Week 8 Capstone Paper

Cerra Hernandez

Professor Brian Carey

HIST 498

November 25, 2020

American Public University

 Abstract

The origins of one of the America’s oldest unsolved mysteries can be traced to August

1587, when a group of about 115 English settlers arrived on Roanoke Island, off the coast of

what is now North Carolina. The colony of Roanoke was the first real establishment of an

English colony in North America. For centuries, the Lost Colony of Roanoke Island has been a

controversial issue and has been debated amongst historians and archeologists for centuries.

Many theories exist that try to explain the mysterious disappearance of the colony. Some theories

suggest that the colonists left the island to live with friendly neighboring Indians, such as the

Croatoans. Others suggest that famine or disease wiped out the colony or that a savage Indian

tribe massacred them. The possibility of a Spanish colony eliminating the colony is also a

debated topic. However, evidence indicates that the men and women left behind on Roanoke

Island did not die because of massacre, disease, or starvation but split up and assimilated

themselves into different Native American tribes.

2
 Contents

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….……..…4

Background

English Colonization of North America…………………………………………………4

Expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh………………………………………………………5-6

The First Colony………………………………………………………………………………..7-9

The Second Colony on Roanoke Island…………………………………………………….....9-14

Disappearance of the Colony………………………………………………………....14-15

Theories

The Powhattan Tribe………………………………………………..………………..15-16

Integration………………………………...…………………………………………..16-18

Spain……………………………………………………...…………………………..18-19

The Dare Stones……………………………………………………………………....19-21

Other Theories………………………………………………………………………...…21

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………….…22

3
 The Lost Colony of Roanoke: Solving Americas Oldest Mystery

The Colony of Roanoke was the first English colony in North America. What makes the

colony so interesting is that the colonists disappeared mysteriously. For centuries, the Lost

Colony of Roanoke Island has been a controversial issue. Many theories exist that explain the

disappearance of the colony. Some theories suggest that the colonists left the island to live with

friendly neighboring Indians. Others suggest that famine or disease wiped out the colony or that

a savage Indian tribe massacred them. The possibility of a Spanish colony eliminating them is

also a debated topic. However, evidence indicates that the men and women left behind on

Roanoke Island did not die because of massacre, disease, or starvation but split up and

assimilated themselves into different Native American tribes.

The English set their initial steps in the direction of colonial expansion at the end of the

15th century. In 1497, Henry VII sent John Cabot (1450-1500) on an expedition across the

Atlantic Ocean in order to locate a trade route to China.1 John Cabot, born as Giovanni Caboto,

was the son of an Italian merchant from Genoa, Italy and was additionally a very talented

navigator and explorer.2 In May 1497, John Cabot left Bristol, England on the ship Matthew, a

fast and sturdy ship with a crew comprising of eighteen sailors.3 On June 24, Cabot landed on the

East coast of North America. The exact location is a subject of debate. Cape Breton Island and

Nova Scotia are often said to be the landing spot, as well as Newfoundland, Labrador, and even

1
Evan T. Jones, “Alwyn Ruddock: ‘John Cabot and the Discovery of America”, Historical Research 81 (2008): 224–
54, doi:10.1111/j.1468-2281.2007.00422.x.
2
Ibid.
3
Ibid.

4
Maine. In any event Cabot declared the land for England and then returned to England to report

to King Henry VII what he had claimed.4

It would not be until 1585 before an attempt was made to colonize the new land. Sir

Walter Raleigh (1554-1618) played an important part in this.5 Raleigh was an explorer and

writer. After his studies in Oxford he served in the Huguenot army in France and later on in the

army of Queen Elizabeth I of England in Ireland.6 There he distinguished himself at the siege of

Smerwick. Raleigh became a close friend of Queen Elizabeth I and she was said to be very

smitten with him, even though she was quite a bit older than Raleigh. As a reward for being in

the Queens good graces and close circle, Raleigh was granted trade privileges and a charter

allowing him to colonize America in the name of England.7

In 1584, Raleigh sent an expedition under command of Philip Amadas (1550-1618) and

Arthur Barlowe (1550-1620) to North America to explore the East coast.8 The mission of this

expedition was not to establish a colony yet but to explore and present a report. Raleigh needed

information about the land before he could send a colony to be stablished so his instructions for

