon, and Silamaka
epic traditionsfrom the Mandeka,Bambara,and Fulaniin WestAfrica;on the
mvet traditions of the Fang in Cameroun;on the Mubila,Mwindo, Lianja,
Lofokefoke, and Kudukeseepics from the Lega,Nyanga,Mongo, Hamba,and
Mbole in the Zaire Republic.Some other epic traditionsfrom Nigeria,Ghana,
East and South Africaare briefly mentioned as well.
EPICSFROMWESTAFRICA
TheMonzon Cycle of the Bambara
The Monzon epic cycle of the Bambara(MaliRepublic)centers around

Monzon and his son, Da Monzon, two historically known kings who ruled
over Segu (Mali Republic) from 1787 to 1827. Three fairly long episodes of
this cycle have been published.'1 Scoresof similarepisodes are known to the
bards, and many different versionsof the epic are sung.11 No complete text
or advanced analysis are available.Thus the relationshipsbetween episodes,
their place in the total epic, and the full content of the epic are as yet
undocumented.
In the episode of Monzon and Duga, the bard evokes the causesof the
conflict between Monzon and Duga, the king of Kore; the role played by
Monzon'sson in the subsequentbattles;the death of both Monzonand Duga;
and the enthronement of Da, the son of Monzon.'2 The principal events
narratedin this passageare as follows. The son of one of Monzon'sgreatest
bards visits Duga and decides to remainwith him. Monzon, deeply affected
by this insult, asks his son, Tiefolo, to capture Duga. He refuses and is,
therefore, killed. But Monzon's other son, Da, accepts the challenge and
musters a large army. Soon Da sets up camp aroundthe city of Kore, but the
beleagueredDuga refuses to take the matter seriously. He invites Da for a
hydromel party. Duga'sfirst wife has heardmany things about Da, and out of
love for him, she managesduringthe night to join Da who has gone back to
his troops. Da asks for her help and promises to marry her after Duga's
defeat. So Duga's wife secretly overhearsa divinationceremonybetween her
husband and the great interpreter and sacrificer of the caiman god. She
secretly transmits all instructions and details to Da. Duga is defeated and
captured. Transforminghimself into an eagle, then into a lion by means of
powerful amulets, Duga warns about the imminent death of Monzon, Da's
father. Duga kills himself with a gunshot. Da's intentions to marryDuga's
wife are opposed by his father's counsellors,and they secretly kill her. Soon
THE AFRICAN HEROIC EPIC 9
after, Monzon dies as predicted from a sudden sickness.Da is installedas the

new king.
The episode Da Monzon of Segu is a panegyric for the king, Da
Monzon, who ruled for about forty years over the kingdom of S6gu. 3 The
praises center around S6gu, his sages and seers, his warriors,his subjects, its
king and his powerful magicaldevices. The king is glorified as "he who does
not sharepower with anybody," and "the most gloriousmasteron earth."
The passageDa Monzon and Karta Thiema celebratesone of the many
conflicts in which Da Monzonwas involvedagainsthis vassals. 4 Thiema,the
ruler of Karta(a province dependingon the kingdomof Segu),tired of being
a subordinate,revolts againstDa Monzon,and explainshis intentions duringa
splendid feast, the circumstances and discussions of which are evoked in
detail by the bard. A female master-singerwarns him against S6gu, but he
rejects her advice. An old woman, known for her impudence, helps Thiema
invent a way to send a major insult to Da Monzon. The bard describesin
great detail the preparations,the arrivalof the messengers,the actualinsults,
and the subsequentdialoguesand speeches. For three months Da Monzonand
his people are involved in preparations.Outside the walls of Karta,several
encountersbetween horsementake place. In each battle Thiema'swarriorsare
easily decimated. Thi6ma himself takes up the fight. He is equipped with
various magicaldevices and is invulnerable(because his body is washedwith
twenty-two different concoctions). In variousindividualengagementsagainst
some of Da Monzon's finest warriors,Thiema is completely successful. The
battle scene climaxes with an encounter between Thi6ma and the Fulani
Chief, Hambodedio Pate. Hambod6diois the stronger.Kartais set afire and
Thiema is captured and taken back to Segu. People await in vain his public
punishment. No one ever knew exactly what happened to him. Only the
Niger River, it is said, knows the full story. Hambodedio,on the other hand,
becomes Da Monzon'sson-in-law.
The poetic verse or lines, in which these publishedfragmentsof the Da
Monzon Cycle are formulated, abound with beautiful passages.There are
long, lofty speeches interspersedwith succinct aphoristic statements;lively
dialogues;descriptionsof scenes of festivity, of battle, of divination;praises
and imprecations;evocations of great deeds and suggestionsof extraordinary
magicalpossessions;secret councils and public statements.
The SilamakaEpic of the Fulani
A long and magnificentpassageof this epic was narratedby the Fulani

bard, MarabalSamburu,in the Macinaarea (Mali Republic). 5 The epic is
also known in other regionsinhabited by the Fulani. 6 Silamaka,the central

hero of the epic, is a historical figure. As a leader (ardo) of the Fulani, he
lived under the previously mentioned Da Monzon, the king of Segu, and
rebelled against him. The epic narrates the following events. Hammadi,a
leader of the Fulani and a vassal of Da Monzon, has a son, Silamaka.
Silamaka'sclosest friend and companion is Puluru, the son of Hammadi's
house slave, Baba. Forty days after his birth, Silamakagives signs of his
exceptional qualities. While Da Monzon'smessengersare collecting tribute in
his father'shomestead, Silamaka,seated on a mat, is not even botheredby a
horsefly sucking blood from his forehead. The messengers take the
extraordinarynews back to Da Monzon. Seers and sagesare consulted. They
announce the birth of "a terriblechild" that can be killed only by powerful
magic. But no magic can destroy Silamakaand his friend, Puluru.Silamaka
and Pulurugrow up. A young woman, courted by many men, challengeshim
to give proof of his much lauded bravery against Da Monzon. Silamaka
consults a geomancer. To become invulnerablehe must capture alive the
sacred serpent of the galamani woods, mark it with signs, cover it with
leather, and wear it as a belt. Hundredsof his warriorsfail to achieve this
deed, but ridinghis white horse, Soperekagne,the hero himself capturesthe
serpent and makes it into a belt. There follows a long passagein which three
bards from the West arriveconsecutively in the villagesof the four foremost
Fulani leaders. EverywhereSilamakais quoted as the bravestof them all. The
next passage celebrates a conflict between the two heroes, Silamakaand
Hambodedio, because of an insult made by the latter against Silamaka's
friend. Silamaka,on the winning side, shows mercy for Hambodedio,who
asks for forgiveness. The following year we are back in Silamaka'svillage
where Da Monzon's messengershave come to collect tribute. But Silamaka
hides the gold and insults Da Monzon. Therefollow a numberof unsuccessful
attempts by Da Monzon's messengersand horsemen to captureSilamaka.He
defeats successive waves of attackers. But in a battle that opposes him to a
Fularadio, he must flee back to his village. He is helped by his sister and
consoled by his friend, Puluru.In a renewedbattle againstFularadioand five
hundred horsemen, Silamaka kills Fularadio. Larger and larger waves of
horsemen sent out by Da Monzon attack in vain Silamaka,his friend, and a
small number of horsemen. Silamaka,in doubt about the death of so many
people and the consequences of his acts, consults a diviner. His coming
glorious death is predicted. In the meantime Da Monzon, with the help of
many sages and seers, has prepared a powerful magical device that will
destroy Silamaka. Before embarkingon his last battle, Silamakasends his
friend, Puluru,off with a secret messagefor Hambodedio.In it he announces
his coming death and the supreme leadership of Hambodedio. During the
ensuing battle, Silamakais killed by an uncircumcisedyoung albino with an
arrow dipped in the pounded bones of a black steer. The horse of the dying
hero carrieshim back to the villagewhere the returningPulurucan only weep
for his friend's death. Da Monzon sends many horsemen against Silamaka's
village, but Puluruflees on horsebackwith his and Silamaka'ssons. Carrying
Silamaka'senchantedspear,he splits the attackinghorsemeninto two groups:
one groupwhich he pursues,one groupby which he is pursued.Night falls, all
disappear.Nobody knows where they reallywent, but legend has it that they
all went to heaven. Hambodediofinally obtains from Da Monzonthe promise
that the Macinaarea, over which Silamakaruled, will not be reduced to a
state of captivity. In the beautiful poetic verse or lines of this epic, the bard
harmoniously intermingles the narrative of events and deeds with praises,
aphoristicexpressions,conversations,and challenges.
The SunjataEpic of the Mandeka
The epic of this thirteenth-centuryking of the Mali Empire is well

