Flight instruments

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The cockpit of a Slingsby T-67 Firefly two-seat light airplane. The flight instruments are visible on the left of
the instrument panel

Flight instruments are the instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft that provide the pilot with
information about the flight situation of that aircraft, such as altitude, airspeed, vertical speed,
heading and much more other crucial information. They improve safety by allowing the pilot to fly the
aircraft in level flight, and make turns, without a reference outside the aircraft such as the
horizon. Visual flight rules (VFR) require an airspeed indicator, an altimeter, and a compass or other
suitable magnetic direction indicator. Instrument flight rules (IFR) additionally require a gyroscopic
pitch-bank (artificial horizon), direction (directional gyro) and rate of turn indicator, plus a slip-skid
indicator, adjustable altimeter, and a clock. Flight into Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)
require radio navigation instruments for precise takeoffs and landings.[1]:3-1
The term is sometimes used loosely as a synonym for cockpit instruments as a whole, in which
context it can include engine instruments, navigational and communication equipment. Many modern
aircraft have electronic flight instrument systems.
Most regulated aircraft have these flight instruments as dictated by the US Code of Federal
Regulations, Title 14, Part 91. They are grouped according to pitot-static system, compass systems,
and gyroscopic instruments.[1]:3-1

Contents
 1Pitot-static systems
o 1.1Altimeter
o 1.2Airspeed indicator
o 1.3Vertical speed indicator
 2Compass Systems
 o 2.1Magnetic compass
 3Gyroscopic Systems
o 3.1Attitude Indicator
o 3.2Heading Indicator
o 3.3Turn Indicator
 4Flight Director Systems
 5Navigational Systems
o 5.1Very-High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
o 5.2Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)
 6Layout
o 6.1T arrangement
o 6.2Early history
o 6.3Further development
o 6.4Different significance and some other instrumentation
 7See also
 8References
 9External links

Pitot-static systems[edit]
Instruments which are pitot-static systems use air pressure differences to determine speed and
altitude.
Altimeter[edit]
Main article: Altimeter

The altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above sea-level by measuring the difference between the
pressure in a stack of aneroid capsules inside the altimeter and the atmospheric pressure obtained
through the static system. The most common unit for altimeter calibration worldwide
is hectopascals (hPa), except for North America and Japan where inches of mercury (inHg) are
used.[2] The altimeter is adjustable for local barometric pressure which must be set correctly to obtain
accurate altitude readings, usually in either feet or meters. As the aircraft ascends, the capsules
expand and the static pressure drops, causing the altimeter to indicate a higher altitude. The
opposite effect occurs when descending. With the advancement in aviation and increased altitude
ceiling, the altimeter dial had to be altered for use both at higher and lower altitudes. Hence when
the needles were indicating lower altitudes i.e. the first 360-degree operation of the pointers was
delineated by the appearance of a small window with oblique lines warning the pilot that he or she is
nearer to the ground. This modification was introduced in the early sixties after the recurrence of air
accidents caused by the confusion in the pilot's mind. At higher altitudes, the window will disappear.
[1]:3-3

Airspeed indicator[edit]
Main article: Airspeed indicator
The airspeed indicator shows the aircraft's speed relative to the surrounding air. Knots is the
currently most used unit, but kilometers per hour is sometimes used instead. The airspeed indicator
works by measuring the ram-air pressure in the aircraft's Pitot tube relative to the ambient static
pressure. The indicated airspeed (IAS) must be corrected for nonstandard pressure and temperature
in order to obtain the true airspeed (TAS). The instrument is color coded to indicate important
airspeeds such as the stall speed, never-exceed airspeed, or safe flap operation speeds.[1]:3-7 to 3-8
Vertical speed indicator[edit]
Main article: Vertical speed indicator

The VSI (also sometimes called a variometer, or rate of climb indicator) senses changing air
pressure, and displays that information to the pilot as a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute,
meters per second or knots.[1]:3-8 to 3-9

Compass Systems[edit]
Magnetic compass[edit]
Main article: Compass

The compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to magnetic north. Errors include Variation, or the
difference between magnetic and true direction, and Deviation, caused by the electrical wiring in the
aircraft, which requires a Compass Correction Card. Additionally, the compass is subject to Dip
Errors. While reliable in steady level flight it can give confusing indications when turning, climbing,
descending, or accelerating due to the inclination of the Earth's magnetic field. For this reason,
the heading indicator is also used for aircraft operation, but periodically calibrated against the
compass.[1]:3-9 to 3-13, 3-19

Gyroscopic Systems[edit]
Attitude Indicator[edit]
Main article: Attitude indicator
The attitude indicator (also known as an artificial horizon) shows the aircraft's relation to the horizon.
From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are level (roll) and if the aircraft nose is pointing above
or below the horizon (pitch).[1]:3-18 to 3-19 Attitude is always presented to users in the unit degrees (°).[citation
needed]
 The attitude indicator is a primary instrument for instrument flight and is also useful in conditions
of poor visibility. Pilots are trained to use other instruments in combination should this instrument or
its power fail.