Captain Amadas and Captain Barlowe was to encounter, explore, and report back. On July 4th,

they landed on Roanoke Island and made contact with the local tribes, the Secotans and

Croatoans.9 During this expedition Captain Amadas, Captain Barlowe, and the crew learned a lot

of information about some of the local tribes and even became friendly with them, especially the
4
Evan T. Jones, “Alwyn Ruddock: ‘John Cabot and the Discovery of America”, Historical Research 81 (2008): 224–
54, doi:10.1111/j.1468-2281.2007.00422.x.
5
James Horn, A Kingdom Strange: The Brief and Tragic History of the Lost Colony of Roanoke, New York: Basic
Books, 2010, Accessed November 18, 2020, ProQuest Central, 7.
6
Ibid, 9.
7
Ibid, 18.
8
Captain Philip M. Amadas and Captain Arthur M. Barlowe, "The first voyage made to the coasts of America, with
two barks, where in were captains M. Philip Amadas, and M. Arthur Barlowe, who discovered part of the Country
now called Virginia," (1584), Accessed November 10, 2020,
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1014.
9
Ibid.

5
Secotans and Croatoans. The Englishmen spent a lot of time trading food, skins, and other items

with the Native Americans and getting to know their language and customs and in the process of

the trading and friendly encounters, they had earned each other’s trust.

When their exploration of Roanoke Island and surrounding areas was complete, Captain

Amadas and Captain Barlowe decided it was time to return to England to give their reports of

this new land they explored. The captains were pleased with their exploration and were happy to

report back that they had found the land fertile, pleasant, and the perfect location to establish a

new colony. They also decided to take back to England with them two Native Americans,

Manteo and Wanchese. They thought bringing back the Native Americans would drum up

support and intrigue for the expansion into this new land and show the good relationships they

were able to make. Manteo, a chief of the Croatoan tribe, and Wanchese, a Secotan, were

Algonquian-speaking Indians in the area what is now coastal North Carolina.10 Two of the

earliest American Indians to enter into the English record, Manteo and Wanchese were essential

to the establishment of Anglo-Indian relations at Roanoke.11 During their time in England, the

Native Americans gave Raleigh political and geographical information about the region, after

which he organized a second expedition under the command of his cousin Sir Richard Grenville

(1541-1591).12 Raleigh wanted to command this expedition himself but Queen Elizabeth I did

not want him to go because she preferred him to stay close to her in her court. The goal of this

next expedition was to establish a small starter colony.

After Raleigh got the support and funds he needed for the colony to be established, the

small colony and fleet set sail from Plymouth, England on April 9, 1585 and arrived in

10
Alden T. Vaughan, "Sir Walter Ralegh's Indian Interpreters, 1584-1618", The William and Mary Quarterly 59, no.
2 (2002): 341-76, Accessed November 11, 2020, doi:10.2307/3491741, 342.
11
Ibid, 343.
12
Ibid.

6
Wococon, near Roanoke, when July was coming to an end.13 After making their way to the

nearby Roanoke Island, the small colony, which was a military colony consisting of about one

hundred soldiers (no women or families were included in this first colony) was founded.

Raleigh’s plan was to have this first initial group of men create a presence in the new land and to

begin building the colony’s buildings and farming areas, and later a larger group of men would

follow to establish an even larger colony and make sure there would not be any threats to the

growing presence. Once the colony was properly established and equipped with the necessities

women and children would be brought in as well. The land was named Virginia in honor of

Elizabeth I, the virgin queen.14 Even though most of the encounters with the Native American’s

were peaceful in nature, there were a couple events, led by Grenville, that could have alarmed

the Native Americans and portrayed the English as erratic and hostile. One such example is

Grenville ordered eleven of his men to burn a Native American village, named Aquascocock,

and all their corn fields to the ground after claiming some of the Native Americans from the

village had stolen a silver cup from the English while they were doing some trading with them.15

After getting the men settled and doing a little more surveying, Grenville decided he had

enough good news to take back for Raleigh and departed for England with a small sailing crew

in late August while leaving one of this chief officers, Colonel Ralph Lane (1532-1603) behind

as governor of the small military colony.16 Lane was a soldier and lacked diplomatic skills. As a

result, it did not take long before he came into more conflicts with the natives. On June 10, 1586,