known through varioussources.' 7 It is still widely sung in many areasthat at
one time formed part of the MaliEmpire,'8 and is part of a common, central
tradition that links many Mande-speaking peoples acrossseveralWestAfrican
countries, such as Guinea, Mali, Senegal, the Gambia, Ivory Coast, Upper
Volta, and Ghana. The thematic material of the epic obviously varies from
performer to performer, from performanceto performance,and probably
also from region to region. Bird, however, has clearly delineated the central
core of the epic which, in the variousknown versions,centers arounda triple
set of data: the events leading to the birth of Sunjata,his youth and 'exile
from the Mande, his return to reconquer the Mande from the impostor,
Sumanguru.9 The thematic outline is as follows. FarakuMaganCenyi, father
of the future hero, Sunjata, receives the prophecy that he will beget a son
who will become a great king. For the prophecy to come true, Maganmust
marry a woman brought to him by a hunter. The story then shifts to two
hunters travelingthrough the bush in pursuit of an enormousbuffalo, which
has decimated many subjects of a local king. They meet with an old woman,
whom they befriend, and who is none other than the buffalo (the woman, in
other words, has the power of metamorphosis).She explains to the hunters
the secrets for killing the buffalo on the condition that the hunters ask the
local king for the ugliest woman as a prize for their efforts. Havingachieved
their task, the hunters claim and receive the ugliest woman, called Sogolon.
The senior of the two huntersdoes not want to take her as a wife because, as
is stated in one of the versions,he saw a column of light risingfrom her body.
The hunters arrivein Magan'svillage and present him with Sogolon. Magan's
first wife, SasumaBerete, and his second wife, Sogolon, become pregnantthe
same day. They simultaneouslygive birth to two sons, respectively called
Dankarantumaand Sunjata. Magan proclaims Sunjata as his heir, but the
jealous Sasuma places a curse on him. For seven (or nine) years Sunjatais
unable to walk. Whenhe finally stands up, leaning on a giganticiron staff, it
is to revengethe honor of his mother. Growingup as a youth in his village,
Sunjataaccumulatesextraordinaryhunting and magicalskills, and establishes
alliances with the spirits of the bush. An intense conflict develops between
him and his half-brother,Dankarantuma.Feeling that the existence of his
mother, brother, and sister are threatened, Sunjata takes his mother and
brother into exile to Mema,in Mossi country. Here he lives by hunting. His
skills are much appreciatedby the local king and he stays for many years. In
the meantime Dankarantumais chased from his kingdomby Sumanguru,the
blacksmith-kingof Sosso. Terrorreignseverywhereand all the oracles point
to Sunjata as the possible savior of his people. Messengers,sent out to find
him, convince Sunjatato return.His mother, Sogolon, dies on the way home.
Sunjatasets up allianceswith variouskings and builds an army to reconquer
Mandefrom Sumanguru.Sumanguruhas an immensepower;in one versionit
is said that he has sixty-nine ways of metamorphosis. In the first two
encounters, Sunjata is defeated. Finally, with the help of his sister and of
Fakoli, Sumanguru'snephew, Sunjata learns about Sumanguru'ssecrets. He
achieves a complete victory on the Niger plain at KirinaSumanguru,fleeing
northward, is trapped but manages to transform himself into stone. The
open-ended epic glorifies the further expansion and stabilization of the
empire up to Sunjata's death. In one version Sunjata, having broken an
ancestralpact with the Fulani, drownsand is changedinto an hippopotamus.
Some versions may include an account of Sunjata's descendants and the
history of the empireup to the presentday.
OtherEpicsfrom WestAfrica
The Ozidi epic of the Ijaw of Southern Nigeriais only partiallyknown

to me.20 In the city-state of Oruathere are many warlords,but Ozidi is the
most prominent of them all. King after king dies and finally, Temugedege,
Ozidi's idiotic brother, is made king. Ozidi, angered over his brother's
behavior,abuses the town. Severalwarlordsconspireagainsthim and kill him
in ambush. Ozidi's wife and her mother fly back to their home town, and
there the wife becomes posthumously pregnant.After a normal pregnancy,
she delivers a son, the younger Ozidi, at the end of a seven day long labor
coinciding with a great storm. The remainingpart of the epic deals with the
extraordinaryevents of his youth, his apprenticeshipswith his grandmother,
the great witch, Oreami.The hero goes throughmany battles and adventures
to regainthe lost glory of his lineage. In the wordsof Clark:"In this process,
he oversteps the natural bounds set to his quest, and it is not until he has
received divine visitation from the Small-Pox King that he emerges purged
and vindicated."21
Various sources mention other epics from West Africa, such as Klama
of the Adangme (Ghana) and Gassire of the Soninke.22 The published
documentation,however, does not allow furtherdiscussionof them.
EPICSOF THE BANTU-SPEAKING

PEOPLES
TheMwindo Cycle of the Banyanga
Biebuyck has recorded five epics and severalepic fragmentsamong the

Nyanga (Zaire Republic). The epics center around the hero, Mwindo, also
called in some versions Mwindo Mboru, Kabutwakenda,and Kaboru ka
Mwindo.23 In one published version of the Mwindo epic from the Banyanga
(Zaire Republic) the central hero, Mwindo, is the miraculouslyborn son of
Chief Shemwindo and his preferredwife.24 Rejected by his father, who did
not want any of his wives to bear sons, the newly born Mwindosuccessfully
escapes his father's attempts to kill him. Locked up in a drumby his father's
counsellors, he travelsin a riverin searchof his father'ssister,who is married
to Water-Serpent.Liberatedfrom the drumby his paternalaunt, lyangura,he
returnswith her to his village in searchof his father. Mwindocould walk and
talk from birth. He had the gift of premonition and was born with a magical
scepter and shoulderbag.Thus on the journey home he performsextraordi-
nary deeds until he reacheshis village from which his fatherhas escaped.He
destroys the village and sets out, in subterraneantravels, in search of his
father. In the realm of subterraneanbeings and divinities he successfully
performs many Herculean tasks, until his father is turned over to him. He
carries his father home, revivifying on his way the many enemies whom he
had overcome. A great council is convened in which all parties express
opinions. The kingdom is divided into two parts, one ruled by the hero, one
ruled by his father. But the troublesare not finished. Mwindo'sPygmies,on a
hunting party, are swallowed by the dragon,Kirimu.Mwindohimself goes to
defeat the dragon and to liberate his Pygmies. But the destruction of the
dragon disturbs Lightning, a friend and ally of both Mwindo and Kirimu.
Lightning comes to seize the hero, and rambles with him in the celestial
realms of Moon, Sun, Star, and others for one full year. Here the p6werless
here undergoes, in pure passivity, his final purification. He is returned to
earth with plenty of warnings and prescriptions.Mwindo now rules as a
glorious chief, prescribing for his people a set of rules for harmonious
interrelationships.
The LianjaEpic Cycle of the Mongo
Severalversionsof the Lianjaepic of the Mongo(Zaire Republic)have

been published by Boelaert and his collaborators.25The thematic core of
these epics has been synthesized by De Rop.26 I present his synthesis in
summary. The different versions generally begin with a longer or shorter
introduction in which the creation of the world or the ancestorsof the hero
(beginning with his great-grandfather)are depicted. The world of Lianja's
ancestors is already filled with extraordinaryevents. Mbombe,the mother of
the hero to be born, eats only a rare losau fruit duringher pregnancy.Her
husband, Ilele, compelled to searchfor it has initial successes,but finally dies
in his many battles with animalsand birdsaroundthe mysterioustree. When
the news of her husband'sdeath reaches the village, Mbombe begins to give
birth to variousanimalsand humans.Finallyher twin children,Lianjaand his
sister, Nsongo, are born. Accordingto some versions,the birth is miraculous.
Lianjacomes out of his mother'stibia with all the weaponsand insigniaof his
father. Nsongo, carryingvarious objects, is born fully adult and beautiful.
Right after birth, Lianjasets out to revengehis father. In one version he is
accompanied by an army that includes Pygmoids, members of different
Mongo tribes, and insects (ants, bees, wasps). Havingdestroyed his father's
murderer,Lianjanow leads his people to a promisedland near the river. He
conquers several forest tribes and, at the request of his sister, incorporates
them into his army. He also fights with ogres. As they progresstowards the
river,variousgroups stay behind and settle the land. Arrivingnear the river,
Lianjaestablishes his people, then assembles them around a tall palm tree.
Carryinghis sister on the hip, his senior brother on the knees, his mother on
the shoulders, he disappears into the sky. One version deals with the
descendants of Lianja,his son and his grandson,who continue their battles
againstenemy tribes, and his daughter,who givesbirth to the ancestorsof the
whites.
TheMubilaEpic of the Balega (ZaireRepublic)
This is one of a cycle of epics that revolvearoundvariousheroes.27 The

epic begins with the circumstancesthat lead to the hero's birth. His father,
Yombi, has forty-one wives. Thirty-ninesons and one daughterare born of
his first forty wives in rapid succession. Thereafter, his most junior and
beloved wife gives birth to the hero, Mubila.Before and after birth, Mubila
has many propertiesand characteristics.He speaksin the womb, uses magical
formulae, and selects his own name. The hero is born holding a spear, a knife,
a shield, a belt, and a necklace. Mubilahas a shoulderbagin which he can hide
all his followers, and he possesses a love whistle. He has very long nails and
eyebrows like an elephant tail. Withinhimself, he has an immaterialsubstance
which he consults and which adviseshim in all difficulties.Mubilahas the gift
of prognosis, great physical strength, and he can fly through the air. He is
vulnerablebut possesses the power of resuscitation.Right after birth, Mubila
is ready for exceptional action which he himself elicits. The hero acts as the
senior of all the brothers.He decides to build his own village,leaveshis father
behind with one of his brothers,and settles with the others in the new village.
Soon after, he hears the news of his father's death. He accuses his brother,
Youthful-Greatness,of his father's death, compellinghim to flee to a remote
village. This event gives rise to a first set of episodes. Mubila,in searchof his
brother, is faced with events that rapidly develop into a consecutivechain of
difficulties, confrontations, and successes. For example, he seduces and
marrieshis first wife, Kabungulu,who becomes his most powerful ally. He
enters into conflict with severaldiviners.He seduces and marrieshis second
wife and pursuesthose who eloped with his sister. He has encounterswith the
Maiden-with-the-half-closed-eyes, with Fish and Water-Serpent,with Snail-
shell-collector, and so on. One event leads to another, each apparently
resolved conflict develops into a new one. And, particularly, Mubila is
incessantly faced by new dilemmas at the Junction-of-the-one-hundred-
forty-trails.In one of his violent encounters,Mubilais spearedand apparently
dies. In the meantime his newbornson, Ashes, sets out to recoverhis father's
body. Faced by his son and wife, Mubila'sbody revivifies. A new set of
episodes develop in search of Shrieking-Song,who had killed him, and of
Bungoe, who had given hospitality to Shrieking-Song.In the course of this
action Mubila, with the help of his wives and brothers, engages in many
battles and other activities. He fights with heroes and personifiedanimals.He
marries his third wife. He is involved in hunting, honey gathering, felling
trees, trapping, dice and ball games. He is partiallyinitiated into the bwami
association and undergoes a second circumcision. He dies and resuscitates
again. An endless series of events and feats build up aroundeach action. The
constant flow of these extraordinarysituationsis regularlyinterruptedby the
hero's returnto his village and by his returnto the Junction-of-one-hundred-
forty-trails,where new dilemmaspose themselves. The long epic ends, rather
abruptly, in medias res, in Mubila'shome village, which he has cleared from

an intruder,and where people engagein drummingand dancing.
The Kudukeseand Lofokefoke Epics
Shorter epics from the Mongo-related Mbole and Hamba (Zaire

