Poverty: Poverty Is The Lack of

Poverty
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Poverty is the lack of basic human needs, such as clean and fresh water, nutrition, health care,
education, clothing and shelter, because of the inability to afford them.[1][2] This is also referred to
as absolute poverty or destitution. Relative poverty is the condition of having fewer resources or
less income than others within a society or country, or compared to worldwide averages. About
1.7 billion people live in absolute poverty. [3][4]
Accumulation of wealth, sometimes resulting in overall poverty reduction within a nation or
society, has historically been a result of economic growth as increased levels of production, such
as modern industrial technology, made more wealth available for some individuals and groups
within societies and nation states[4][5][6]. Wealth distribution however, often occurs along highly
unequal lines. This sometimes prompts redistributive approaches to poverty reduction.
Investments in modernizing agriculture and increasing yields via green revolution technology is
often considered the core of the antipoverty effort, given three-quarters of the world's poor are
ruralfarmers.[7][8] However, alternative theories of development economics cite the process of
agricultural industrialization as a driver of unequal land distribution, declining food security, and
rural-urban migration.[9]
Today, neoliberal approaches to development, as promoted by the World Bank, IMF, and WTO
includes extending and enforcing property rights, especially to land, to the poor, and making
financial services, notably savings, accessible.[10][11][12] While this process encourages integration
into the global market, some sectors of society, especially informal subsistence farmers and
indigenous peoples, who often struggle to gain legal recognition of property rights, can be
negatively affected[13]. Inefficient institutions, corruption and political instability can also make
state recognition of such rights difficult. Government support in health, education and
infrastructure helps alleviate poverty by increasing human and physical capital.[4] However,
neoliberal economic policy, which advocates for privatization of these sectors, can often result in
neglect for such services, as demonstrated in Cochabamba, Bolivia during the 2000 protests
against water privatization[14].
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Definitions
• 2 Poverty and Rights; The Right of Indigency
• 3 Causes
○ 3.1 Scarcity of basic needs
○ 3.2 Third World Debt
○ 3.3 Barriers to opportunities
• 4 Effects of poverty
○ 4.1 Health
○ 4.2 Education
○ 4.3 Housing
○ 4.4 Violence
○ 4.5 Substance abuse
• 5 Poverty reduction
○ 5.1 Economic liberalization
○ 5.2 Capital, infrastructure and technology
○ 5.3 Aid
○ 5.4 Good institutions
○ 5.5 Empowering women
○ 5.6 A Holistic Approach
• 6 Demographics
○ 6.1 Absolute poverty
○ 6.2 Relative poverty
○ 6.3 Other aspects
○ 6.4 Voluntary poverty
• 7 See also
○ 7.1 Organizations and campaigns
○ 7.2 In documentary photography and film
• 8 References
• 9 Further reading
• 10 External links
[edit] Definitions
Child in a slum in Jakarta, Indonesia.
There many definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation and the views of the
person giving the definition. These are some from various sources including a well-known
development scholar. Poverty is also often divided into relative poverty and absolute poverty.
Poverty can also be defined as a condition wherein a person cannot satisfy his or her basic needs,
namely, food, shelter, clothing, health and education.
Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions. It includes
low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with
dignity. Poverty also encompasses low levels of health and education, poor access to clean water
and sanitation, inadequate physical security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and
opportunity to better one’s life.
—World Bank[15]
Fundamentally, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It
means lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough to
feed and clothe a family, not having a school or clinic to go to, not having the land on which to
grow one’s food or a job to earn one’s living, not having access to credit. It means insecurity,
powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility
to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to
clean water or sanitation.
—United Nations[16]
Shanty town in Soweto, South Africa, 2005

Poverty is a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food,
safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends
not only on income but also on access to services. It includes a lack of income and productive
resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods; hunger and malnutrition; ill health; limited or lack of
access to education and other basic services; increased morbidity and mortality from illness;
homelessness and inadequate housing; unsafe environments and social discrimination and
exclusion. It is also characterized by lack of participation in decision making and in civil, social
and cultural life. It occurs in all countries: as mass poverty in many developing countries,
pockets of poverty amid wealth in developed countries, loss of livelihoods as a result of
economic recession, sudden poverty as a result of disaster or conflict, the poverty of low-wage
workers, and the utter destitution of people who fall outside family support systems, social
institutions and safety nets.
— World Summit on Social Development[17]
To meet nutritional requirements, to escape avoidable disease, to be sheltered, to be clothed, to
be able to travel, and to be educated.
—AmartyaSen[18]
People are living in poverty if their income and resources (material, cultural and social) are so
inadequate as to preclude them from having a standard of living which is regarded as acceptable
by Irish society generally. As a result of inadequate income and resources people may be
excluded and marginalised from participating in activities which are considered the norm for
other people in society.
—Government of Ireland[19]
Poverty might also be defined as an inability to create value rather than as a condition of
deprivation. Defining poverty in such a way as to exclude the affected individuals as actors
would seem to imply a permanent requirement of charity, citing the old parable of giving a fish
or teaching how to fish. A holistic approach to reducing poverty would require the concept of
empowering individuals to create value for themselves and for others. Creating value is the
satisfying of needs or wants of individuals and organizations. In essence, most value creation is
in some way service to others. To be empowered to create value, every individual requires all
five of the primary resource of motivation, knowledge, enterprise, health, and security. Volumes
have been written and discussed about each of these resources. But only when comprehending
that they are all mandated to empower individuals can we assemble an effective holistic strategy
for reducing poverty.
—The True Definition Of Poverty[20]
[edit] Poverty and Rights; The Right of Indigency
A girl begging in India.
Apart from the fact that poverty can arise from injustice and violation of rights in general,
poverty can itself create injustice and deprive people of their proper rights or their ability to
claim their rights. If one lacks the ability or resources to claim rights, that may reasonably in
itself be seen as an injustice. Such injustice takes may forms, of which the inability to avail
oneself of recourse to the courts is one.
Indigency literally means “lack”; as commonly used nowadays the term means poverty, or “lack
of the ability to pay”, often the ability to pay for legal defence. In US law, which in this respect
is fairly typical among modern First World legal systems, Amendment 6 to the United States
Constitution says: “In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and
public trial ... and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.”
As an implication of such a right, if there is appropriate evidence that the accused is indigent,
which in this case amounts to lacking the means to pay for his defence, the usual costs must be
waived, and counsel appointed as necessary or appropriate.
Recognition of that right is sometimes referred to, perhaps confusingly, as the “right of
indigency”; it is now widely accepted as a right in international law. [21]
[edit] Causes
[edit] Scarcity of basic needs
Hardwood surgical tables are commonplace in rural Nigerian clinics.