13
Thomas Hariot, “A brief and true report of the new found land of Virginia", (1588), Accessed November 10, 2020,
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1009.
14
Ibid.
15
James Horn, A Kingdom Strange: The Brief and Tragic History of the Lost Colony of Roanoke, New York: Basic
Books, 2010, Accessed November 18, 2020, ProQuest Central, 75.
16
Ralph Lane, "An account of the particularities of the employments of the English men left in Virginia by Sir
Richard Grenville under the charge of Master Ralph Lane", (1585-86), Accessed November 10, 2020,
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1016.

7
Lane and his men murdered a large amount of Secotans and Wingina, the Secotan chieftain, who

was preparing an attack on the colony and who was trying to turn all local tribes against the

English, asserting that the English were violent and not to be trusted.17 On top of the killing of

Wingina and the tribe members, tensions had already been rising between the English and the

Secotans due to the English dependance on the Secotans for food, which was increasingly hard

on them especially during the winter months, as well as the introduction of diseases to the Native

Americans such as small pox and influenza that took a big toll on their people.

Luckily, not long after the murder of the Secotan people and their chief, an expedition

under the command of Sir Francis Drake (1540-1596) stopped at the colony to see how the

colony was doing and to reinforce them where needed but because of the danger of the Native

Americans and with food supplies becoming so sacred, Lane made the decision to evacuate all of

the men for everyone’s safety.18 Grenville’s originally planned relief fleet sent with supplies for

the men arrived shortly after Drake left with the evacuated soldiers. Seeing that the colony was

abandoned, they left a small detachment of fifteen men behind in order to maintain an English

presence and then set sail for England. Unfortunately, the murder of a large number of Secotan’s

and their chief Wingina, along with the introduction of disease that left the Secotan population

numbers dwindled meant that the good relationship between the English and the Secotans was

officially over.

After the failure on Roanoke Island, Raleigh decided that he had make another attempt.

Raleigh was not happy that Drake let Lane abandon the colony location, Drake was supposed to

reinforce the colony not aid in evacuating it. Raleigh was not going to let his dream of being the

17
Ibid.
18
Sir Richard Grenville, "The third voyage made by a ship sent in the year 1586, to the relief of the colony planted
in Virginia, at the sole charge of Sir Walter Raleigh", (1586), Accessed November 10, 2020,
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1017.

8
lead in colonizing the new world end. Raleigh soon began to make plans for yet another colony

attempt and this time the colony was not supposed to be established on Roanoke Island because

of the recent failure but instead they would try another establishment on the Delmarve Peninsula,

near Chesapeake Bay.19 The Native Americans there seemed friendlier and the waters were better

suited for deep water navigation.

By the end of March 1587, plans were finalized, and a new fleet was put together for

Raleigh’s second attempt at colonization. John White (1539-1593) was chosen as the governor of

the new colony this time in hopes that his lack of military background would help the new

colony have less violent altercations.20 The fleet itself was commanded by Simon Fernandes

(1538-1590)21, who was a Portuguese privateer in service of England and the man who had

convinced Raleigh that North Carolina would be a good spot to try to establish a settlement.22

The initial plan was that the ships would first sail to Roanoke Island to check on the fifteen men

that had been left there and take them with the new colonists to Delmarve Peninsula. When the

fleet arrived at Roanoke Island on July 22, 1587 in order to look for the detachment, Captain

Fernandes decided to change the plans and forced the 115 colonists and the Indians Manteo and

Wanchese to get off the ship at Roanoke.23 Fernandes claimed it was too dangerous to go to the

predetermined landing spot at Delmarve Penisula because of the weather conditions. White

however was convinced it was because Fernandes and White had not been getting along during

19
James Horn, A Kingdom Strange: The Brief and Tragic History of the Lost Colony of Roanoke, New York: Basic
Books, 2010, Accessed November 18, 2020, ProQuest Central, 118.
20
John White, "The fourth voyage made to Virginia with three ships, in the year 1587, wherein was transported the
second colony", (1587), Accessed November 13, 2020,
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1018.
21
Ibid.
22
James Horn, A Kingdom Strange: The Brief and Tragic History of the Lost Colony of Roanoke, New York: Basic
Books, 2010, Accessed November 18, 2020, ProQuest Central, 118.
23
John White, "The fourth voyage made to Virginia with three ships, in the year 1587, wherein was transported the
second colony", (1587), Accessed November 13, 2020,
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1018.