Republic) have been published by Jacobs.28 The heroes in these epics
(Kudukese, among the Hamba, and Lofokefoke, among the Mbole) are
different from the central charactersin the other alreadydiscussedepics in
that they combine both human and animal traits. The Kudukese epic opens
with the history of two beings, Mbodyetongaand Ehanjola,and the magical
tricks they play on each other. This leads to a wonderfulforest world and the
fantastic hunting adventures of Cetakolo and Ngengu (two personified
animals). Attracted by the voices of women, these two hunters travel for
hundredsof miles through the forest to find a giant tree loaded with young
women. The hunters, and many other animals, try in vain to reach the
women. There finally emerges Kudukese, dressed as a great initiate and
carryinghis divination calabash. With the help of magicalmeans he reaches
the women, takes one for himself and distributes the others among the
animals.Kudukesenow travelsthroughthe land, destroyinghis many enemies
who try to seize his wife. In these encountershe dies and resuscitatestwo
times. His third death, however, is fatal. Ofunga, a sorcerer who killed
Kudukese,seizes the latter'swife. Kudukeseis buried,and soon thereafterhis
wife is expecting a child. Ofungais killed by Kudukese'sfollowers, and when
she hears about his death, his wife givesbirth to variousthings: rivers,a giant
spider, and to the hero, Okangate.Okangateis miraculouslyborn. He speaks
in the womb. He is fully adult from birth and extremely tall. His mother dies
after his birth. Okangateperformsmany wonderfuldeeds, but childrenscorn
him as an orphan.So he bringshis mother back to life, and engagesin a series
of feats to find out where and by whom his fatherwas killed. He returnsfrom
each of these expeditions without his father, but loaded with many things for
his mother (baskets, sheep, pigs, elephants,blacksmiths,even the sun and the
moon). In each crisis his major help comes from the giant spider. The
open-endedepic finishes abruptly. The narratorsimply states that Okangate,
his mother, and the giant spiderdied of hunger,and that Okangatewas buried
in a cave.
In the Lofokefoke epic of the Mbole (Bambuli), the central hero,
Lofokefoke, presents himself under a semi-animal(rodent) and semi-human
form. A hunterencountersa largetree filled with women. He and some of his
people, however, are unable to get at them. So they send for Bakese
Bonyonga, who lives in a remote area, past the region of the spirits of the
dead. Bakese succeeds in his efforts. With his wife, whom he has taught a
magicalincantation and given a powerful amulet, Bakesesuccessfullydefeats
many animal foes. He arrives in the village of Bosunga. After a good
reception, the conflicts begin. Bakese (standing on the roofs of the houses
and intercepting spears thrown at him) kills Bosunga's people, but finally
Bosunga kills him and takes his wife. Soon, thereafter, the woman is
pregnant. She desires to eat only certain fruits which Bosungamust collect.
Bosunga is killed by the spirits of the dead. For a full year the woman
continues to weep for her deceased first husband.As she goes on, all persons
killed by Bakese are resuscitated.She givesbirth to seven children,the last of
whom is Lofokefoke. The miraculously born Lofokefoke immediately
inquiresabout the place where his father has died. Relentlessly,he performs
many amazing deeds that prove his invulnerability. For seven years
Lofokefoke and his brothers pursue an elephant, which he had killed before
and which had magicallyescaped him. The elephant is finally found dead in
his village. Lofokefoke plays ball with the elephants, batting with a whole
tree and throwing the ball as high as the sun. He capturesthe discouraged
elephant and returns home. On his homebound journey, he decimates the
people of many villageswith his knives, Longomboand Lolakanga.He crosses
the Lomami River, whose waters separate for him. He then arrivesin the
villages of several brothers, always in a destructive mood, but he does not
succeed in killing them. After his return, he fights for seven years againsthis
senior brother, Basele, without results. He kills his sister Manganaand he
resumes the fight against Basele without success. He engagesin many other
fights, hunts, killings, and extraordinaryfeats. The epic ends with a number
of exploits, which Lofokefoke performs to convince his son of his force.
During his last effort to kill all the hippopotami of the Lomami River,
Lofokefoke is killed. All his children are killed in trying to destroy the
hippopotami.
TheAkoma Mba Cycle
An elaborateepic cycle centersaroundthe hero, Akoma Mba,a rulerof

Engong, among the Fang and some other groupsin a wide areaof the Gabon,
the CamerounRepublic, and the Rio Muni.29 Akoma Mba,conceivedout of
incestuous relationshipsbetween a brother and a sister, is miraculouslyborn
after his mother had carried him for one hundred and fifty years. He
terrorizeshis entourageand is, therefore,given to a certainMbaof the Ekang
tribe who marrieshis mother. His father calls him "Wrinkleof Elephant,son
of Mba," but since he becomes fiercer and fiercer, people call him Akoma
Mba, the creator of Mba (as if he had brought forth his own father). During
his entire youth, Akoma Mba engages in many extraordinaryexploits to
become the ruler of all the Ekang. Havingtaken power, he goes to establish
himself with his people, the Ekang, at Engong. Akoma Mbarules as absolute
monarch among a strong people, for all Ekang are invulnerable,invincible,
and immortal.3
One long text celebrates the conflict between Akoma Mba and Abo
Mama. Dissatisfied with the choice of a certain Otungu Mba as territorial
chief, Abo MamaremovesOtunguMbafar in the forest away from his people.
In the meantimetwo cousins are born the same day that they were conceived.
It is their mission to find and to revenge OtunguMba. Before embarkingon
his task, however, one of the cousins, MenganaMba, crosses the universein
search of "that to which nothing can be compared."After many peripeties,
he finally arrivesin the land of King Mfim Ekie and is transformedinto a
woman. Akoma Mba gets the news; he assembleshis people, and engagesin a
war against Mfim. Akoma Mbalocks the entire country of Mfim up in a rock
which he transportshome. Mfim becomes Akoma Mba'ssubject, and he and
his people must do all the agriculturalwork for the Ekang. In a following
passageAkoma Mba is involved in a war againstMbo Mama,which he finally
wins after many initial difficulties.3
TheMvet of Zwe Nguema
The action centers around the humans of the land of Oku who try to
steal immortality from the immortal beings of Engong Country.32 The
prologue of the epic gives an elaborateintroductionto the immortalbeings of
Engong (their origins, their genealogy, their leaders,the events in which they
were involved) and how the people of Oku separated from them. Soon a
conflict develops between the two groups. Zong Midzi, of the land of Oku,
sends a challenge to the land of Engong, because a certain Angone Endong
over there does not let him breathe freely. Informed about the arrivalof
messengers, the people of Engong, under the command of Akoma Mba
assemble to hear the announcement of the coming battle. On the point of
leaving to confront Zong Midzi alone, Angone Endong deposits his weapons
at the request of Nkudang.She is a girl who had remainedindifferentbefore
thousands of suitors and who now desires Zong Midzi, whom she has never
seen but whose name she likes. Unable to find messengers,she convincesher
mother to accompany her to her maternaluncle's in the land of Oku. During
the journey she learns that, for Zong Midzi, no one counts more than his
wife, the beautiful Esone Abeng. Arrivingat her maternaluncle's, Nkudang

asks him to go and fetch Zong Midzi.In the meantimemany suitorsvisit her,
but only Nsure Afane, the incomparableboy, enjoys her favors. Zong Midzi
receives the message of her arrival.Irritatedand intrigued,he armshimself
and goes, accompaniedby his wife Esone Abeng. They spend the night on the
road. That night, Nsure Afane feels that disaster is coming. He alerts the
villageand returnswith Nkudangand her mother to the land of Engong.Zong
Midzi and his wife pursuethem and meet with them at the crossroadsof eight
trails. Soon a conflict develops. Zong Midzi beheads Nkudang.Nsure Afane
beheads Zong Midzi'swife and flies on a magic ball back to Engong,carrying
the two heads. The ill fate is already known in Engong, for Akoma Mbahas
seen all events in his mirror.It is decided that Nsure Afane must die, but he
managesto escape on the magic ball. Zong Midziis now ravagingthe villageof
Nsure. In the meantime the best warriorsof Engong, flying with iron wings,
are in his pursuit. Nsure Afane, returnedto his village, engagesin a fantastic
combat with Zong Midzi. The battle continues when one of the Engong
warriorstakes over. Zong Midziis immobilizedfor a moment, but managesto
disappearunder the ground where his ancestorsprotect him. He returnsafter
four days, equipped with magic weapons. The warriors of Engong get
seriously hurt. But they use new devices and they blind Zong Midzi with a
tuft of feathers.One Engongwarriorcaptureshim, and flies back with him to
Engong, while the others continue to ravagethe land of Oku. Badlyguarded
in the place of the secret council, Zong Midzi escapes and returns to his
ancestors in Oku. They decide to make him immortal like the people of
Engong. But their work is interruptedby Scorpion, who was sent out by the
Engong people to track him. Akoma Mbaand his magicianin Engongsee at a
distance everything that happens. Foreseeing the dangersinvolved in Zong
Midzi's immortality, they request the ancestors of Engong to halt the
transformationof Zong Midzi. He returns to his normal state, but receives
from his ancestors a magicalgun whose bullets follow their aim whereverhe
goes. Entrenchedin his cavern, Zong Midzi must come out of it to avoid
being asphyxiated by the warriorsof Engong. The bullets work relentlessly,
but one of the Engongwarriorsmanagesto stick a magnetizedshield to Zong
Midzi'sback and propel him to Engongby means of a magicball. Zong Midzi
is now back in Engong in the place of the Secret Council. His charmsare
removed.Akoma Mbamakeshis belly explode and Zong Midzidies.
Kapepe
Among the Benamukuni(Lenje) of Zambia, an epic text that shows