Schempp-Hirth Janus-C glider Instrument panel equipped for "cloud flying". The turn and bank indicator is
top centre. The heading indicator is replaced by a GPS-driven computer with wind and glide data, driving
two electronic variometer displays to the right.

Heading Indicator[edit]
Main article: Heading indicator

Indikator heading (juga dikenal sebagai directional gyro, atau DG) menampilkan heading pesawat
dalam titik kompas, dan berkenaan dengan magnet utara ketika diatur dengan kompas. Gesekan
bantalan menyebabkan kesalahan drift dari presesi, yang harus diperbaiki secara berkala dengan
mengkalibrasi instrumen ke kompas magnetik. [1]: 3-19 hingga 3-20 Pada banyak pesawat canggih
(termasuk hampir semua pesawat jet), indikator heading diganti oleh indikator situasi horisontal
(HSI) yang memberikan informasi tajuk yang sama, tetapi juga membantu navigasi. Turn
Indicator[edit]
Main article: Turn and slip indicator

These include the Turn-and-Slip Indicator and the Turn Coordinator, which indicate rotation about
the longitudinal axis. They include an inclinometer to indicate if the aircraft is in Coordinated flight, or
in a Slip or Skid. Additional marks indicate a Standard rate turn.[1]:3-20 to 3-22 The turn rate is most
commonly expressed in either degrees per second (deg/s) or minutes per turn (min/tr).[citation needed]

Flight Director Systems[edit]

Main article: Horizontal situation indicator
Main article: Attitude indicator §  Attitude Direction Indicator
These include the Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) and Attitude Director Indicator (ADI). The HSI
combines the magnetic compass with navigation signals and a Glide slope. The navigation
information comes from a VOR/Localizer, or GPS. The ADI is an Attitude Indicator with computer-
driven steering bars, a task reliever during instrument flight. [1]:3-22 to 3-23,7-10

Navigational Systems[edit]
Very-High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR)[edit]

The VOR indicator instrument includes a Course deviation indicator (CDI), Omnibearing Selector
(OBS), TO/FROM indicator, and Flags. The CDI shows an aircraft's lateral position in relation to a
selected radial track. It is used for orientation, tracking to or from a station, and course interception.
[1]:7-8 to 7-11
 On the instrument, the vertical needle indicates the lateral position of the selected track. An
horizontal needle allows the pilot to follow a glide slope when the instrument is used with an ILS.
Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)[edit]
Main article: Non-directional beacon

The Automatic direction finder (ADF) indicator instrument can be a fixed-card, movable card, or

a Radio magnetic indicator (RMI). An RMI is remotely coupled to a gyrocompass so that it
automatically rotates the azimuth card to represent aircraft heading. [1]:7-3 to 7-4 While simple ADF
displays may have only one needle, a typical RMI has two, coupled to different ADF receivers,
allowing for position fixing using one instrument.

Layout[edit]

Six basic instruments in a light twin-engine airplane arranged in a "basic-T". From top left: airspeed

indicator, attitude indicator, altimeter, turn coordinator, heading indicator, and vertical speed indicator

Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments which give the pilot information
about the aircraft's attitude, airspeed, and altitude.
T arrangement[edit]
Most US aircraft built since the 1940s have flight instruments arranged in a standardized pattern
called the "T" arrangement.[3] The attitude indicator is in the top center, airspeed to the left, altimeter
to the right and heading indicator under the attitude indicator. The other two, turn-coordinator and
vertical-speed, are usually found under the airspeed and altimeter, but are given more latitude in
placement. The magnetic compass will be above the instrument panel, often on
the windscreen centerpost. In newer aircraft with glass cockpit instruments the layout of the displays
conform to the basic T arrangement.
Early history[edit]