9
the voyage and the change of plans were a way for Fernandes to rid himself of the burden of

White and the colonists. Also, White knew Fernandes wanted to go south to prey upon Spanish

ships. White was furious but he and the settlers had no choice but to do as Fernandes

commanded. Once on the island only a skeleton was found, which White claimed most likely

belonged to one of the men who were detached earlier and had been slain by the natives probably

shortly after they had been left there.24

The colonists had no option but to establish a second colony on Roanoke Island, at least

temporarily. White and the settlers quickly began to unload all their supplies and gear from the

ships before Fernandes could take off with any of their items and set about building little housing

units for the families. By the end of July, all the colonists were healthy, fairly happy, and had

made great progress in setting up their new settlement. Manteo had decided to remain with the

colonist but Wanchese no longer trusted the English after his trip to England and decided to

return to his Secotan tribe. White tried to improve relations with the natives but was not

successful. On July 28, George Howe, one of the colonists, was found dead two miles from the

encampment. Howe was wading into a small creek intending to catch some crabs for food when

he was attacked. His body was impaled with sixteen arrows and there were signs of severe

beating.25 White and the colonists were horrified that such a brutal death had occurred so quickly

after they settled without any provocation.

When the colonists conferred with the Croatoans about the incident, they were informed

the murder was the work of one of the Roanokan tribes, the Secotans – some remainders of

Wingina’s people – and to top it off the Croatoans stated that Wanchese was among this group.

24
Ibid.
25
John White, "The fourth voyage made to Virginia with three ships, in the year 1587, wherein was transported the
second colony", (1587), Accessed November 13, 2020,
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1018.

10
This was a shock to hear since Wanchese had once been friendly with the English and had

greatly helped them. The Croatoans promised to support the colonists should they come into

conflict with any of the Roanokans, on the condition that the Croatoans were given a badge or

other token of friendship that could be used for identification so that the Croatoans were not

accidently killed during the conflict.26 The Croatoans also gave the colonists vital information on

what had happened to the fifteen men that had been left behind by Sir Richard Grenville. The

Croatoans claimed that the men were betrayed by a group of about thirty Native Americans from

the Roanoke tribes, the Secotan, Aquascocock, and Dasamonguepek tribes.27 The Native

Americans pretended to be friendly and approached the Englishmen. The Englishmen believed

there was not a threat and met the Native Americans unarmed. Once the Native Americans

surrounded the men, they proceeded to slaughter them. Some of the men had managed to escape

into the woods, but the Native American’s had the advantage in the woods and eventually all of

the men were hunted down and killed.

Hearing this news, White and the colonists had the Croatoans send invitations to the three

tribes that had murdered the fifteen men and who had shot George Howe sixteen times with

arrows. The invitation was for the tribes to come together with the English to find a peaceful

solution and to end all this violence.28 White and the colonists told the Crotoans that they could

put these events behind them, and that they felt these attacks were provoked by the violence of

Lane’s soldiers. After the invitation attempts to find a peaceful solution met with no response

from any of the tribes, White and Manteo led some men to the village of one of the Roanoke

villages, Dasemunkepeuc, in a surprise attack, only to discover too late that the village was
26
Ibid.
27
Ibid.
28
John White, "The fourth voyage made to Virginia with three ships, in the year 1587, wherein was transported the
second colony", (1587), Accessed November 13, 2020,
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1018.

11
occupied by the Croatoans who had heard the Secotans had abandoned the town shortly after

killing Howe.29 Unfortunately, the badges the Croatoans were given were not visible in the dark.

The Croatoans did not seem to hold the unfortunate mistake against the colonists, claiming they

understood the error, but still the friendship had seemed to sour ever so slightly.