Before the industrial revolution, poverty had been mostly accepted as inevitable as economies
produced little, making wealth scarce.[3] According to Geoffrey Parker, "In Antwerp and Lyon,
two of the largest cities in western Europe, by 1600 three-quarters of the total population were
too poor to pay tax, and therefore likely to need relief in times of crisis."[22] In 18th century
England, half the population was at least occasionally dependent on charity for subsistence.[23] In
modern times, food shortages have been reduced dramatically in the developed world, thanks to
agricultural technologies such as nitrogen fertilizers, pesticides and new irrigation methods.[24][25]
This change however, coincides with and has been linked to the Second wave of European
colonization. Also, mass production of goods in places such as China has made what were once
considered luxuries, such as vehicles or computers, inexpensive and thus accessible to many who
were otherwise too poor to afford them.[26][27]
Rises in the costs of living make poor people less able to afford items. Poor people spend a
greater portion of their budgets on food than richer people. As a result, poor households and
those near the poverty threshold can be particularly vulnerable to increases in food prices. For
example, in late 2007 increases in the price of grains[28] led to food riots in some countries.[29][30]
[31]
The World Bank warned that 100 million people were at risk of sinking deeper into poverty.
[32]
Threats to the supply of food may also be caused by drought and the water crisis.[33][34]
[35]
Intensive farming often leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil fertility and decline of
agricultural yields.[36] Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.
[37][38]
In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed
just 25% of its population by 2025, according to UNU's Ghana-based Institute for Natural
Resources in Africa.[39]
Health care can be widely unavailable to the poor. The loss of health care workers emigrating
from impoverished countries has a damaging effect. For example, an estimated 100,000
Philippine nurses emigrated between 1994 and 2006.[40] As of 2004, there were more Ethiopia-
trained doctors living in Chicago than in Ethiopia.[41]
Overpopulation and lack of access to birth control methods drive poverty.[42][43][44] The world's
population is expected to reach nearly 9 billion in 2040.[45] However, the reverse is also true, that
poverty causes overpopulation as it gives women little power to control giving birth, or to have
educational attainment or a career.[46]
[edit] Third World Debt
Third World debt plays a large part in international inequality and poverty. On average in 1999,
$128 million was transferred from indebted industrializing countries to debt holding nations for
debt repayments. Of this, $53 million was from East Asia and the Pacific, $38 million from
South Asia and $23 million from Africa.[47] The World Bank and the IMF, as primary holders of
Third World debt, generally attach structural adjustmentconditionalities to loans. These
conditionalities generally push for economic liberalization, including reducing barriers to trade,
elimination of state subsidies, Union busting, privatization of state assets and services, and
enforcement of private property rights. As a result of such policies, in 1997, Zambia spent 40%
of its total budget to repay foreign debt, and only 7% for basic state services.[48]. In spite of
mandating these policies in the industrializing world, many industrialized nations including the
United Statesheavily subsidize agriculture, among other industries. This, in the context of
liberalized trade, can result in the dumping of agricultural products on the industrializing world.
Small farmers within the recipient country are easily out-competed by these subsidized foreign
goods, and are often forced to migrate to urban areas.[49] This process can result in the
development of slums when the urban economy cannot absorb the influx of excess labor.
Maquilas and sweat shops, often linked to multinational corporations, often work to absorb labor
and provide employment. These institutions however, have become notorious for violating the
rights of employees, and quickly re-locating when employees begin to demand higher wages.
Many theories of development economics cite this process as a main driver of international
migration, inequality, and poverty.[50] The theory of accumulation by dispossession directly
addresses and outlines this process. It was around this notion that much of the anti-globalization
movement has been mobilized, framing the process as a form of neo-imperialism.
[edit] Barriers to opportunities
This section requires expansion.
Street children sleeping in Mulberry Street - Jacob Riis photo New York, United States (1890)
Homeless people living in cardboard boxes in Los Angeles, United States
Carrying water in a refugee camp in Ethiopia, 2008