many similaritieswith the Nyanga epics glorifies Kapepe.33 Born againsthis

father's will, but aided by his mother, some cousins and an old woman,
Kapepe must marrythe daughterof the supremegod, Lesa. On his journey,
the hero receives from an old woman a magicalfeatherwhich counsels him in
all circumstances. Many obstacles notwithstanding (elephants, buffaloes,
serpents, lions, large rivers,mountains), the hero arrivesin the city of God.
Here he overcomes all tricks and successfullypasses through all the ordeals
that are imposed upon him. HavingreceivedGod's daughter,he clearsall the
new obstacles and dilemmasthat confront him on his journey home. Soon,
however, the divine wife, bored with terrestriallife, returnshome, followed
by Kapepe, who also decides to remainin God's realm.34
THE BARDS
The various bards who actually sang, recited, and narratedthe epic
texts discussed in this study are obviously known by name.35 Many
interestingdata are availableabout the generalsocial backgroundand position
of these bards and their methods of performance.But more work needs to be
done on their personality, their methods of learning, and their individual
creativetalents.
Among the Mande-speakingpopulations,these bards,calledgriot in the
literature,constitute distinctive groups of specialistsin a caste-likestructure.
Among the Bambara,the epic-singingbards (jeli) form one of severalartisan
castes. They hold the exclusive patrimony of the greatepics, such as Sunjata
and Da Monzon. The female bards of this caste specialize in praise songs.36
The bards in this cultureare many things: musicians;arbitersand negotiators;
counsellors of headmen, chiefs, and kings; historians. Of course, not every
one in such a caste is a musician or bard. Young individualsare carefully
selected because of their talents. They specialize in the playing of different
musical instruments. An apprenticeshiplasts from five to ten years, and
combines manual and intellectual work. The mvet performersof the Gabon
and Camerounareafall into two categories:those who sing and play the mvet
instrument, those who sing and are accompaniedby another musician. A
good performer always has several apprentices, sometimes from different
villages. When an apprentice is well instructed, he passes through a formal
initiation that may last severaldays. Duringthe secret part of the initiation,
he receives the magic objects that will stimulate his imaginationand instruct
him in the variousprescriptionslinked with his function. During the public
part of the initiation, he drinksand eats prescribedconcoctions, undergoesa
test of cleverness,and gives a night performance.37
The bards of the Nyanga do not belong to any kind of specializedor

exclusive lineages or clans. However, the epic-singingbards of the Nyanga,
whom I have studied, have close connections throughtheir ascendancy,or in
the line of bards whose traditions they perpetuate,with the Pygmies. From
many points of view, their social position is not different from that of other
narratorsor musicians;only their fame is greater.
The publishedliteraturedoes not yet allow us to fully assessthe degree
to which and the mannerin which the individualcreative art of each bardis
reflected in his performance,and how this individual creativity may be at
work from performanceto performance.The element of individualvariability
is undoubtedlystrong,because the bardis, as Albert Lordhas pointed out for
other epic traditions, not just a performing,but also a creative artist. He
creates while he performs. He selects, adjusts, and modifies episodes,
sometimes in response to the actual composition of his audience or in
response to the social position of his hosts and sponsors.On the other hand,
he acts and performsin an ethnic world where principlesof conformity and
tradition are very strong. Moreover,he consciously representsand follows
certain "schools" of tradition, since he is a member of a certain family of
bards or a certainlineage, and since he learnedhis art from particularmasters.
Among the Fang, for example, the greatbardsgive genealogiesof the specific
narrators(as many as eleven in some cases) whose traditionsthey perpetuate.
Among the Nyanga, each bard clearly indicates a line of three to four
narratorswhose tradition he represents.In other words, in judgingindividual
creativitywe must realizethat there exist within any givenethnic groupmany
parallel traditions developing within the overall stylistic and thematic
tradition. A comparison of five epics of the Mwindo cycle indicates con-
siderable differences in actual wording, poetic imagery, number and ar-
rangement of episodes, elaboration of heroic themes and characters, and
value emphasis. But all this is worked into a stable core of epic themes,
structure and plan. No one knows exactly how many epic texts (full texts,
independent episodes, and fragments) a single bard may know, and how
extensive his knowledge of the other genres is, but there are definitely great
differences from narratorto narrator.Among the Bambara,a singlegriot may
know as many as twelve episodes of ten thousand verses each.38 A narrator
like Sherunguamong the Nyanga knows only one fairly complete, but short,
epic though his knowledge of songs, proverbs,riddles, prayers,formulaeand
tales includes severalhundredsof texts. In some areas,like Nyangaor Hamba,
the number of bards knowing more or less complete versions of an epic had
dwindled to a few individuals during the fifties and sixties. Elsewhere, as
amongthe Bambaraor Mongo,their numbersare much larger.
THEPERFORMANCES
The performancesof epics are highly complex events which must be

viewed as total social and artisticphenomena.Besidesthe actualbardand his
aides (eventuallyincluding the apprentices),there is a diverse,and sometimes
large, actively participatingaudience. There is a constant interplaybetween
these three categories of participants.The actual presentation of the epic
narrative is enhanced with musical performance (one or more musical
instruments,eventually of different type); appropriatecostumes and adorn-
ments, singing, chanting, praising, dialoguing, dancing, gesticulating,hand-
clapping;dramaticre-enactments,and gift exchanges.
In most areas, the bards are specially dressed or adorned for the
occasion. Among the Nyanga the paraphernaliaareminimal;the bardholds a
calabashrattle and a small scepter (made of a roughlycarvedwooden handle
that is adornedwith some feathers)in his hands. The Mongobards,wearinga
feather hat, adorn their bodies and face with variousgeometricaldesigns,and
carry a ceremonialknife or spear. Among the Fang, the bardswear a feather
hat, a mane-likecoiffure, a fiber skirt, a multitude of wild animal skins that
hang from their arms and waist, and anklet bells.39 Some of these simple
paraphernaliaseem to have very specialmeanings.For one, the bardsstrongly
identify with the principalhero of the epic; they may suggest his physical
presence by means of some of the objects and accoutrements.The scepter
carriedby the Nyangabard, Rureke,suggeststhe magicalconga-scepterof the
hero, Mwindo. The spear or knife held by the Mongo bards evoke the same
objects with which the hero, Lianja, was born. CertainMongo bards assert
that they could not sing and recite the epic without holding these objects,
which they receive from their teachers as a sign of their full-fledgedstatus as
bards.
During the narrationthe bards can be seated, but they also engage in
acting, miming, gesticulatingand dancing. The Nyanga bard interrupts the
narrationto enact certain activities or events in which the hero is involved.
This acting is also the reason why some bards, among the Fang, prefer to
leave the handlingof musicalinstrumentsto their aides.
Musical instruments, played by the bard and/or his aides, are an
essential part of the performance.In some areas the type and number of
musical instruments used are strictly determined. Among the Nyanga, the
bard accompanies himself with a calabash-rattle,while three aides do the
percussionon a dry housebeam or bamboo. The Mongobardis accompanied
by a small lokole-drumwhich may be replacedby two blocks of wood, each
beaten in a different rhythm by a percussionist. The Fang bard can
THEAFRICANHEROICEPIC 23
accompany himself with an elaborate chordophonecalled mvet. One or two

of these instruments can be played by his helpers, while other aides do the
percussionon a dry bamboo, a piece of banana stipe, or on a rolled-uphide.
Other Fang bards may be accompaniedby slit-drumsand membranophones.
In the Mande area of West Africa, the twenty-one string lute-harp(Kora) is
mostly used, but other instruments, such as xylophones, drums, or a
four-stringedbanjo-likeinstrument may be preferred.40The audience itself
invariablyresponds to the songs, and among the Hambaone of the listeners
providesthe rhythm by beating two sticks together. The aides, only male in
some areas,both male and female in other areas,may include apprenticesand
kinsfolk. Among the Fang, one such group comprisesthe wives and children
of the bard.41
In severalregions the entire epic is sung or chanted. Among the Mongo
and related groups, certain portions of the epic are sung and others are
narrated.The Nyanga bards sing the entire text, short episode after episode.
After each sung episode, they pause and re-narratethe text with appropriate
acting.
Each performance has its own flavor of originality. The bard is not
bound by a rigid text that he must follow with precision. He can introduce
into the narrativecertain episodes or characters,and leave others out. He
inserts personalreflections, proverbs,statements.He digressesto speak about
himself, his ancestors, his experiences, his clan or caste, his artistry, his
musical instrument,his teachers and predecessors,or about certainmembers
of the audience. The narrativemay be interspersedwith longerpauses,to eat
or drink, for dance performances,for dramaticaction, for musicalinterludes,
for praises.
On the whole, the performancesare not linked with specific, narrowly
defined ceremonies, rites, or periods of time. Bards perform at their own
initiative, or at the requestof a patronor host. For their rewardsthey largely
depend on the generosityof the audienceand the hosts. Most epics belong, so
to speak, to the entire community, to all the people. A large, mixed,
nonexclusive audience listens to and participatesin the performance.The
audience responds with dialogue and praises, refrain singing and dances,
handclappingand percussion. The performanceof an epic is an outstanding
example of collective rejoicing and of entertainment that enriches and
enlightens.
Performancestake place in the open air, in the setting of a villageor a
compound. The bard and his aides may also sit under a hangar or in a
communalhouse, as is the case among the Fang. In most instancesno specific
time is prescribed,but bards,like other narrators,seem generallyto preferthe
evening and the night. The actual length of the performanceis variable.This
is understandable;the performancecan easily be restrictedto one or more
self-contained episodes, and there is also the factor of fatigue. Episodes
narratedamong the Hambalasted about two and one-halfhours. The Mvet of
Zwe Nguema among the Fang was performed in one nightly session and
without interruption for ten hours. Mongo bards also prefer one long
continuous performance of the entire epic. The Nyanga and Lega perfor-
mances, that I attended, unrolled episode after episode for severalhours a
day, and for severaldays.
CONTENTAND STRUCTURE
It is clearfrom the foregoingsummariesthat the contents of these epics