Not long after that, Fernandes returned to the island with some more supplies for the

colonists. On August 18, after all supplies had been unloaded, the fleet was ready to return to

England. It was previously determined that one of the colonists would return to England when a

supply ship came so they could report back to Raleigh and have him send more food and

supplies that they needed. None of the colonists except one wanted to make the journey though,

and at the last minute the colonist changed his mind and decided he wanted to stay. John White

then decided he would travel back with the supply ship to report back to Raleigh and to bring

back all necessary supplies the colony needed to survive because he knew someone had to do it.

It was not without great weight that White decided to leave for England. John Whites daughter,

Eleanor White Dare (1568-after 1587), and her husband Ananias Dare (1560-1587) had just

welcomed their first child, and the first child to be born in the new land – a girl they named

Virginia (1587).30 Also, being the governor of this new colony, White felt it was his obligation to

stay at the colony no matter what and that his absence would be disastrous. White knew though

that he had to get more supplies for the colony in order for them to survive, as well as more

colonists, and he was confident that he would be able to make it back within the year. Before

leaving though, White and the colonists discussed some scenarios and what they should do if

certain things happen. One of the scenarios was that if the colonists did decide to move to

29
Ibid.
30
John White, "The fourth voyage made to Virginia with three ships, in the year 1587, wherein was transported the
second colony", (1587), Accessed November 13, 2020,
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1018.

12
another location, a small number of colonists would remain at Roanoke so they could tell White

where the other colonist had moved to. Another scenario was if the colonists had to flee because

of danger or were forced they would carve a cross into a predominate tree above the letters of

where they had to go.31

Upon returning to England though, White found out that the war with Spain was going to

make it somewhat difficult to send supply ships to the colony. Because of the threat of the

Spanish Armada, England was preparing for an invasion and all English ships were forbidden to

set sail.32 In November, White anxiously reported to Raleigh all his problems with Fernandes and

his worries about the colonists on Roanoke Island in light of the continuing Native American

hostilities. Raleigh was pleased though in hearing that so far the colony seemed to be heading in

the direction of success and immediately began organizing a relief expedition for the colonists.

White was delighted that Raleigh was planning on sending ships right away but as December and

January passes with still no ship sent, White became increasingly concerned about the colonists.

But in April, Raleigh managed to send two ships to the colony. A small fight with the Spanish

however, made them turn back.

It was not until 1590 that Raleigh managed to organize a new expedition.33 Three

privateer ships agreed to sail to the colony and drop off John White. There were no extra

colonists or supplies on board, only ship crewmen because the captains of the ships refused to

carry any supplies for the colonists or any passengers other than White himself. White was more

31
James Horn, A Kingdom Strange: The Brief and Tragic History of the Lost Colony of Roanoke, New York: Basic
Books, 2010, Accessed November 18, 2020, ProQuest Central, 164-165.
32
Robert D. Arner, "The Romance of Roanoke: Virginia Dare and the Lost Colony in American Literature", The
Southern Literary Journal 10, no. 2 (1978): 5-45, Accessed November 16, 2020,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20077586, 8.
33
Robert D. Arner, "The Romance of Roanoke: Virginia Dare and the Lost Colony in American Literature", The
Southern Literary Journal 10, no. 2 (1978): 5-45, Accessed November 16, 2020,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20077586, 8.

13
concerned at the time about getting back to check on the colony he had left so he reluctantly

agreed to the captain’s terms. On August 15, 1590, the fleet arrived at Roanoke.34 John White

and a couple men disembarked but was unable to find any colonists. White and the crew

searched a full day but could not find a trace of the 90 men, 17 women, and 11 children that he

had left there three years earlier. There were no indications of a fight or struggle and all the

houses and fortifications had been dismantled, meaning that if they left, they did not leave in a

hurry. The only things White and his men found was the word “Croatoan” carved into a palisade

and in a tree nearby someone carved the word “Cro”.35

Before White left three years earlier, it was agreed upon that the colonists would carve a

Maltese Cross into a tree if they had to leave the colony because of danger.36 No such cross was

found, which indicated their leave was not forced and there was not necessarily a threat on their

lives. White thought the clues he had found indicated that the colonists had decided moved to the