The unwillingness of governments and feudal elites to give full-fledged property rights in land to
their tenants is cited as the chief obstacle to development.[51] This lack of economic freedom
inhibits entrepreneurship among the poor.[5] New enterprises and foreign investment can be
driven away by the results of inefficient institutions, notably corruption, weak rule of law and
excessive bureaucratic burdens.[4][5] Lack of financial services, as a result of restrictive
regulations, such as the requirements for bankinglicenses, makes it hard for even smaller
microsavings programs to reach the poor.[52]
Illiteracy
It takes two days, two bureaucratic procedures, and $280 to open a business in Canada while an
entrepreneur in Bolivia must pay $2,696 in fees, wait 82 business days, and go through 20
procedures to do the same.[5] Such costly barriers favor big firms at the expense of small
enterprises, where most jobs are created.[5] In India, before economic reforms, businesses had to
bribe government officials even for routine activities, which was, in effect, a tax on business.[4]
For example, in Nigeria, corruption led to an estimated $400 billion of the country's oil revenue
being stolen by Nigeria's leaders between 1960 and 1999.[53][54] Lack of opportunities can further
be caused by the failure of governments to provide essential infrastructure.[55][56]
High competition
Higher cost of education
Lack of industrialization
See also: Health and intelligence
For instance, in India, there is a lower rate of business establishment in various states like Bihar
and Uttar Pradesh. With lower industrialization and infrastructural development in the state the
provision of basic facilities like schools, colleges and hospitals tends to be below average.
Education and healthcare does not reach the common people. Due to lack of jobs, people are
forced to migrate to large cities for temporary work. For those unable to find jobs the result is
impoverishment. Poor health and education severely affects productivity at work. Inadequate
nutrition in childhood undermines the ability of individuals to develop their full physical and
mental capabilities. Lack of essential minerals such as iodine and iron can impair brain
development. 2 billion people (one-third of the total global population) are thought to be affected
by iodine deficiency. In developing countries, it is estimated that 40% of children aged 4 and
younger suffer from anemia because of insufficient iron in their diets.[57]
Similarly substance abuse, including for example alcoholism and drug abuse can consign people
to vicious poverty cycles.[citation needed]Infectious diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis can
perpetuate poverty by diverting health and economic resources from investment and
productivity; malaria decreases GDP growth by up to 1.3% in some developing nations and
AIDS decreases African growth by 0.3-1.5% annually.[58][59][60]
War, political instability and crime, including violent gangs and drug cartels, also discourage
investment. Civil wars and conflicts in Africa cost the continent some $300 billion between 1990
and 2005.[61] Eritrea and Ethiopia spent hundreds of millions of dollars on the war that resulted in
minor border changes.[62] Shocks in the business cycle affect poverty rates, increasing in
recessions and declining in booms. Cultural factors, such as discrimination of various kinds, can
negatively affect productivity such as age discrimination, stereotyping,[63]gender discrimination,
racial discrimination, and caste discrimination.[64]
Max Weber and the modernization theory suggest that cultural values could affect economic
success.[65][66] However, researchers[who?] have gathered evidence that suggest that values are not as
deeply ingrained and that changing economic opportunities explain most of the movement into
and out of poverty, as opposed to shifts in values.[67]
[edit] Effects of poverty
Again in a developed nation council houses in Seacroft, Leeds, UK have been deserted due to
poverty and high crime.
See also: Malnutrition
The effects of poverty may also be causes, as listed above, thus creating a "poverty cycle"
operating across multiple levels, individual, local, national and global.
[edit] Health
Main article: Diseases of poverty
Hunger, disease, and less education describe a person in poverty. One third of deaths - some 18
million people a year or 50,000 per day - are due to poverty-related causes: in total 270 million
people, most of them women and children, have died as a result of poverty since 1990.[68] Those
living in poverty suffer disproportionately from hunger or even starvation and disease.[69] Those
living in poverty suffer lower life expectancy. According to the World Health Organization,
hunger and malnutrition are the single gravest threats to the world's public health and
malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases.[70]
Every year nearly 11 million children living in poverty die before their fifth birthday. 1.02 billion
people go to bed hungry every night.[71] Poverty increases the risk of homelessness.[72] There are
over 100 million street children worldwide.[73] Increased risk of drug abuse may also be
associated with poverty.[74]
According to the Global Hunger Index, South Asia has the highest child malnutrition rate of the
world's regions.[75] Nearly half of all Indian children are undernourished,[76] one of the highest
rates in the world and nearly double the rate of Sub-Saharan Africa.[77] Every year, more than
half a million women die in pregnancy or childbirth.[78] Almost 90% of maternal deaths occur in
Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, compared to less than 1% in the developed world.[79]
Women who have born children into poverty may not be able to nourish the children efficiently
and provide adequate care in infancy. The children may also suffer from disease that has been
passed down to the child through birth. Asthma and rickets are common problems children
acquire when born into poverty.[citation needed]
[edit] Education
Great Depression: man lying down on pier, New York City docks, 1935.
Research has found that there is a high risk of educational underachievement for children who
are from low-income housing circumstances. This often is a process that begins in primary
school for some less fortunate children. In the US educational system, these children are at a
higher risk than other children for retention in their grade, special placements during the school's
hours and even not completing their high school education.[80] There are indeed many
explanations for why students tend to drop out of school. For children with low resources, the
risk factors are similar to excuses such as juvenile delinquency rates, higher levels of teenage
pregnancy, and the economic dependency upon their low income parent or parents.[80]
Families and society who submit low levels of investment in the education and development of
less fortunate children end up with less favorable results for the children who see a life of
parental employment reduction and low wages. Higher rates of early childbearing with all the
connected risks to family, health and well-being are majorly important issues to address since
education from preschool to high school are both identifiably meaningful in a life.[80]
Poverty often drastically affects children's success in school. A child's "home activities,
preferences, mannerisms" must align with the world and in the cases that they do not these
students are at a disadvantage in the school and most importantly the classroom.[81] Therefore, it
is safe to state that children who live at or below the poverty level will have far less success
educationally than children who live above the poverty line. Poor children have a great deal less
healthcare and this ultimately results in many absences from the academic year. Additionally,
poor children are much more likely to suffer from hunger, fatigue, irritability, headaches, ear
infections, flu, and colds.[81] These illnesses could potentially restrict a child or student's focus
and concentration.
[edit] Housing
See also: slums and orphanages
Street child in Bangladesh
Slum-dwellers, who make up a third of the world's urban population, live in a poverty no better,
if not worse, than rural people, who are the traditional focus of the poverty in the developing
world, according to a report by the United Nations.[82]
Most of the children living in institutions around the world have a surviving parent or close
relative, and they most commonly entered orphanages because of poverty.[83] Experts and child
advocates maintain that orphanages are expensive and often harm children's development by
separating them from their families.[83] It is speculated that, flush with money, orphanages are
increasing and push for children to join even though demographicdata show that even the poorest
extended families usually take in children whose parents have died.[83]
[edit] Violence
See also: slavery and human trafficking
According to a UN report on modern slavery, the most common form of human trafficking is for
prostitution, which is largely fueled by poverty.[84][85] In Zimbabwe, a number of girls are turning
to prostitution for food to survive because of the increasing poverty.[86] In one survey, 67% of
children from disadvantaged inner cities said they had witnessed a serious assault, and 33%
reported witnessing a homicide.[87] 51% of fifth graders from New Orleans (median income for a
household: $27,133) have been found to be victims of violence, compared to 32% in
Washington, DC (mean income for a household: $40,127).[88]
Also there are also many effects of poverty closer to home. For example after dropping out of
school children may turn to violence as a source of income i.e mugging people, betting during
street fights etc...
[edit] Substance abuse
SeeSubstance abuse
[edit] Poverty reduction
Main article: Poverty reduction
Historically, poverty reduction has been largely a result of economic growth.[4][5] The industrial
revolution led to high economic growth and eliminated mass poverty in what is now considered
the developed world.[3][5] In 1820, 75% of humanity lived on less than a dollar a day, while in
2001, only about 20% do.[5][dubious – discuss] As three quarters of the world's poor live in the country
side, the World Bank cites helping small farmers as the heart of the fight against poverty.[8]
Economic growth in agriculture is, on average, at least twice as effective in benefiting the
poorest half of a country's population as growth generated in non-agricultural sectors.[89]
However, aid is essential in providing better lives for those who are already poor and in
sponsoring medical and scientific efforts such as the Green Revolution and the eradication of
smallpox.[51][90]
In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,[91]Max Weber first suggested that cultural
values could affect economic success, arguing that the Protestant Reformation led to values that
drove people toward worldly achievements, a hard work ethic,[92] and saving to accumulate
wealth for investment.[93] The new religions (in particular, Calvinism and other more austere
Protestant sects) effectively forbade wastefully using hard earned money and identified the
purchase of luxuries a sin.[94]
[edit] Economic liberalization
Ian Vásquez, director of the Cato Institute's Project on Global Economic Liberty, wrote that
extending property rights protection to the poor is one of the most important poverty reduction
strategies a nation could take.[5][neutrality is disputed] Securing property rights to land, the largest asset
for most societies, is vital to their economic freedom.[5][51] The World Bank concludes increasing
land rights is 'the key to reducing poverty' citing that land rights greatly increase poor people's
wealth, in some cases doubling it.[12] Peruvian economist Hernando de Soto has estimated that
state recognition of the property of the poor would give them assets worth 40 times all the
foreign aid since 1945.[5] Although approaches varied, the World Bank said the key issues were
security of tenure and ensuring land transactions were low cost.[12]
In China and India, noted reductions in poverty in recent decades have occurred mostly as a
result of the abandonment of collective farming in China and the cutting of government red tape
in India.[95] However, ending government sponsorship of social programs is sometimes advocated
as a free market principle with tragic consequences. For example, the World Bank presses poor
nations to eliminate subsidies for fertilizer even while many farmers cannot afford them at
market prices.[96] The reconfiguration of public financing in former Soviet states during their
transition to a market economy called for reduced spending on health and education, sharply
increasing poverty.[97][98][99]
Trade liberalization increases the total surplus of trading nations.[dubious – discuss]Remittances sent to
poor countries, such as India, are sometimes larger than foreign direct investment and total
remittances are more than double aid flows from OECD countries.[100] Foreign investment and
export industries helped fuel the economic expansion of fast growing Asian nations.[101]
However, trade rules are often unfair as they block access to richer nations' markets and ban
poorer nations from supporting their industries.[96][102] Processed products from poorer nations, in
contrast to raw materials, get vastly higher tariffs at richer nations' ports.[103] A University of
Toronto study found the dropping of duty charges on thousands of products from Africannations
because of the African Growth and Opportunity Act was directly responsible for a "surprisingly
large" increase in imports from Africa.[104] However, Chinese textile and clothing exports have
encountered criticism from Europe, the United States and some African countries.[105][106]
Deals can also be negotiated to favor developing countries such as China, where laws compel
foreign multinationals to train their future Chinese competitors in strategic industries and render
themselves redundant in the long term.[107] In Thailand, the 51 percent rule compels multinational
corporations starting operations in Thailand to give 51 percent control to a Thai company in a
joint venture.[108]
[edit] Capital, infrastructure and technology
World GDP per capita