vary widely from ethnic group to ethnic group. It is also certain that within
any of the epic-producingethnic groupsthere exist a greatnumberof parallel
epic traditions, clusteringabout different, relatedor unrelated,centralheroic
figures. There exist also within the ethnic groupnumerousparalleltraditions
of the same epic, because of the occurrenceof independentlyworkingbards
of different families, lineages, and clans, trained in different "schools" of
tradition. Individualvariability and creativity are at work, markingoff one
performerfrom another, and one performancefrom the other. On the other
hand, similar epic traditions may be distributed at the multiethnic level
among closely and more remotely related peoples. The Lianja epic, for
example, is found among such Mongo-speaking,closely related tribes as
Nkundo, Boyela, Ekota, Ekonda, Mongo of Basankusu.Epics very closely
akin in themes and structure to Lianjaoccur among more remotely related
groups as Hamba,Mbole (Bambuli), Langa, Basiamba.42The epic traditions
are pretty much open-ended.One performermay startwith a greatnumberof
preludes and introductions, tracing the origins of the heroes and the
antecedents of the events and actions, and introducingelaborategenealogies
and cosmologies. Another performermay begin, so to speak, in medias res,
with a vital event or activity that leads right into the main action, without
bothering about preliminariesand other explanatory materials.One perfor-
mer may focus in great detail on certain episodes and heroes, omitting or
barely suggestingother events and characters.Anotherperformermay indulge
in numerousdigressionsof all sorts, praisinghis hosts or himself, alludingto
personalexperiences,and introducinganecdotes, explanations,philosophical
and moral reflections. Some bardsdelight in detailed descriptionsof councils,
divinationand healing scenes, speeches, conversations,and verbalchallenges.
Others pass rapidly over such points, to ensurea steady flow of action. Some
bards finish the epic with the death or glorification of the main hero, others
pursuethe story of his heroic descendants.
Regardlessof these many differences,however, for each epic tradition
there seems to be a centralcore. In the variousknown versionsof the Sunjata
epic, Bird perceivesa clear-cutcentral core of thematic material.It includes
events leading to the birth of the hero; the hero's youth and exile from the
Mande; the hero's return to reconquer the Mande from Sumanguru.Each
major set includes a recurringnumber of episodes.43 De Rop has also shown
the recurrence,in the various versions of the Lianjaepic, of a central core
constructed around: the ancestors of the hero; the hero's parents, and his
father's death; the extraordinarybirth of the hero; the hero's revengeof his
father's death; the exodus to the promisedland.44 In a forthcomingwork on
the different versions of the Mwindo epic from the Nyanga, I have also
analyzed the core materials. More importantly perhaps, I have shown how
these Nyanga epics explicitly and implicitly follow a common spatialplan, in
which the main hero acts in the four cosmic spheresand their subdivisionsas
the Nyanga recognize them.45 Such a common thematic plan may even
underly epics from different, but related/orcontiguous,ethnic groups.Jacobs
has indicated how epics collected by him among the Hamba,Mbole, Langa,
Nkutshu, Kuni, Jonga, and Basiambaare constituted around the following
essential parts: the discovery of a tree with women; the pregnancy of the
hero's mother, and her desire for a certain type of fruit; the death of the
hero's father; the miraculous birth of the hero; the hero's adventuresand
journeys in search of revenge of his father's death; the death of the hero
(often presentedas three consecutivedeaths of the same hero).46
Underlyingthe variousepics are, of course, many of the quasi-universal
epic patterns with many variations from culture to culture, and within the
same culture. To give a few examples,the epics illustratemany different cases
of a miraculousconception and birth. One hero is born the same day that he
was conceived; another is born after a one hundred-fiftyyear long pregnancy
of his mother; still another is born through parthenogenesis.Some of the
heroes are active and can talk while they are still in their mother's womb.
They leave and reenter the womb freely and also decide autonomously the
mannerand the momentof birth. Oneis born throughthe palm of his mother's
hand, another through his mother'smedius, and still anotherby rippingopen
his mother's belly. The heroes are born possessingcertain gifts (the capacity
to walk and talk, the gift of prognosisand invulnerability)and holding certain
objects (knives, scepters, spears, shoulderbags,and so on). Most heroes are
ready for great action right after birth, but Sunjatais weak and cannot walk
for many years after his birth. There are numerousother common patterns:
Herculean deeds, extraterrestrialjourneys, fierce individual battles with

heroes, divinities,animals,dragons,and monsters;possessionof extraordinary
magicaldevices;tests of strength and intelligence;games.Some of the heroes
are quasi-invulnerableand invincible;others have the capacity to resuscitate
themselves and to revivify others, to make themselves invisible, and so on.
Whereasmost of the main heroes are fierce warriorsand ruthless fighters
possessing superhuman strength, there are exceptions to this pattern.
Mwindo, the hero of the Nyanga, is a small being; he is not a great killer or
fighter; he pays great attention to revivifying his defeated enemies, and
becomes, through purificationin the celestial sphere,a poised, peace-minded,
and balancedleaderof his people.47
Whatever the character of the heroes and the development and
elaboration of the epic patterns may be, all epics obviously provide rich,
unsolicited information on the cultures and societies in which they occur.
Therearereferencesto customs, institutions,patternsof behavior,techniques,
beliefs, and values throughout the epic, particularlyat certainstagesthrough
catalogues, genealogies,and descriptions.The ways in which and the extent
to which the culturalpatternsare directly or indirectlyreflected, distorted,or
omitted from these epics, need further detailed study. The analysis of the
Mwindoepics from the Nyanga shows, on the one hand, an immenseamount
of accuratedetail on variousaspectsof culture, and on the other hand, a lack
of such precision, a more or less deliberate distortion and a conscious
omission of other cultural features. This is not the result of the relative
knowledge of individualnarrators,nor a randomsituation,but a reflection of
deep values and thought patterns in Nyanga.48 The West African epics of
Sunjata,Monzon, and Silamakaoffer considerableinsight into the history of
the Mandeka,Bambara,and Fulani peoples. The centralheroes of these epics
are known historical figures. But even here, there is obviously much
manipulationof objective history for purposesof glorification,extravagance,
factionalism, and regionalism.49The extent to which history is reflected in
the epics of the Fang, the Mongo, the Nyanga or the Lega is difficult to
perceive. The central heroes are not immediately known historical figures.
These epics more or less explicitly refer to historical migrations,conflicts,
feuds, and wars in which such large,politically uncentralizedethnic groupsas
the Fang and Mongo have been involved.The Mubilaepic of the Legalargely
bears on an early historicalperiodwhen the Lega,dividedby internecinewar,
had not yet found the unifying bond of the bwami association.50 The
Mwindo epics of the Nyanga, on the other hand, providevery little historical
evidence-so little that even in casual statements, in vocabulary and
description,very few indications point to the fact that the Nyangamigrated
into the forest regionsfrom East Africa,and that they are in contact with not
only other Africanpeoples, but also Europeans.
African epics present extremely significanttestimonies about the value
systems and patterns of thought of African peoples. Several authors have
pointed out that in the Sunjata epic the main hero is depicted as a good
leader whose destiny it is to make immortalthe name of the MaliEmpire.He
is a good leader because by going into exile he avoids bringingthe intense
rivalrybetween himself and his father'sson to a climax. He returnsonly after
the throne has been left vacant and has been usurpedby a foreigner.5 Bird
sees a political charterunderlyingthe Sunjataepic: it not only instructs the
king in how to deal with people, but it also instructs the people about their
rights and duties toward the king. The king can be harshand severe,but not
unjust; he must, for example, respect the forces of love, trust, allegiance,
which keep society together. In a certainsense the hero, Sunjata,is a spiritual
more than a physicalforce. The Mwindoepic of the Nyangaexplicitly stresses
the values of hospitality, generosity, kinship, clemency, reconciliation, filial
piety, and so forth. For a majorportion of the epic, however,the characterof
the hero is in flagrant contradiction with the value code of the Nyanga.
Throughmuch of the epic, Mwindois arrogant,boisterous,agressive,verbose,
irascible, quarrelsome, pugnacious, and so on. These traits make him
somewhat funny and unlikely for the Nyanga.Ultimately,in a totally passive
manner, he goes through a complete catharsis and transformationat the
hands of the celestial elements. He returns to earth to rule in glory as a
poised, peace-lovingreflective chief. Mubila,the ruthless, militant, pompous
hero of one of the Lega epics, is throughout the epic in flagrantopposition
with the valuecode of moderationand temperancethat prevailsin the bwami
association which dominates Lega social and moral life. He illustrates,so to
speak, an earlier,archaic,unacceptabletype of leader. In the Lianjaepic the
values of perseverance, tenacity of purpose, courage, and honor are
prominently emphasized. The hero, in his pursuit of glory, must avoid all
actions that are blameworthyand shameful.52
AGE, ORIGIN,AND AUTHORSHIPOF THE EPICS
The questions of age and origin of the orally transmittedAfricanepics