Typical instrument configuration of a Cessna 172

In 1929, Jimmy Doolittle became the first pilot to take off, fly and land an airplane using instruments
alone, without a view outside the cockpit. In 1937, the British Royal Air Force (RAF) chose a set of
six essential flight instruments[4] which would remain the standard panel used for flying in instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC) for the next 20 years. They were:
 altimeter (feet)
 airspeed indicator (knots)
 turn and bank indicator (turn direction and coordination)
 vertical speed indicator (feet per minute)
 artificial horizon (attitude indication)
 directional gyro / heading indicator (degrees)
This panel arrangement was incorporated into all RAF aircraft built to official specification from 1938,
such as the Miles Master, Hawker Hurricane, Supermarine Spitfire, and 4-engined Avro
Lancaster and Handley Page Halifax heavy bombers, but not the earlier light single-engined Tiger
Moth trainer, and minimized the type-conversion difficulties associated with blind flying, since a pilot
trained on one aircraft could quickly become accustomed to any other if the instruments were
identical.
This basic six set, also known as a "six pack",[5] was also adopted by commercial aviation. After
the Second World War the arrangement was changed to: (top row) airspeed, artificial horizon,
altimeter, (bottom row) turn and bank indicator, heading indicator, vertical speed.
Further development[edit]

Primary Flight Display (PFD)

Of the old basic six instruments, the turn and bank indicator is now obsolete. The instrument was
included, but it was of little use in the first generation of jet airliners. It was removed from many
aircraft prior to glass cockpits becoming available. With an improved artificial horizon, including
gyros and flight directors, the turn and bank indicator became needless except when performing
certain types of aerobatics (which would not be intentionally performed in IMC to begin with). But the
other five flight instruments, sometimes known as "the big five", are still included in all cockpits. The
way of displaying them has changed over time, though. In glass cockpits the flight instruments are
shown on monitors. But the display is not shown by numbers, but as images of analog instruments.
The artificial horizon is given a central place in the monitor, with a heading indicator just below
(usually this is displayed only as a part of the compass). The indicated airspeed, altimeter, and
vertical speed indicator are displayed as columns with the indicated airspeed to the left of the
horizon and the altimeter and the vertical speed to the right in the same pattern as in most older
style "clock cockpits".
Different significance and some other instrumentation [edit]
In good weather a pilot can fly by looking out the window. However, when flying in cloud or at night
at least one gyroscopic instrument is necessary to orient the aircraft, being either an artificial
horizon, turn and slip, or a gyro compass.
The vertical speed indicator, or VSI, is more of "a good help" than absolutely essential. On jet aircraft
it displays the vertical speed in thousands of feet per minute, usually in the range −6 to +6. The
gyrocompass can be used for navigation, but it is indeed a flight instrument as well. It is needed to
control the adjustment of the heading, to be the same as the heading of the landing runway.
Indicated airspeed, or IAS, is the second most important instrument and indicates the airspeed very
accurately in the range of 45 to 250 kn (83 to 463 km/h). At higher altitude a MACH-meter is used
instead, to prevent the aircraft from overspeed. An instrument called true airspeed, or TAS, exists on
some aircraft. TAS shows airspeed in knots in the range from 200 kn (370 km/h) and higher (It is like
the Mach-meter: not really a flight instrument). The altimeter displays the altitude in feet, but must be
corrected to local air pressure at the landing airport. The altimeter may be adjusted to show an
altitude of zero feet on the runway, but far more common is to adjust the altimeter to show the actual
altitude when the aircraft has landed. In the latter case pilots must keep the runway elevation in
mind. However a radio altimeter (displaying the height above the ground if lower than around 2,000–
2,500 ft (610–760 m) has been standard for decades. This instrument is however not among the "big
five", but must still be considered as a flight instrument.

INDONESIA

Instrumen penerbangan adalah instrumen di kokpit pesawat yang memberikan informasi kepada pilot
tentang situasi penerbangan pesawat itu, seperti ketinggian, kecepatan udara, kecepatan vertikal, arah
dan banyak lagi informasi penting lainnya. Mereka meningkatkan keselamatan dengan memungkinkan
pilot menerbangkan pesawat dalam penerbangan level, dan berbelok, tanpa referensi di luar pesawat
seperti cakrawala. Aturan penerbangan visual (VFR) memerlukan indikator kecepatan udara, altimeter,
dan kompas atau indikator arah magnetis yang cocok lainnya. Aturan penerbangan instrumen (IFR) juga
memerlukan pitch-gyroscopic (cakrawala buatan), arah (directional gyro) dan indikator putaran,
ditambah indikator slip-selip, altimeter yang dapat disesuaikan, dan jam. Penerbangan ke Instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC) memerlukan instrumen navigasi radio untuk lepas landas dan mendarat
secara tepat. [1]: 3-1

Istilah ini kadang-kadang digunakan secara longgar sebagai sinonim untuk instrumen kokpit secara
keseluruhan, di mana konteksnya dapat mencakup instrumen mesin, peralatan navigasi dan komunikasi.
Banyak pesawat modern memiliki sistem instrumen penerbangan elektronik.