Investments in human capital, in the form of health, is needed for economic growth. Nations do
not necessarily need wealth to gain health.[109] For example, Sri Lanka had a maternal mortality
rate of 2% in the 1930s, higher than any nation today.[110]It reduced it to .5-.6% in the 1950s and
to .06% today while spending less each year on maternal health because it learned what worked
and what did not.[110] Cheap water filters and promoting hand washing are some of the most cost
effective health interventions and can cut deaths from diarrhea and pneumonia.[111][112] Knowledge
on the cost effectiveness of healthcare interventions can be elusive but educational measures to
disseminate what works are available, such as the disease control priorities project.[109]
Human capital, in the form of education, is an even more important determinant of economic
growth than physical capital.[4]Deworming children costs about 50 cents per child per year and
reduces non-attendance from anemia, illness and malnutrition and is only a twenty-fifth as
expensive to increase school attendance as by constructing schools.[113]
UN economists argue that good infrastructure, such as roads and information networks, helps
market reforms to work.[114] China claims it is investing in railways, roads, ports and rural
telephones in African countries as part of its formula for economic development.[114]It was the
technology of the steam engine that originally began the dramatic decreases in poverty levels.
Cell phone technology brings the market to poor or rural sections.[115]With necessary information,
remote farmers can produce specific crops to sell to the buyers that brings the best price.[116]
Such technology also makes financial services accessible to the poor. Those in poverty place
overwhelming importance on having a safe place to savemoney, much more so than receiving
loans.[10] Also, a large part of microfinanceloans are spent on products that would usually be paid
by a checking or savings account.[10]Mobile banking addresses the problem of the heavy
regulation and costly maintenance of saving accounts.[10] Mobile financial services in the
developing world, ahead of the developed world in this respect, could be worth $5 billion by
2012.[117]Safaricom'sM-Pesa launched one of the first systems where a network of agents of
mostly shopkeepers, instead of bank branches, would take deposits in cash and translate these
onto a virtual account on customers' phones. Cash transfers can be done between phones and
issued back in cash with a small commission, making remittances safer.[11]
[edit] Aid
Local citizens from the Janabi Village wait their turn to gather goods from the Sons of Iraq
(Abna al-Iraq) in a military operation conducted in Yusufiyah, Iraq. (U.S. Army photo by Spc
Luke Thornberry)
Main article: Aid
See also: Welfare, Development aid, and Debt relief
Aid in its simplest form is a basic income grant, a form of social security periodically providing
citizens with money. In pilot projects in Namibia, where such a program pays just $13 a month,
people were able to pay tuition fees, raising the proportion of children going to school by 92%,
child malnutrition rates fell from 42% to 10% and economic activity grew by 10%.[118][119]
Researchers say it is more efficient to support the families and extended families that care for the
vast majority of orphans with simple allocations of cash than supporting orphanages, who get
most of the aid.[83]
Some aid, such as Conditional Cash Transfers, can be rewarded based on desirable actions such
as enrolling children in school or receiving vaccinations.[120] In Mexico, for example, dropout
rates of 16-19 year olds in rural area dropped by 20% and children gained half an inch in height.
[121]
Initial fears that the program would encourage families to stay at home rather than work to
collect benefits have proven to be unfounded. Instead, there is less excuse for neglectful behavior
as, for example, children stopped begging on the streets instead of going to school because it
could result in suspension from the program.[121]
Another form of aid is microloans, made famous by the Grameen Bank, where small amounts of
money are loaned to farmers or villages, mostly women, who can then obtain physical capital to
increase their economic rewards. For example, the Thai government's People's Bank, makes
loans of $100 to $300 to help farmers buy equipment or seeds, help street vendors acquire an
inventory to sell, or help others set up small shops. While advancing the woman and her
household's position economically, microloans empower women and enable them to voice their
opinions in general household decisions.[122]
Aid from non-governmental organizations may be more effective than governmental aid; this
may be because it is better at reaching the poor and better controlled at the grassroots level.[123]
Critics argue that some of the foreign aid is stolen by corrupt governments and officials, and that
higher aid levels erode the quality of governance. Policy becomes much more oriented toward
what will get more aid money than it does towards meeting the needs of the people.[124]
Supporters of aid argue that these problems may be solved with better auditing of how the aid is
used.[124] Immunization campaigns for children, such as against polio, diphtheria and measles
have save millions of lives.[90]
A major proportion of aid from donor nations is tied, mandating that a receiving nation spend on
products and expertise originating only from the donor country.[125] For example, Eritrea is forced
to spend aid money on foreign goods and services to build a network of railways even though it
is cheaper to use local expertise and resources.[125]USlaw requires food aid be spent on buying
food at home, instead of where the hungry live, and, as a result, half of what is spent is used on
transport.[126]
One of the proposed ways to help poor countries has been debt relief. Many less developed
nations have gotten themselves into extensive debt to banks and governments from the rich
nations and interest payments on these debts are often more than a country can generate per year
in profits from exports.[127]If poor countries do not have to spend so much on debt payments, they
can use the money instead for priorities which help reduce poverty such as basic health-care and
education.[128] For example, Zambia began offering services, such as free health care even while
overwhelming the health care infrastructure, because of savings that resulted from the rounds of
debt relief in 2005.[129]
[edit] Good institutions
Main article: Political corruption
Efficient institutions that are not corrupt and obey the rule of law make and enforce good laws
that provide security to property and businesses. Efficient and fair governments would work to
invest in the long-term interests of the nation rather than plunder resources through corruption.[4]
Researchers at UC Berkeley developed what they called a "Weberianness scale" which measures
aspects of bureaucracies and governments Max Weber described as most important for rational-
legal and efficient government over 100 years ago. Comparative research has found that the scale
is correlated with higher rates of economic development.[130]
With their related concept of good governance World Bank researchers have found much the
same: Data from 150 nations have shown several measures of good governance (such as
accountability, effectiveness, rule of law, low corruption) to be related to higher rates of
economic development. [131] The United Nations Development Program published a report in
April 2000 which focused on good governance in poor countries as a key to economic
development and overcoming the selfish interests of wealthy elites often behind state actions in
developing nations. The report concludes that "Without good governance, reliance on trickle-
down economic development and a host of other strategies will not work." [132]
Examples of good governance leading to economic development and poverty reduction include
Thailand, Taiwan, Malaysia, South Korea, and Vietnam, which tend to have a strong
government, called a hard state or development state. These "hard states" have the will and
authority to create and maintain policies that lead to long-term development that helps all their
citizens, not just the wealthy. Multinational corporations are regulated so that they follow
reasonable standards for pay and labor conditions, pay reasonable taxes to help develop the
country, and keep some of the profits in the country, reinvesting them to provide further
development. In 1957 South Korea had a lower per capita GDP than Ghana,[133] and by 2008 it
was 17 times as high as Ghana's.[134]
Funds from aid and natural resources are often diverted into private hands and then sent to banks
overseas as a result of graft.[70] If Western banks rejected stolen money, says a report by Global
Witness, ordinary people would benefit "in a way that aid flows will never achieve".[70] The
report asked for more regulation of banks as they have proved capable of stanching the flow of
funds linked to terrorism, money-laundering or tax evasion.[70]
[edit] Empowering women
Empowering women has helped some countries increase and sustain economic development.[135]
When given more rights and opportunities women begin to receive more education, thus
increasing the overall human capital of the country; when given more influence women seem to
act more responsibly in helping people in the family or village; and when better educated and
more in control of their lives, women are more successful in bringing down rapid population
growth because they have more say in family planning.[136]
[edit] A Holistic Approach
Perhaps a more effective approach to reducing poverty would use the concept of empowering
individuals to create value for themselves and for others. A holistic approach would focus on
providing and strengthening all five of the necessary primary resources of motivation,
knowledge, enterprise, health, and security. Much of what has been covered so far deals in one
way or another with some of these primary resources but not in the context of a complete
approach. If societies and their governments have any practical and moral obligation to
individuals it is to help empower them to create value for themselves and for others. The
importance of individual self-motivation cannot be overestimated and in different societies it is
either culturally reinforced or culturally retarded. Through delayed gratification and intermittent
rewards, the belief must be reinforced that persistence and constant effort will ultimately yield
personal benefit and self worth. Knowledge is the sum of education, training, experience, and
associations. Education is the key to expanding the awareness of individuals as to what they do
not know and teaching them where and how to find out. Creating value will increasingly require
more than one knowledge set. Enterprises are the vehicles that provide the resources with which
individuals create value. Either the individual creates value in someone else’s enterprise or he
creates his own enterprise. Enterprises require financial investment, liquidity, stable or growing
markets, capital equipment, financial rules, and reinvestment. Physical and mental health are
required for individuals to be able to create value. Security is required to assure that individuals
can enjoy the fruits of their labors. |The True Definition Of Poverty[137] }}
[edit] Demographics
Percentage of population living on less than $1.25 per day.UN estimates 2000-2006.
Percentage of population suffering from hunger, World Food Programme, 2006
Life expectancy.
The Human Development Index.