- so important for the scientific study of the epic traditionsof other world
literatures - are of relatively little relevancein this study. For one, it does
not seem to be possible to ever find reasonableanswersto these questions.
Let us take the Nyanga. This small, forest-dwelling population, which
possesses an extremely complex and diversified culture, has very limited
historical interests. The Nyanga are conscious of having immigratedfrom

Uganda(East Africa)into the deep rainforest where they now live and where
they encountered and assimilated Pygmies and other archaic groups. The
actual processes, stages, and time periods at which all this happened are
largely irrelevantto them. The Nyangabards, who otherwise know so many
things, have only a shallow recollection of the predecessorswhose traditions
they follow. The few indications that they provide point to the possibility
that the epics, or at least the materialsof which epics are made, were already
known to the Pygmies before the Nyanga encounteredthem. Furthermore,
our present knowledge of the distribution of epics among Bantu-speaking
peoples points to areaswhere as among the Fang, the Mongo,the Mbole, the
Nyanga, and the Lega, Pygmy influences are very old and very significant.Is
this, at the same time, an indication of the great age of these epic materials?
Yet all this offers only a relativetime indication.The Sunjataepic celebrates
a ruler of the thirteenth century. It is possible that the core materialsof the
epic texts are as old as Sunjata,or even older. For, in these areas,there also
are hunters' epics, which may be much older than Sunjataand which have
probably served as models for it. It is also difficult, at this stage, to establish
clear connections between the epics of different ethnic groups. Let us, for
example, take the epic-producing forest-dwelling populations of Central
Africa. The Mbole, Hamba, Basiamba, and others have remote historical,
linguistic, and cultural connections with the Mongo. Therefore, it is not
surprisingthat certaincommon detailsin pattern,structure,heroic characters,
and events occur. The Nyanga and Lega have certain rather remote cultural
and historicalconnections and they are territoriallyclose to each other. There
is, however, a radicaldifference between the epic traditionsof both groups,
and an even greaterdifferencebetween any one of them and the Mongo.
Finally, the individual creators or bards who first developed or
synthesized particularepic traditionsare not known by name.53 As already
explained, the living bards may only recalla few predecessorsand teachersin
their own line of tradition. They are not concerned with the originalversion
or archetype,or with the first compiler-creatorof the epics.
STYLE
All Africanepics seem to be sung, either partiallyor in their entirety.

Shorter passages may be chanted or recited, but even these portions are
performed against a background of music. The musical accompanimentis
frequently made, in the first place, by the bard himself, but close aides can
take over this role. There are always severalother musicianswho contribute
to the musicalbackground.And, of course, membersof the audience,with or

without musical instruments, intervene in the recitation, as a choir to sing
refrains, to engage in dialogue, and to praise. The bards of the Bambaraare
musicians as well as singers.54 There is an inseparablebond between the
singer, his musical instrument, his text, reflected among the Fang in the
generic term mvett or mver, which bears on all three.5 Bambaraepics have
their characteristic air, and each hero has his musical theme.56 Musical
interludes,formalsongs with refrains,musicaldialoguesbetween the bardand
his aides/or audience are of the essence in the performanceof epics. Much
further researchis, therefore, needed on the relationshipsbetween music and
epic style. Some of the African epics are quite obviously formulatedin verse
form or "lines." Others seem to consist of an alternationbetween rhythmic
prose and poetic songs. But even the so-called rhythmic prose abounds with
poetic formulae that range from aphorisms to epithets. Bird has concluded
that the Sunjataepic consists of "lines," the rhythmicconstituents of which
are defined not by accents or the number of syllables, but by the musical
rhythm. He finds that a high correspondenceexists between the poetic line
and the measureof four accented beats.57 The bardshave at their disposala
vast repertoireof literary genres, and esthetic, stylistic and linguistic devices
which they harmoniously blend in their epic narratives.58The epic style is
riddled with aphorismsand other terse statements, formulae, incantations,
songs, conversations,dialogues,speeches, succinct referencesto tales, prayers,
praises,improvisedreflections and remarks.These features contribute to the
enhancementof a vivid, poetic, and florid style. The bardsare mastersof the
verb. They have an extraordinarygrasp of the vocabulary and its meta-
phorical properties,and of the grammarand its flexibilities. They aremasters
in the poetic usage of various stylistic and esthetic devices: repetition;
reduplicationof cores, radicalsand cores; onomatopoeia and other sonorous
effects; exclamations;enjambments.The formulae are particularlyabundant
and varied:epithets; patronymics;titles; stereotyped phrases;praises;apho-
risms; riddles; incantations; standardplace, time, and action references;and
repetitions of words and ideas. Some Nyanga bards show a particular
preference for indirect discourse, sometimes mixed in the same statement
with direct discourse.59 The art of praise, glorification, amplification, and
embellishmentis vigorously practicedby the bards in the characterizationof
the heroes, their mannerof speaking,their mannerof interpretingevents. The
vivacity of the performance,its color and intensity, are also greatlyenhanced
by the nonverbal and nonmusical elements of the presentation.It must be
kept in mind that the bard acts, gesticulates, mimics, and dances.60 No
written, or even taped, analysis of the living epic can ever capture this
atmosphere of action and reaction by the singer, the musicians, the

audience.6 The total action in which the epic evolves lends particular vigor
and poetry to the performance and its content.
NOTES
1 Good
general information is available in: Amadou H. Ba and Lilyan
Kesteloot, "Les epopees de l'ouest africain," Abbia 14-15 (1966): 165-205;
Daniel Biebuyck, "The Epic as a Genre in Congo Oral Literature," in African
Folklore, ed. Richard M. Dorson (Garden City: Doubleday and Company,
1972), pp. 257-273; Robert Cornevin, "Les poemes epiques africains et la
notion d'epopee vivante," Presence Africaine n.s. 60 (1966)::140-145; John
Jacobs, "Vergelijkende studie van enkele Afrikaanse heldenepen," Bulletin
des Seances ARSOM, n.s. 18 (1972): 486-491; Jan Knappert, "The Epic in
Africa," Journal of the Folklore Institute 4: 2/3 (1967): 171-190.
2 Finnegan, Oral Literature in Africa (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1970),
pp. 108-109, is unnecessarily sceptical about the existence of African epics,
and the unity of such great texts as the Lianja epic of the Mongo.
3 These various epics, and the relevant bibliographical references, are
mentioned below. Many texts presented as unconnected tales or myths may
be part of larger structured wholes that have escaped superficial observation.
4
See, for example, Trevor Cope, Izibongo: Zulu Praise-Poems (Oxford:
The Clarendon Press, 1968); Daniel P. Kunene, Heroic Poetry of the Basotho
(Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1971); H. F. Morris, The Heroic Recitations of
the Bahima of Ankole (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1964); I. Schapera,
Praise-Poems of Tswana Chiefs (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1965). Jan
Knappert, "The Epic in Africa," Journal of the Folklore Institute 4 (1967):
171-190, provides useful information on these and other heroic and epic-like
genres.
5
Kunene, Heroic Poetry, pp. 53-67.
6 For discussions of these genres, see A. Coupez and Th. Kamanzi, Recits
historiques Rwanda (Tervuren: Musee royal de l'Afrique Centrale, 1962); A.
Coupez and Th. Kamanzi, Litterature de cour au Rwanda (Oxford: The
Clarendon Press, 1970); Alexis Kagame, La poesie dynastique au Rwanda
(Brussels: Institut Royal Colonial Belge, 1951); S. A. Babalola, The Content
and Form of Yoruba Ijala (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1966); Charles Bird,
"Heroic Songs of the Mande Hunters," in African Folklore, ed. Richard M.
Dorson, pp. 275-293; Patrice Mufuta, Le chant kasala des Luba (Paris:
Julliard, 1969); Pierre-Francis Lacroix, Poesie peule de l'Adamawa, 2 vols.
(Paris: Julliard, 1965).
7 For a discussion of the animal
tales, see Ruth Finnegan, Oral Literature
in Africa, pp. 343-354, and passim. Particularly interesting examples of
specific animal cycles are found in the following collections of tales: W. H. I.