Croatoan Island37 (now called Hatteras Island). It was however unlikely that all the colonists

would be there. The sandy ground and the contact with the salty seawater meant that the island

was not fertile enough to maintain a large colony. The next day, even though White was eager to

travel to the Croatoan Island, White was forced to leave back to England with the fleet without

searching Croatoan Island due to some trouble with his ship and the foul weather that was

brewing. White was convinced though that the colonists had moved to the new location where

the natives were friendly because the Croatoan’s were Manteo’s native people and they were

more than likely safe and there was nothing to worry about.38 Unfortunately, the colonists were

34
Ibid.
35
John White, "The fifth voyage of M. John White into the West Indies and parts of America called Virginia", (1590),
Accessed November 13, 2020, http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1019.
36
Ibid.
37
John White, "The fifth voyage of M. John White into the West Indies and parts of America called Virginia", (1590),
Accessed November 13, 2020, http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1019.
38
Ibid.

14
never heard from or found. White was unable to make the trip back to look for the colonists

during his lifetime and later searches of the Croatoan Island by other ships and sailors ended with

no evidence of the colonists. Raleigh had seemingly lost interest in the colony or any other

colony attempts after this last voyage.

So then, what happened to the lost colonists?

A new colony, Jamestown (named after James I of England), was founded in 1607.39

Despite the failure of Raleigh's efforts, the Roanoke colony had an important influence on the

establishment of Jamestown. The settlers of Jamestown established contacts with the native

tribes and tried to discover what exactly happened to the colony of Roanoke some twenty years

prior. The first information came from captain John Smith (1580-1630), who led the colony from

1608 to 1609.40 Wahunsunacock, chieftain of the Powhattan tribe, claimed his tribe murdered the

colonists of Roanoke as well as a local tribe called Chesepian and that he personally led the

slaughter. Wahunsunacock claimed that the colonists integrated into the tribe of the Chesepian

and lived amongst them for some twenty years after the departure of John White. After the

Chesepian refused to join a tribal confederacy led by Wahunsunacock he led the attack.41 John

Smith did not believe the story that Wahunsunacock told but did not give any reason as to why

he did not believe it.

The colonists of Jamestown continued to maintain the habit of questioning everyone the

colony came into contact with regarding the fate of the colonists of Roanoke. Some of the

39
James Horn, "The Founding of English America: Jamestown", OAH Magazine of History 25, no. 1 (2011): 25-29,
Accessed November 24, 2020, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23210257.
40
William Segar, “The Armorial Bearings of Captain John Smith of Virginia” as Recorded at the College of Arms,
London, by Sir William Segar, Garter Principal King of Arms, 19 August, 1625, Rouge Dragon Pursuivant of Arms,
Accessed November 11, 2020, http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha-js/SmiWorks1.
41
Thomas C. Parramore, "The "Lost Colony" Found: A Documentary Perspective", The North Carolina Historical
Review 78, no. 1 (2001): 67-83, Accessed November 24, 2020, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23522231, 71.

15
questioned natives told stories about settlements with two storied buildings and thatched roofs.

Others told stories about tribes who were able to read English and who dressed similarly to the

Europeans. Near Jamestown itself, a young boy was spotted who was dressed as a native but had

blonde hair and pale skin.42 This evidence led the colonists of Jamestown to come to the

conclusion that the colonists of Roanoke had split up and integrated into numerous tribes. After

some generations this would create natives with European blood. There is, for example, the

Lumbee tribe. The Lumbee tribe originates from the region of North Carolina and their oral

traditions link them with the lost colony of Roanoke. Family names used by the colonists, such

as Dial, Hyatt, and Taylor, were common in the Lumbee tribe in 1719.43 The English colonists

who established relations with the Lumbee tribe for the first time were surprised to discover that

they had gray eyes and spoke English, which indicates English ancestors.44

According to independent scholar and archaeologist Fred Willard, the colonists did

indeed integrate into the Croatoan tribe. The Croatoan tribe became the Hatteras and later on the

Mattamuskeet, who eventually joined various other tribes after a black-tongue plague hit in the

19th century.45 Fred Willard was the founder and director of The Lost Colony Center for Science

and Research, who unfortunately passed away in 2017. Their goal is to carry on with the

archaeological and historical that the Croatoan Group began.46 In excavations in Buxton, on