The Gini coefficient, a measure of income inequality.
Life expectancy has been increasing and converging for most of the world. Sub-Saharan Africa
has recently seen a decline, partly related to the AIDS epidemic. Graph shows the years 1950-
2005.
See also: Poverty by country and Poverty threshold
[edit] Absolute poverty
Poverty is usually measured as either absolute or relative poverty (the latter being actually an
index of income inequality). Absolute poverty refers to a set standard which is consistent over
time and between countries. The World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than US
$1.25 (PPP) per day, and moderate poverty as less than $2 a day (but note that a person or family
with access to subsistence resources, e.g. subsistence farmers, may have a low cash income
without a correspondingly low standard of living - they are not living "on" their cash income but
using it as a top up). It estimates that "in 2001, 1.1 billion people had consumption levels below
$1 a day and 2.7 billion lived on less than $2 a day."[138]
Six million children die of hunger every year - 17,000 every day.[139] Selective Primary Health
Care has been shown to be one of the most efficient ways in which absolute poverty can be
eradicated in comparison to Primary Health Care which has a target of treating diseases. Disease
prevention is the focus of Selective Primary Health Care which puts this system on higher
grounds in terms of preventing malnutrition and illness, thus putting an end to Absolute Poverty.
[140]
The proportion of the developing world's population living in extreme economic poverty fell
from 28 percent in 1990 to 21 percent in 2001.[138] Most of this improvement has occurred in East
and South Asia.[141] In East Asia the World Bank reported that "The poverty headcount rate at the
$2-a-day level is estimated to have fallen to about 27 percent [in 2007], down from 29.5 percent
in 2006 and 69 percent in 1990."[142] In Sub-Saharan Africa extreme poverty went up from 41
percent in 1981 to 46 percent in 2001[citation needed], which combined with growing population
increased the number of people living in extreme poverty from 231 million to 318 million.[143]
In the early 1990s some of the transition economies of Eastern Europe and Central Asia
experienced a sharp drop in income.[144] The collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in large
declines in GDP per capita, of about 30 to 35% between 1990 and the trough year of 1998 (when
it was at its minimum). As a result poverty rates also increased although in subsequent years as
per capita incomes recovered the poverty rate dropped from 31.4% of the population to 19.6%[145]
[146]
The World Bank issued a report predicting that between 2007 and 2027 the populations of
Georgia and Ukraine will decrease by 17% and 24% respectively.[147]
World Bank data shows that the percentage of the population living in households with
consumption or income per person below the poverty line has decreased in each region of the
world since 1990:[148][149]
Region 1990 2002 2004
East Asia and Pacific 15.40% 12.33% 9.07%
Europe and Central Asia 3.60% 1.28% 0.95%
Latin America and the Caribbean 9.62% 9.08% 8.64%
Middle East and North Africa 2.08% 1.69% 1.47%
South Asia 35.04% 33.44% 30.84%
Sub-Saharan Africa 46.07% 42.63% 41.09%
Other human development indicators have also been improving. Life expectancy has greatly
increased in the developing world since WWII and is starting to close the gap to the developed
world.[citation needed]Child mortality has decreased in every developing region of the world.[citation needed]
The proportion of the world's population living in countries where per-capita food supplies are
less than 2,200 calories (9,200 kilojoules) per day decreased from 56% in the mid-1960s to
below 10% by the 1990s. Similar trends can be observed for literacy, access to clean water and
electricity and basic consumer items.[150]
There are various criticisms of these measurements.[151]Shaohua Chen and Martin Ravallion note
that although "a clear trend decline in the percentage of people who are absolutely poor is
evident ... with uneven progress across regions...the developing world outside China and India
has seen little or no sustained progress in reducing the number of poor".
Since the world's population is increasing, a constant number living in poverty would be
associated with a diminishing proportion. Looking at the percentage living on less than $1/day,
and if excluding China and India, then this percentage has decreased from 31.35% to 20.70%
between 1981 and 2004.[152]
The 2007 World Bank report "Global Economic Prospects" predicts that in 2030 the number
living on less than the equivalent of $1 a day will fall by half, to about 550 million. An average
resident of what we used to call the Third World will live about as well as do residents of the
Czech or Slovak republics today. Much of Africa will have difficulty keeping pace with the rest
of the developing world and even if conditions there improve in absolute terms, the report warns,
Africa in 2030 will be home to a larger proportion of the world's poorest people than it is today.
[153]
The reason for the faster economic growth in East Asia and South Asia is a result of their relative
backwardness, in a phenomenon called the convergence hypothesis or the conditional
convergence hypothesis. Because these economies began modernizing later than richer nations,
they could benefit from simply adapting technological advances which enable higher levels of
productivity that had been invented over centuries in richer nations.
[edit] Relative poverty
Relative poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on social context, hence
relative poverty is a measure of income inequality. Usually, relative poverty is measured as the
percentage of population with income less than some fixed proportion of median income. There
are several other different income inequality metrics, for example the Gini coefficient or the
Theil Index.
Relative poverty measures are used as official poverty rates in several developed countries. As
such these poverty statistics measure inequality rather than material deprivation or hardship. The
measurements are usually based on a person's yearly income and frequently take no account of
total wealth. The main poverty line used in the OECD and the European Union is based on
"economic distance", a level of income set at 60% of the median household income.[154]
[edit] Other aspects
Slum in Mumbai, India. 60% of Mumbai's more than 18 million inhabitants live in slums.[155]
Economic aspects of poverty focus on material needs, typically including the necessities of daily
living, such as food, clothing, shelter, or safe drinking water. Poverty in this sense may be
understood as a condition in which a person or community is lacking in the basic needs for a
minimum standard of well-being and life, particularly as a result of a persistent lack of income.
Analysis of social aspects of poverty links conditions of scarcity to aspects of the distribution of
resources and power in a society and recognizes that poverty may be a function of the diminished
"capability" of people to live the kinds of lives they value.[156]The social aspects of poverty may
include lack of access to information, education, health care, or political power.[157][158]
Poverty may also be understood as an aspect of unequal social status and inequitable social
relationships, experienced as social exclusion, dependency, and diminished capacity to
participate, or to develop meaningful connections with other people in society.[159][160][161] Such
social exclusion can be minimized through strengthened connections with the mainstream, such
as through the provision of relational care to those who are experiencing poverty.
Harlem, New York, USA. In 2006 the poverty rate for minors in the United States was the
highest in the industrialized world, with 21.9% of all minors and 30% of African American
minors living below the poverty threshold.[162]
The World Bank's "Voices of the Poor," based on research with over 20,000 poor people in 23
countries, identifies a range of factors which poor people identify as part of poverty.[163]These
include:
• Precarious livelihoods
• Excluded locations
• Physical limitations
• Gender relationships
• Problems in social relationships
• Lack of security
• Abuse by those in power
• Dis-empowering institutions
• Limited capabilities
• Weak community organizations
David Moore, in his book The World Bank, argues that some analysis of poverty reflect
pejorative, sometimes racial, stereotypes of impoverished people as powerless victims and
passive recipients of aid programs.[164]
Camden, New Jersey is one of the poorest cities in the United States.
Ultra-poverty, a term apparently coined by Michael Lipton,[165] connotes being amongst poorest
of the poor in low-income countries. Lipton defined ultra-poverty as receiving less than 80
percent of minimum caloric intake whilst spending more than 80% of income on food.
Alternatively a 2007 report issued by International Food Policy Research Institute defined ultra-
poverty as living on less than 54 cents per day.[166]BRAC (NGO) has pioneered a program called
Targeting the Ultra-Poor to redress ultra-poverty by working with individual ultra-poor women.
[167]
[edit] Voluntary poverty