Bleek, Reynard the Fox in South Africa (London: Triibner and Co., 1864)
[weasel]; H. Callaway, Nursery Tales, Traditions and Histories of the Zulus
(London: Tribner and Co., 1868) [weasel]; E. E. Evans-Pritchard, The Zande
Trickster (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1967) [spider]; G. Hulstaert, Contes
Mongo (Brussels: Acad6mie royale des Sciences d'Outre-Mer, 1965) [turtle];
John Jacobs, Tetela-Teksten (Tervuren: Musee royal de l'Afrique Centrale,
1959) [dwarf antelope]; H. A. Junod, Les chants et les contes des Baronga de
la Baie de Delagoa (Lausanne: George Bridel, 1897) [toad] ;H. A. Junod, The
Life of a South African Tribe. 2 vols. (London, 1927) [hard]; Gerhard
Lindblom, Kamba Folklore, I: Tales of Animals (Uppsala: Appelbergs
Bocktryckeri Aktiebolag, 1928) [hare]; R. S. Rattray, Akan-Ashanti Folk-
tales (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1930) [spider]; Leo Stappers, Textes
luba: Contes d'animaux (Tervuren: Musee royal de l'Afrique Centrale, 1962)
[dwarf antelope]; R. Van Caeneghem, Kabundi sprookjes (Brussels: Vro-
mant, 1938) [a mixture of squirrel and marten].
8 John Jacobs and Jan
Vansina, "Nsong'Atoot. Het koninklijk epos der
Bakuba," Kongo Overzee 22 (1956): 1-39; Claude Meillassoux, Lassana
Doucoure and Diaowe Simagha, Legende de la dispersion des Kusa: Epopee
Soninke (Dakar: IFAN, 1957); Vincent Monteil, "La legende de Wagadou:
Texte Soninke de Malamine Tandyan," Bulletin de l'IFAN 29, ser. B (1967):
134-149; P. Cesard, "Comment les Bahaya interpretent leurs origines,"
Anthropos 22 (1927): 441-465; P. Cesard, "Histoire des rois du Kyamtwara
d'apres l'ensemble des traditions des families regnantes," Anthropos 26
(1931): 533-543. A large number of texts center around founding ancestors,
early kings and leaders; these texts contain the materials of which epics are
made. I place in this category, for example, the stories about Faran Maka
Bote, the ancestor of the Sorko fishermen (J. Rouch); Aura Poku, the
legendary queen of the Baule (H. Himmelheber); Maso-mandala and his sons
among the Duala (Fr. Ebding); Nyikang, the ancestor-culture-hero of the
Shilluk (D. Westermann); Sudika-mbambi and his brother among the Mbundu
(H. Chatelain); Kintu, the "great ancestor of very long ago" among the Ganda
(John Roscoe), and so many others.
9 Knappert, "The Epic in Africa," pp. 182-185, gives a succinct discussion
of these epics. The texts of some Swahili epics can be found in Lyndon
Harries, Swahili Poetry (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1962), pp. 24-171; Jan
Knappert, Traditional Swahili Poetry: An Investigation into the Concepts of
East African Islam as Reflected in the Utenzi Literature (Leiden: E. J. Brill,
1967); Edward Steere, Swahili Tales as told by Natives of Zanzibar (London:
Bell and Daldy, 1870). Among the epics constructed by African creative
writers, the following may be mentioned: Alexis Kagame, La Divine Pastorale
(Brussels, 1952) and La Naissance de l'Univers (Brussels, 1955); Thomas
Mofolo, Chaka, an Historical Romance (London: Oxford University Press,
1931).
10 The French
translations of these texts are published in Amadou H. Ba,
"Monzon et le roi de Kor6," Presence Africaine 58 (1966): 99-127, and
Amadou H. Ba and Lilyan Kesteloot, "Les epopees de l'ouest africain," Abbia
14-15 (1966): 165-205. A shorter fragment, which I have not seen, is also
available in Amadou Doucoure, "Defi de Deisse- Koro, roi du Kaarta a Da
Monzon, roi de Segou," France-Eurafrique 171 (1966): 43-45.
1
Lilyan Kesteloot, "Les epopees de l'ouest africain," Presence Africaine 58
(1966): 206 indicates that the published fragments are but a fraction of a vast
epic cycle, and that many different versions are still sung today. The figure of
Da Monzon also occurs among the Fulani (see further under the Silamaka
epic of the Fulani). Ba and Kesteloot, "Les epopees de l'ouest africain," p.
167 state that in the Mali Republic alone, twenty epics have been registered.
Other central heroes mentioned are Sunjata, Sumanguru, Ferobe, Irlaybe, the
forty kings of Gana, Deforabe, Biton of Segu, El Hadj Omar, the Nabas of the
Mossi.
12 Ba, "Monzon et le roi de
Kore," pp. 99-127. The original is not provided.
The translation is by Ba. No information is given about the bard, or the
circumstances of the narration.
13 Ba and
Kesteloot, "Les epopees de l'ouest africain," pp. 171-178. The
original text, which is not reproduced, is translated from Bambara by
Mamadou Konate.
14 Ba and Kesteloot "Les epopees de l'ouest africain," pp. 179-209. The
original is not published. The long text in verse-lines is translated by the two
authors of the study. According to the authors, more than ten such ep-
sodes are known. in which Da Monzon is involved in conflicts with his
vassals.
15 The text of this epic episode, collected around 1957, covers about
fourteen hundred lines in translation. It is published by Amadou Hampate
Ba and Lilyan Kesteloot in "Une epopee peule: Silmaka," L 'Homme 8 (1968):
9-36.
16 According to Ba and
Kesteloot, "Silamaka," p. 5, several other versions
were recorded among different Fulani groups in the Niger Republic. This
episode is also sung by Bambara bards.
17 The
name, Sunjata, is variously written as Sundiata, Soundjata, Sonjata. I
follow the spelling proposed by Bird. One classic version of this epic was
published in French translation by Djibril T. Niane, Soundjata ou I'epopee
mandingue (Paris: Presence Africaine, 1960). An English translation of this
text was made by G. D. Pickett, Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali (London:
Longsmans, Green and Co., 1965). Various recorded and transcribed versions
of the epic made by Charles Bird and his collaborators are available at the
Indiana University Archives of Traditional Music.
18 Charles Bird, "Some Remarks on the
Sunjata Epic" (unpublished
manuscript, 1974). I am indebted to Dr. Bird for allowing me to use this
extremely well-documented manuscript.
19
Bird, "Sunjata Epic," pp. 8-11.
20
J. P. Clark, "The Ozidi Saga," Black Orpheus 2:2 (1968): 18-24 gives in
translation the opening of the prologue to this extraordinary text, and a short
summary. The entire text to be published in two volumes was narrated with
music, dance and mime in seven nights by Okabu of Sama Town.
21 The so-called Ogboingba myth of the Ijaw also has many epic elements,
and might as well be an episode of a much longer text. See, Gabriel Okaro,
"Ogboingba: The Ijaw Creation Myth," Black Orpheus 1 (1957): 9-17.
22 D. A. Puplampu, "The National Epic of the Adangme," African Affairs
50 (1951): 236-241 gives short fragments of the Klama epic, which is said to
consist of more than six thousand stanzas. Leo Frobenius, Spielmannsge-
schichten der Sahel (Jena, 1921) provides a summary of the Gassire text.
23 The manuscript by Daniel Biebuyck, The Mwindo Epic: New Versions, is
now in its last stages of preparation for publication by the University of
California Press.
24 Daniel Biebuyck and Kahombo Mateene, The Mwindo Epic from the
Banyanga: Congo Republic (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of
California, 1969; paperback ed., 1971). This work gives the complete Nyanga
text, in the original and in translation, together with an introduction and a
large number of explanatory notes.
25 The texts (original, and French or Dutch translations) are published in:
E. Boelaert, "Nsong'a Lianja, het groote epos der Nkundo-Mongo," Congo 1
(1932): 43-70, 198-215; E. Boelaert, Nsong'a Lianja, I'epopee nationale des
Nkundo (Antwerp: De Sikkel, 1949); E. Boelaert, Lianja-Verhalan 1:
Ekofo-versie (Tervuren: Musee royal du Congo Belge, 1957); E. Boelaert,
Lianja-Verhalen, II: De voorouders van Lianja (Tervuren: Musee royal du
Congo Belge, 1958). An important new work by A. De Rop, Versions et
fragments de l'epopee des Mongo, is forthcoming.
26 A. De Rop, "L'6popee des Nkundo. L'original et la copie," Kongo Overzee
24 (1958): 170-78; A. De Rop, "Lianja-Verhalen," Band 18 (1959): 149-150;
A. De Rop, Lianja: l'epopee des Mongo (Brussels: Academie royale des
Sciences d'Outre-Mer, 1964).
27 Daniel Biebuyck, "Mubila, een epos der Balega," Band 12 (1953): 68-74;
Daniel Biebuyck, "The Epic as a Genre in Congo Oral Literature," in African
Folklore, ed. Richard M. Dorson, pp. 257-273. The full text of the Mubila
epic is now being prepared by Daniel Biebuyck for publication by the
University of California Press. An important dissertation on another Lega epic
was produced by J. B. N'Sanda, Epopee Kiguma: Essai d'etude d'un genre
literaire Lega (Kinshasa: Lovanium University). Unfortunately, this text was
not available to me at this time.
28
The translations of these shorter epic texts are available in John Jacobs,
"Le recit epique de Lofokefoke, le heros des Mbole (Bambuli)," Aequatoria
24 (1961): 81-92; John Jacobs, "Het epos van Kudukese: de 'Culture Hero'
van de Hamba," Africa Tervuren 9 (1963): 33-36.
29
A vast number of epic texts centering around the hero, Akoma Mba, have
already been recorded, and a few of them published. Some of these texts
begin with the origin of the world and of the first humans, and deal with the
birth of the heroes. Others concentrate on the deeds of the central hero,
Akoma Mba, in conflict with many other heroes. A text of 2,438 lines (in the
original, and in French translation) can be found in Stanislas Awona, "La
guerre d'Akoma Mba contre Abo Mama," Abbia 9-10 (1965): 180-213, and
Abbia 12-13 (1966): 109-209. A huge text, divided into twelve songs and
interludes (original and translation), is available in Herbert Pepper, Un mvet de
Zwe Nguema. Chant epique Fang (Paris: Armand Colin, 1972). The first part
of another epic, centering around Oveng Ndumu Obame, is published in
French translation by Tsira Ndoutoume Ndong, Le Mvett (Paris: Presence
Africaine, 1970).
30 This short synthesis is given in Gaspard Towo-Atangana, "Le mvet, genre
majeur de la litterature orale des populations Pahouines," Abbia 9-10 (1965):
171-172.
31 Publication of this text is mentioned in Stanislas Awona, Abbia 12-13
(1966): 112.
32 The complete text (original and French translation) of this epic, together
with summaries and notes, is found in Herbert Pepper, Un mvet de Zwe
Nguema (Paris: Armand Colin, 1972).
33 The text narrated and sung by Mwana Mbirika is reproduced in J.
Torrend, Specimens of Bantu Folk-lore from Northern Rhodesia (London:
Kegan Paul, 1921), pp. 98-144.
34 Other epic-like texts, or summaries of such texts, from Bantu-speaking
peoples can be found, for example, in Piliwe Kisala, "Lubango Nkundungulu:
A Kaonde Epic," Jewel of Africa 2: 3-4 (n.d.): 9-16; John Roscoe, The
Baganda: an Account of their Native Customs and Beliefs (London:
Macmillan and Co., 1911), pp. 460-464; Harold Scheub, "A Xhosa
Narrative," in African Folklore, ed. Richard M. Dorson, pp. 523-561.
35 I have indicated some of these names in the preceding notes. In general,
little information is given about the social background and the individual
artistry of the bards. Biebuyck and Mateene, The Mwindo Epic, pp. 15-19,
provide such information for the bard Shekarisi Candi Rureke. Excellent
general information on the mvet singers and players can be found in
Towo-Atangana, pp. 163-177, Philippe Ndoutoume Ndong, "Le Mvett,"
Presence Africaine 59 (1966): 57-76, and Elie Ekogamve, "La litterature
orale des Fang," African Arts 2 (1969): 14-19, 77-78. The bards of the
Mandeka and Bambara are very well discussed in Charles Bird, "Heroic Songs
of the Mande Hunters," in African Folklore, ed. Richard M. Dorson, pp.
278-279; Mamby Sidibe, "Les gens de caste ou nyamakala au Soudan
Francais," Notes Africaines 81 (1959): 13-17; Hugo Zemp, "La legende des
griots malinke," Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines 6 (1966): 611-642.
36 Bird, "Some Remarks on the Sunjata Epic," pp. 3-4.
37
Ekogamve, "La litterature orale des Fang," pp. 77-78.
8 Kesteloot, "Les epopees de l'ouest africain," p. 205.