Sebagian besar pesawat yang diatur memiliki instrumen penerbangan ini sebagaimana ditentukan oleh
Kode Peraturan Federal AS, Judul 14, Bagian 91. Mereka dikelompokkan berdasarkan sistem pitot-statis,
sistem kompas, dan instrumen gyroscopic. [1]

ALTIMETER
Altimeter menunjukkan ketinggian pesawat di atas permukaan laut dengan mengukur perbedaan antara
tekanan dalam tumpukan kapsul aneroid di dalam altimeter dan tekanan atmosfer yang diperoleh
melalui sistem statis. Unit yang paling umum untuk kalibrasi altimeter di seluruh dunia adalah
hektopascals (hPa), kecuali untuk Amerika Utara dan Jepang di mana inci merkuri (inHg) digunakan. [2]
Altimeter dapat disesuaikan untuk tekanan barometrik lokal yang harus diatur dengan benar untuk
mendapatkan pembacaan ketinggian yang akurat, biasanya dalam satuan kaki atau meter. Ketika
pesawat naik, kapsul melebar dan tekanan statis turun, menyebabkan altimeter menunjukkan
ketinggian yang lebih tinggi. Efek sebaliknya terjadi ketika turun. Dengan kemajuan dalam penerbangan
dan langit-langit ketinggian yang ditingkatkan, dial altimeter harus diubah untuk digunakan baik pada
ketinggian yang lebih tinggi maupun yang lebih rendah. Oleh karena itu ketika jarum menunjukkan
ketinggian yang lebih rendah yaitu operasi 360 derajat pertama dari pointer digambarkan oleh
penampilan jendela kecil dengan garis miring memperingatkan pilot bahwa dia lebih dekat ke tanah.
Modifikasi ini diperkenalkan pada awal tahun enam puluhan setelah terulangnya kecelakaan udara yang
disebabkan oleh kebingungan dalam pikiran pilot. Pada ketinggian yang lebih tinggi, jendela akan
menghilang.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR

Indikator kecepatan udara menunjukkan kecepatan pesawat relatif terhadap udara di sekitarnya. Knot
adalah unit yang saat ini paling banyak digunakan, tetapi kilometer per jam terkadang digunakan sebagai
gantinya. Indikator kecepatan udara bekerja dengan mengukur tekanan udara ram di tabung Pitot
pesawat relatif terhadap tekanan statis sekitar. Kecepatan udara yang ditunjukkan (IAS) harus dikoreksi
untuk tekanan dan suhu yang tidak standar untuk mendapatkan kecepatan udara yang benar (TAS).
Instrumen diberi kode warna untuk menunjukkan kecepatan udara penting seperti kecepatan kios,
kecepatan udara tidak pernah melebihi, atau kecepatan operasi flap yang aman.

Indikator kecepatan vertikal [sunting]

Artikel utama: Indikator kecepatan vertikal

VSI (juga kadang-kadang disebut variometer, atau indikator laju pendakian) merasakan perubahan
tekanan udara, dan menampilkan informasi itu kepada pilot sebagai laju pendakian atau penurunan
dalam kaki per menit, meter per detik atau simpul. [1]: 3 -8 hingga 3-9

Sistem Kompas [sunting]

Kompas magnetik

Artikel utama: Kompas

 
Kompas menunjukkan arah pesawat relatif terhadap utara magnetik. Kesalahan termasuk Variasi, atau
perbedaan antara arah magnetik dan arah yang benar, dan Penyimpangan, yang disebabkan oleh kabel
listrik di pesawat, yang memerlukan Kartu Koreksi Kompas. Selain itu, kompas tunduk pada Kesalahan
Dip. Meskipun dapat diandalkan dalam penerbangan tingkat stabil, hal ini dapat memberikan indikasi
yang membingungkan ketika berputar, memanjat, turun, atau mempercepat karena kecenderungan
medan magnet bumi. Karena alasan ini, indikator heading juga digunakan untuk operasi pesawat, tetapi
dikalibrasi secara berkala terhadap kompas. [1]: 3-9 hingga 3-13, 3-19

Sistem Giroskopik [sunting]

Indikator Sikap [sunting]

Artikel utama: Indikator sikap

Indikator sikap (juga dikenal sebagai cakrawala buatan) menunjukkan hubungan pesawat ke cakrawala.
Dari sini, pilot dapat mengetahui apakah sayapnya rata (berguling) dan jika hidung pesawat mengarah
ke atas atau di bawah cakrawala (pitch). [1]: 3-18 hingga 3-19 Sikap selalu disajikan kepada pengguna di
unit derajat (°). [Kutipan diperlukan] Indikator sikap adalah instrumen utama untuk penerbangan
instrumen dan juga berguna dalam kondisi visibilitas yang buruk. Pilot dilatih untuk menggunakan
instrumen lain dalam kombinasi jika instrumen ini atau kekuatannya gagal.