See also: Simple living
Among some individuals, such as , poverty is considered a necessary or desirable condition,
which must be embraced to reach certain spiritual, moral, or intellectual states. Poverty is often
understood to be an essential element of renunciation in religions such as Buddhism (only for
monks, not for lay persons) and Jainism, whilst in Roman Catholicism it is one of the evangelical
counsels.
Certain religious orders also take a vow of extreme poverty. For example, the Franciscan orders
have traditionally foregone all individual and corporate forms of ownership. While individual
ownership of goods and wealth is forbidden for Benedictines, following the Rule of St. Benedict,
the monastery itself may possess both goods and money, and throughout history some
monasteries have become very rich.[citation needed]
In this context of religious vows, poverty may be understood as a means of self-denial to place
oneself at the service of others; Pope Honorius III wrote in 1217 that the Dominicans "lived a life
of voluntary poverty, exposing themselves to innumerable dangers and sufferings, for the
salvation of others".
Benedict XVI distinguishes “poverty chosen” (the poverty of spirit proposed by Jesus), and
“poverty to be fought” (unjust and imposed poverty). He considers that the moderation implied
in the former favors solidarity, and is a necessary condition so as to fight effectively to eradicate
the abuse of the latter.[168]
[edit] See also
• Accumulation by • Financial • International • Rural ghetto
dispossession exclusion inequality • Shanty town
• Multidimensional • Food security • International • Social
Poverty Index • Food vs fuel Development exclusion
• Bottom of the • Fuel poverty • Life expectancy • Subsidized
pyramid • Full • Literacy housing
• 2007–2008 world employment • Migrant worker • Street
food price crisis • Great children
• Minimum wage
• Climate change and Depression • Structural
poverty • Neo- adjustment
• Green imperialism
• Cycle of poverty Revolution • Theories of
• Neoliberalism poverty
• Development state • Hunger
• Poor Law • Underclass
• Diseases of poverty • Immiserizing
growth • Poverty • Welfare
• Distribution of reduction
wealth • Income • Working
disparity • Poverty poor
• Economic threshold
development Sustainable
• Poverty trap development
• Economic portal
inequality
• Economic
Vulnerability Index
• Feminization of
poverty
Nations:
• Poverty by country
• Least Developed Countries
• Countries by fertility rate
• Countries by GDP (PPP)
• Countries by poverty rate
Theology:
• Relational care
• Sadaqah
• Zakat
[edit] Organizations and campaigns
• AbahlalibaseMjondolo - South African • International Food Policy Research
Shack dwellers' organisation Institute
• Appropedia • International Fund for Agricultural
• Azafady Development
• Brooks World Poverty Institute • Islamic Development Bank
• Islamic Relief
• Catholic Charities USA[169] • Southern Poverty Law Center
• Center for Global Development • The Make Poverty History campaign
• Child Poverty Action Group • Microgiving Direct charitable giving
• Compassion Canada • Mississippi Teacher Corps
• Department for International • ONE campaign[171]
Development • Organization for Economic Cooperation
• End Poverty Now and Development
• Eurodad • United Nations Millennium
• Food First Campaign[172][173]
• Five Talents - Gives poverty stricken • United Prosperity (organisation)
people another chance • U.S. Agency for International
• Free the Children Development
• Grameen BankA micro lending bank for • World Bank
the poor. • World Congress of Muslim
• Global Call to Action Against Poverty Philanthropists
(GCAP) • World Food Day
• Habitat for Humanity International • World Food Program
• Harlem Children's Zone
• Homeless International[170]
• 17 October: UN International Day for
the Eradication of Poverty (White Band
Day 4)
[edit] In documentary photography and film