Hatteras Island, a ring with a coat of arms of a prancing lion was found.47 Lions were often used
42
William Segar, “The Armorial Bearings of Captain John Smith of Virginia” as Recorded at the College of Arms,
London, by Sir William Segar, Garter Principal King of Arms, 19 August, 1625, Rouge Dragon Pursuivant of Arms,
Accessed November 11, 2020, http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha-js/SmiWorks1.
43
Renee Singh, "Our Roots Go Back to Roanoke: Investigating the Link Between the Lost Colony and the Lumbee
People of North Carolina", Prized Writing, UC Davis, (2006), Accessed November 24, 2020,
https://prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/our-roots-go-back-roanoke-investigating-link-between-lost-colony-and-lumbee-
people-north-carolina.
44
Ibid.
45
Catherine Kozak, “New Hints to Lost Colonists Found”, The Lost Colony Center for Science and Research, (2001),
Accessed November 24, 2020, https://www.lost-colony.com/newhint.html.
46
Ibid.
47
Ibid.

16
in English emblems. This was a strong indication that at least some of the colonists integrated

into the Croatoan tribe for at least a short period of time.

Even though a couple things have been found that are believed to be from the lost colony,

there may be a reason why nothing else has be discovered, shoreline erosion. Archaeologists

believe that the shoreline where the colonists settled has not been stable since the 1500s, since

the documentation of the geography started. It is hard to tell exactly how much land was lost

during the 1500s due to the maps being too small and some inaccuracies but just to show how

unstable the shoreline was; between 1851 and 1903 the Roanoke Island area lost 158 feet of

shoreline.48 If the erosion continued steadily from the original settlement date to today, as

archaeologists suggest, it would be safe to say that any remains of the colony in that area would

be buried in the Roanoke Sound. Because of this, artifacts more than likely would have been

carried with currents, corroded from being submerged in water for so long, and simply buried

deep in the waters almost impossible to find.49

A different explanation states that the colonists fell victim to the Spaniards, who had a

settlement on the coast of Florida. It cannot be denied that the Spaniards in the West Indies knew

the location of the colony. When in 1587 the fleet with White as the lead was sailing towards

North America to establish the second English settlement attempt, they stopped in Puerto Rico to

stock up on supplies, try to find fresh water, and let the settlers get a little break from the dreary

conditions on the ship. Two colonists, named Darby Glavin and Dennis Carroll, went ashore and

deserted the other settlers.50 Even though they could not be found at the time, White knew that

48
Robert Dolan and Kenton Bosserman, "Shoreline Erosion and the Lost Colony", Annals of the Association of
American Geographers 62, no. 3 (1972): 424-26, Accessed November 17, 2020,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2562295, 426.
49
Ibid.
50
James Horn, A Kingdom Strange: The Brief and Tragic History of the Lost Colony of Roanoke, New York: Basic
Books, 2010, Accessed November 18, 2020, ProQuest Central, 146.

17
there were Spanish colonies nearby and the two deserters would probably end up at the Spanish

colonies hoping for some sort of sanctuary. What made this unnerving for White was that the

Spanish and English were not on good terms and they were constantly attacking each other at sea

and on land. On top of that, Glavin had been a part of the crew in White’s first expedition to

Roanoke Island and would be able to tell the Spaniards the exact location of where they were

trying to colonize. In later statements, Glavin declared he had told Spanish officials about the

location of Roanoke.51 It would not be so strange that Spain did not tolerate any colonial

competition and decided to destroy the English settlement.

In 1937, Louis Hammond, a simple tourist from California, found a stone with white

writings on it near Chowan River in Edenton, North Carolina.52 The text ended with “EWD”, the

initials of Eleanor White Dare, daughter of John White and one of the colonists of the Roanoke

Colony. Hence the name “Dare Stone”. New stones continued to be found until 1941, forty-eight

in total.53 The stones described a tale that was so unbelievable that it caught the attention of

historians and archeologists from all over the United States. Since then, forty-seven of the forty-

eight stones have been speculated by historians and archaeologists as forged because the writing

and language did not match up as historically accurate. The first stone however is different in

writing style, language usage, and even type of rock. If the stone is fake, it is most definitely a

much better forgery than the other stones. Geologist Scott Wolter has examined the first Dare

stone.54 His findings, coupled with the research already done by The Lost Colony Center for

Science and Research, led him to the conclusion that the stone is authentic.