39 For the Nyanga bard, see frontispiece in Biebuyck and Kahombo, The
Mwindo Epic. For the Mongo, see Boelaert, Nsong'a Lianja, p. 4, and De Rop,
Lianja: I'epopee des Mongo, p. 18. For the way in which the mvet players and
bards among the Fang are dressed, see plates in Awona, Abbia 12-13 (1966):
164-165, and 190-191, and Towo-Atangana, Abbia 9-10 (1965): 162, 166,
170, and 174.
40 Information on the musical instruments is provided in the above-
mentioned sources.
41 The epics seem to be essentially a male art, but women are, in several
instances, not entirely dissociated from the epic performances. Bird, "Some
Remarks on the Sunjata Epic," p. 4 indicates female bards specializing in
praise-songs that are associated with the epics.
42 De Rop, "L'epopee des Nkundo," p. 170; Jacobs, "Le recit epique
de Lofokefoke," p. 81. In the context of the Lianja epic of the Mongo
many historically known ethnic groups, such as Ngombe, Elinga, Bafoto,
Baenga, Balumbe, occur in battles led by Lianja.
43 Bird, "Some Remarks on the Sunjata Epic," pp. 8-11.
44 De Rop, Lianja: I'epopee des Mongo, pp. 71-88.
45 Biebuyck, The Mwindo Epic: New Versions. See also Biebuyck and
Mateene, The Mwindo Epic, pp. 19-32. The spatial plan situates the hero's
actions on earth, in the underworld, in the sky, and in the air (or
atmosphere). His terrestrial exploits take place in the village, in the fields, in
the abandoned village, in the virgin forest, and in the water (river, pool,
pond).
46 Jacobs, "Het epos van Kudukese," p. 36.
47 Biebuyck and Mateene, The Mwindo Epic, pp. 33-35, and 144. The
theme of the revivification of slain enemies is also strongly developed in the
Lianja epic.
48 Certain ritually very important animals (such as the hornbill) or per-
sons (such as the kihanga spirit-wives or circumcisors) do not occur in the
various texts that I recorded among the Nyanga.
49 See, for example, A. J. Shelton, "The Problem of Griot Interpretation
and the Actual Causes of War in Sondjata," Presence Africaine, n.s. 66 (1968):
145-152.
50 The bwami association, and its moral philosophy of goodness and
beauty, are analyzed in Daniel Biebuyck, Lega Culture: Art, Initiation, and
Moral Philosophy among a Central African People (Berkeley and Los Angeles:
The University of California Press, 1973).
51 The avoidance of rivalry among the sons of the same father, as reflected
in the Sunjata Epic, are discussed in Bird, "Some Remarks on the Sunjata
Epic," pp. 11-13, and R. Pageard, "Soundiata Keita et la tradition orale,"
Presence Africaine, n.s. 36 (1961): 61.
52 De Rop, Lianja: I'epopee des Mongo, p. 12 and passim.
53 Various oral traditions about the origins of the mvet and certain epic
traditions occur among the Fang-Ntumu. See, Towo-Atangana, Abbia 9-10

(1965): 164-172.
54
Kesteloot, "Les epopees de l'ouest africain," p. 168; Zemp, p. 611. In
Mongo terminology, the bards "sing" the epic, even when they recite and
narrate; the bard is called a singer (wembi).
55
Ndong, "Le Mvett," p. 57.
56 Kesteloot, "Les epopees de l'ouest africain," p. 168. This is not very
different from the mask traditions in some African ethnic groups, where each
masker has his own musical theme to announce him.
57
Bird, "Some Remarks on the Sunjata Epic," pp. 5-6, has made this
fundamental discovery, which may influence much future analysis.
58 Biebuyck, "The Epic as a Genre in Congo Oral Literature," pp. 266-267,
stresses this point.
59 Biebuyck and Mateene, The Mwindo Epic, p. 37, and passim. Meil-
lassoux, Doucoure and Simagha, Legende de la dispersion des Kusa, p. 7, also
emphasize this point.
60 Ekogamve, "La litterature orale des Fang," pp. 14-19; Ndong, Le Mvett,
p. 18.
61 Ndong (Le Mvett, pp. 18-19), who is himself a famed mvet player, asks
for his readers' indulgence, because a written text cannot re-create the
musical rhythm, the dance movements, the reaction of the public, the general
atmosphere of the village where the recitation takes place.

Afr Heroic Epic P Daniel P Biebuyck

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Afr Heroic Epic P Daniel P Biebuyck

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Afr Heroic Epic P Daniel P Biebuyck

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The African Heroic Epic

Author(s): Daniel P. Biebuyck

Detailed syntheses of Africianheroic epics are not yet available.' In her

summarizedby the outsider, or only more or less coherent fragmentsmay be

The present evidence points to a strong occurrenceof heroic epics in

others have, as far as ethnohistory can be retraced,neverhad any centralized

SCOPEOF THE STUDY

In the following pages, I wish to present a short summary of the

mostly from Mande-speakingpeoples in WestAfricaand from Bantu-speakers

TheMonzon Cycle of the Bambara

The Monzon epic cycle of the Bambara(MaliRepublic)centers around

after, Monzon dies as predicted from a sudden sickness.Da is installedas the

The SilamakaEpic of the Fulani

A long and magnificentpassageof this epic was narratedby the Fulani

also known in other regionsinhabited by the Fulani. 6 Silamaka,the central

The SunjataEpic of the Mandeka

The epic of this thirteenth-centuryking of the Mali Empire is well

The Ozidi epic of the Ijaw of Southern Nigeriais only partiallyknown

EPICSOF THE BANTU-SPEAKING

TheMwindo Cycle of the Banyanga

Biebuyck has recorded five epics and severalepic fragmentsamong the

The LianjaEpic Cycle of the Mongo

Severalversionsof the Lianjaepic of the Mongo(Zaire Republic)have

TheMubilaEpic of the Balega (ZaireRepublic)

This is one of a cycle of epics that revolvearoundvariousheroes.27 The

abruptly, in medias res, in Mubila'shome village, which he has cleared from

The Kudukeseand Lofokefoke Epics

Shorter epics from the Mongo-related Mbole and Hamba (Zaire

TheAkoma Mba Cycle

An elaborateepic cycle centersaroundthe hero, Akoma Mba,a rulerof

TheMvet of Zwe Nguema

wife, the beautiful Esone Abeng. Arrivingat her maternaluncle's, Nkudang

Among the Benamukuni(Lenje) of Zambia, an epic text that shows

many similaritieswith the Nyanga epics glorifies Kapepe.33 Born againsthis

The bards of the Nyanga do not belong to any kind of specializedor

The performancesof epics are highly complex events which must be

accompany himself with an elaborate chordophonecalled mvet. One or two

It is clearfrom the foregoingsummariesthat the contents of these epics

Herculean deeds, extraterrestrialjourneys, fierce individual battles with

AGE, ORIGIN,AND AUTHORSHIPOF THE EPICS

The questions of age and origin of the orally transmittedAfricanepics

historical interests. The Nyanga are conscious of having immigratedfrom

All Africanepics seem to be sung, either partiallyor in their entirety.

to the musicalbackground.And, of course, membersof the audience,with or

atmosphere of action and reaction by the singer, the musicians, the

specific animal cycles are found in the following collections of tales: W. H. I.

8 Kesteloot, "Les epopees de l'ouest africain," p. 205.

traditions occur among the Fang-Ntumu. See, Towo-Atangana, Abbia 9-10

You might also like