Authors with significant work Significant titles
• Diane Arbus • Born into Brothels (2004 film)
• Richard Avedon • Harlan County, USA
• Jim Goldberg • Streetwise (1984 film)
• Dorothea Lange
• Manuel Rivera-Ortiz
• Sebastião Salgado
• Tom Stone
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102.^"Market access". Oxfam.org.
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107.^"Does Communism work after all?". Spiegel.de.
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108.^ Muscat, Robert J. 1994. The Fifth Tiger: A Study of Thai Development. Armonk, NY:
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109.^ ab"Disease Control Priorities Project". Dcp2.org.
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110.^ ab Post Store (2006-04-03). "Saving millions for just a few dollars".
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dyn/content/article/2006/04/02/AR2006040200813.html. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
111.^"India's Tata launches water filter for rural poor". BBC News. 2009-12-07.
112.^"Millions mark UN hand washing day". BBC News. 2008-10-15.
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113.^How can we help the world's poor
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115.^"Give cash not food". Csmonitor.com. 2008-06-04.
http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0604/p01s02-woaf.html?page=2. Retrieved 2010-10-
24.
116.^"Market approach recasts often-hungry Ethiopia as potential bread basket".
Csmonitor.com. 2007-02-23. http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0223/p01s04-woaf.html.
117.^http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8100388.stm Africa pioneers mobile bank push
118.^http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,642310,00.html A new approach to
aid: How a basic income program saved a Namibian village
119.^http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7415814.stm Namibians line up for free cash
120.^Brazil becomes antipoverty showcase[dead link]
121.^ ab"Latin America makes dent in poverty with 'conditional cash' programs".
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122.^Grasmuck, Sherri and Espinal, Rosario. 2000. Market Success or Female Autonomy?
Income, Ideology, and Empowerment among Microentrepreneurs in the Dominican
Republic. Gender and Society 14 (2):231-255.
123.^"Does Foreign Aid Reduce Poverty? Empirical Evidence from Nongovernmental and
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127.^HIPC Debt Initiative for Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
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129.^"Zambia overwhelmed by free health care". BBC News. 2006-04-07.
130.^ Evans, Peter, and James E. Rauch. 1999. "Bureaucracy and Growth: A Cross-National
Analysis of the Effects of 'Weberian' State Structures on Economic Growth." American
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135.^ "Does Population Growth Impact Climate Change?.Scientific American. July 29,
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Times. October 12, 2000.
147.^"East: 'If Countries Don't Act Now, It's Going To Be Too Late'".
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B3D07F7AA84C.html. Retrieved 2007-12-22.
148.^"World Bank, 2007, Povcalnet Poverty Data". World Bank.
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149.^ The data can be replicated using World Bank 2007 Human Development Indicator
regional tables, and using the default poverty line of $32.74 per month at 1993 PPP.
150.^"World Development Volume 33, Issue 1 , January 2005, Pages 1-19, Why Are We
Worried About Income? Nearly Everything that Matters is Converging".
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8&_user=10&_coverDate=01%2F01%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=summary&_orig=brows
e&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md
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153.^World Bank has Good News About Future[dead link], by Andrew Cassel, The Philadelphia
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154.^ Michael Blastland (2009-07-31). "Just what is poor?". BBC NEWS.
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155.^Slums, Stocks, Stars and the New India. Spiegel Online. February 28, 2007.
156.ÂmartyaSen, 1985, Commodities and Capabilities, Amsterdam, New Holland, cited in
SiddiqurRahmanOsmani, 2004, Evolving Views on Poverty: Concept, Assessment, and
Strategy, ADB.org
157.Â Glossary for Social Epidemiology Nancy Krieger, PhD, Harvard School of Public
Health
158.^"Journal of Poverty". Journal of Poverty.
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159.^ H Silver, 1994, social exclusion and social solidarity, in International Labour Review,
133 5-6
160.^ G Simmel, The poor, Social Problems 1965 13
161.^ P Townsend, 1979, Poverty in the UK, Penguin
162.^ "U.S. Government Does Relatively Little to Lessen Child Poverty Rates". Economic
Policy Institute.
163.^Voices of the Poor
164.^ Chapter on Voices of the Poor in David Moore's edited book The World Bank:
Development, Poverty, Hegemony (University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2007)
165.^ Lipton, Michael (1986), 'Seasonality and ultra-poverty', Sussex, IDS Bulletin 17.3
166.^ International Food Policy Research Institute, The World's Most Deprived.
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167.^Matin, Imran, et al,, "Crafting a Graduation Pathway for the Ultra-poor: Lessons and
Evidence from a BRAC Programme," Research and Evaluation Division Working Paper,
BRAC, 2008: Research Papers in Economics
168.^ World Peace Day Address 2009[5]
169.^"Campaign to Reduce Poverty in America". Catholiccharitiesusa.org.
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170.^"transforming slums". Homeless International. http://www.homeless-international.org.
171.^"The ONE Campaign". One.org. http://www.one.org. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
172.^"United Nations Millennium Campaign". Endpoverty2015.org.
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[edit] Further reading
• Adato, Michelle &Meinzen-Dick, Ruth, eds. Agricultural Research, Livelihoods, and
Poverty: Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries (2007),Johns Hopkins
University Press, [http://www.ifpri.org/publication/agricultural-research-livelihoods-and-
poverty International Food Policy Research Institute
• Anzia, Lys "Educate a Woman, You Educate a Nation" - South Africa Aims to Improve
its Education for Girls WNN - Women News Network. Aug. 28, 2007.
• Atkinson, Anthony. Poverty in Europe 1998
• Babb, Sarah (2009). Behind the Development Banks: Washington Politics, World
Poverty, and the Wealth of Nations. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226033655.
• Bergmann, Barbara. "Deciding Who's Poor", Dollars & Sense, March/April 2000
• Betson, David M. &Warlick, Jennifer L. "Alternative Historical Trends in Poverty."
American Economic Review 88:348-51. 1998. in JSTOR
• Brady, David "Rethinking the Sociological Measurement of Poverty" Social Forces 81#3
2003, pp. 715–751 Online in Project Muse. Abstract: Reviews shortcomings of the official U.S.
measure; examines several theoretical and methodological advances in poverty measurement. Argues that
ideal measures of poverty should: (1) measure comparative historical variation effectively; (2) be relative
rather than absolute; (3) conceptualize poverty as social exclusion; (4) assess the impact of taxes, transfers,
and state benefits; and (5) integrate the depth of poverty and the inequality among the poor. Next, this
article evaluates sociological studies published since 1990 for their consideration of these criteria. This
article advocates for three alternative poverty indices: the interval measure, the ordinal measure, and the
sum of ordinals measure. Finally, using the Luxembourg Income Study, it examines the empirical patterns
with these three measures, across advanced capitalist democracies from 1967 to 1997. Estimates of these
poverty indices are made available.
• Buhmann, Brigitte, et al. 1988. "Equivalence Scales, Well-Being, Inequality, and
Poverty: Sensitivity Estimates Across Ten Countries Using the Luxembourg Income
Study (LIS) Database." Review of Income and Wealth 34:115-42.
• Cox, W. Michael &Alm, Richard. Myths of Rich and Poor 1999
• Danziger, Sheldon H. & Weinberg, Daniel H. "The Historical Record: Trends in Family
Income, Inequality, and Poverty." Pp. 18–50 in Confronting Poverty: Prescriptions for
Change, edited by Sheldon H. Danziger, Gary D. Sandefur, and Daniel. H. Weinberg.
Russell Sage Foundation. 1994.
• Firebaugh, Glenn. "Empirics of World Income Inequality." American Journal of
Sociology (2000) 104:1597-1630. in JSTOR
• Frank, Ellen, Dr. Dollar: How Is Poverty Defined in Government Statistics?Dollars &
Sense, January/February 2006
• Gans, Herbert J., "The Uses of Poverty: The Poor Pay All", Social Policy, July/August
1971: pp. 20–24
• George, Abraham, Wharton Business School Publications - Why the Fight Against
Poverty is Failing: a contrarian view
• Gordon, David M. Theories of Poverty and Underemployment: Orthodox, Radical, and
Dual Labor Market Perspectives. 1972.
• Haveman, Robert H. Poverty Policy and Poverty Research. Madison: University of
Wisconsin Press 1987 ISBN 0299111504
• Iceland, John Poverty in America: a handbook University of California Press, 2003
• McEwan, Joanne, and Pamela Sharpe, eds. Accommodating Poverty: The Housing and
Living Arrangements of the English Poor, c. 1600-1850 (Palgrave Macmillan; 2010) 292
pages; scholarly studies of rural and urban poor, as well as vagrants, unmarried mothers,
and almshouse dwellers.
• O'Connor, Alice "Poverty Research and Policy for the Post-Welfare Era" Annual Review
of Sociology, 2000
• Osberg, Lars &Xu, Kuan. "International Comparisons of Poverty Intensity: index
decomposition and bootstrap inference." The Journal of Human Resources 2000. 35:51-
81.
• Paugam, Serge. "Poverty and Social Exclusion: a sociological view." Pp. 41–62 in The
Future of European Welfare, edited by Martin Rhodes and Yves Meny, 1998.
• Philippou, Lambros (2010) "Public Space, Enlarged Mentality and Being-In-Poverty",
Philosophical Inquiry, Vol. 32, No. 1-2 pp. 103–115.
• Pressman, Steven, Poverty in America: an annotated bibliography. Metuchen, N.J.:
Scarecrow Press, 1994 ISBN 0810828332
• Rothman, David J., (editor). The Almshouse Experience (Poverty U.S.A.: the Historical
Record). New York: Arno Press, 1971. ISBN 0-405-03092-4Reprint of Report of the
committee appointed by the Board of Guardians of the Poor of the City and Districts of Philadelphia to visit
the cities of Baltimore, New York, Providence, Boston, and Salem (published in Philadelphia, 1827);
Report of the Massachusetts General Court's Committee on Pauper Laws (published in [Boston?], 1821);
and the 1824 Report of the New York Secretary of State on the relief and settlement of the poor (from the
24th annual report of the New York State Board of Charities, 1901).
• Sen, AmartyaPoverty and Famines: an essay on entitlement and deprivation. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1981
• Sen, Amartya. Development as Freedom. New York: Knopf, 1999
• Smeeding, Timothy M., O'Higgins, Michael & Rainwater, Lee. Poverty, Inequality and
Income Distribution in Comparative Perspective. Urban Institute Press 1990.
• Smith, Stephen C., Ending Global Poverty: a guide to what works, New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2005
• Triest, Robert K. "Has Poverty Gotten Worse?" Journal of Economic Perspectives 1998.
12:97-114.
• Wilson, Richard & Pickett, Kate. The Spirit Level, London: Allen Lane, 2009
• World Bank: "Can South Asia End Poverty in a Generation?"
• World Bank, "World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work For Poor
People", 2004.
[edit] External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Poverty
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• Disease control priorities project Studies the cost effectiveness of health care
interventions
• Human Rights Watch Tracks the abuse of people in less developed countries around the
world.
• Luxembourg Income Study Contains a wealth of data on income inequality and poverty,
and hundreds of its sponsored research papers using this data.
• Multinational Monitor Contains reports of corporate misbehavior around the world.
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Contains reports on economic
development as well as relations between rich and poor nations.
• Transparency International Tracks issues of government and corporate corruption around
the world.
• United NationsHundres of free reports related to economic development and standards of
living in countries around the world, such as the annual Human Development Report.
• U.S. Agency for International Development USAID is the primary U.S. government
agency with the mission for aid to developing countries.
• World Congress of Muslim Philanthropists Association that helps Islamic donors
organize contributions.
• World Bank Contains hundreds of reports which can be downloaded for free, such as the
annual World Development Report.
• World Food Program Associated with the United Nations, the World Food Program
compiles hundreds of reports on hunger and food security around the world.
• Islamic Development Bank
• Islamic relief Largest Muslim relief organization.
• The PulseraProject A US based non-profit Organization alleviating poverty in Nicaragua,
Central America's second poorest nation.
• Is Life Getting Better : What is Poverty? Pamphlet describing the basic idea of poverty
and how to measure it, from OECD's Measuring Progress project.
• PovertyVision.org ("the first daily poverty newspaper in the world")
• OPHIOxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI)] Research to advance the
human development approach to poverty reduction.
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Poverty: Poverty Is The Lack of

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Poverty: Poverty Is The Lack of

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Poverty

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Shanty town in Soweto, South Africa, 2005

Hardwood surgical tables are commonplace in rural Nigerian clinics.

Homeless people living in cardboard boxes in Los Angeles, United States

Carrying water in a refugee camp in Ethiopia, 2008

World GDP per capita

The Human Development Index.

[edit] Voluntary poverty

[edit] In documentary photography and film

Look up poverty in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Poverty

Afghanistan ·Armenia ·Azerbaijan ·Bahrain ·Bangladesh ·Bhutan ·Brunei ·Burma

States Abkhazia ·Nagorno-Karabakh ·Northern Cyprus ·Palestine ·Republic of China

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Poverty: Poverty Is The Lack of

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Document Informationclick to expand document informationPoverty is the lack of basic human needs, such as clean and fresh water, nutrition, health care, education, clothing and shelter. This is also referred to as absolute poverty or destitution. About 1. Billion people live in absolute poverty.

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Did you find this document useful?

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Poverty: Poverty Is The Lack of

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Poverty

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Shanty town in Soweto, South Africa, 2005

Hardwood surgical tables are commonplace in rural Nigerian clinics.

Homeless people living in cardboard boxes in Los Angeles, United States

Carrying water in a refugee camp in Ethiopia, 2008

World GDP per capita

The Human Development Index.

[edit] Voluntary poverty

[edit] In documentary photography and film

Look up poverty in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Poverty

Afghanistan ·Armenia ·Azerbaijan ·Bahrain ·Bangladesh ·Bhutan ·Brunei ·Burma

States Abkhazia ·Nagorno-Karabakh ·Northern Cyprus ·Palestine ·Republic of China

You might also like