51
James Horn, A Kingdom Strange: The Brief and Tragic History of the Lost Colony of Roanoke, New York: Basic
Books, 2010, Accessed November 18, 2020, ProQuest Central, 147.
52
David La Vere, "The 1937 Chowan River "Dare Stone": A Re-evaluation", The North Carolina Historical Review 86,
no. 3 (2009): 251-81, Accessed November 24, 2020, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23523860.
53
Ibid.
54
David La Vere, "The 1937 Chowan River "Dare Stone": A Re-evaluation", The North Carolina Historical Review 86,
no. 3 (2009): 251-81, Accessed November 24, 2020, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23523860.

18
 On the top front side of the first Dare stone is a Maltese cross and under the cross are the

words;

“Anaias Dare &

Virginia went hence
Unto Heaven 1591”55

On the same front side of the Dare stone but towards the bottom are the words;

“Anye Englishman shew

John Whit Govr Via”56

On the back of the Dare stone are words that seem to map out a story from Eleanor White

Dare. Below is the exact wording and spelling that is found on the back of the first Dare stone.

“Father soone After yov

goe for Englande wee cam
hither / onlie misarie & Warre
tow yeere / Above halfe DeaDe ere tow
yeere more from sickenes beine fovre & twentie /
salvage with message of shipp unto us / smal
space of time they affrite of revenge rann
al awaye / wee bleeve yt nott yov / soone after
ye salvages faine spirits angrie / suddaine
murther al save seaven / mine childe
ananias to slaine with mvch misarie /
bvrie al neere fovre myles easte this river
vppon smal hil / names writ al ther
55
Haywood J. Pearce, "New Light on the Roanoke Colony: A Preliminary Examination of a Stone Found in Chowan
County, North Carolina", The Journal of Southern History 4, no. 2 (1938): 148-63, Accessed November 10, 2020,
doi:10.2307/2192000, 149.
56
Ibid.

19
 on rocke / putt this ther alsoe / salvage
shew this vnto yov & hither wee
promise yov to give greate
plentie presents
EWD”57

The story above described how the colonists ventured further inland after John White

returned to England. Due to illness and conflicts with natives, only twenty-four colonists

remained alive. Not long after a ship is spotted but the reaming twenty-four colonists determined

it was not White. After that the natives with whom they were staying with became aggressive

and killed seventeen of the colonists, including Ananais and Virginia, the husband and daughter

of Eleanor White Dare. The seven surviving colonists buried the dead and made gravestones for

them. Whoever was to find this stone is also asked to give the stone to John White and a reward

is promised.58

Investigations into the fate of the lost colony of Roanoke have continued over the

centuries, but no one has come up with a satisfactory answer. That has not stopped the dozens of

theories regarding the fate of the lost colony of Roanoke to emerge though. Unfortunately, most

of them have little to no evidence or are just not realistic. According to some, the colony was

flooded. Others claim that the colonists did not have enough food and resorted to cannibalism.

Other hypotheses hold that they tried to sail back to England on their own and got lost at sea. A

disease outbreak, hurricanes, and even aliens would explain everything according to some, but

those theories are contrary to the evidence that has been gathered over the years. Multiple

57
Haywood J. Pearce, "New Light on the Roanoke Colony: A Preliminary Examination of a Stone Found in Chowan
County, North Carolina", The Journal of Southern History 4, no. 2 (1938): 148-63, Accessed November 10, 2020,
doi:10.2307/2192000, 149-150.
58
Ibid, 151.

20
theories can be true, however. The best way for an abandoned colony to survive is to divide itself

into smaller groups. That way the groups can spread, meaning that there is less pressure on the

land to produce food. It is highly likely that different groups met with different fates.

After analyzing the evidence of the palisade and tree cravings, the archeological

discoveries, and the surname connections it is obvious that the lost colonists did, indeed, survive.

The word “Croatoan,” points to where the colonists were relocating. Even though only a smaller

group of the colonists would have relocated there, the remaining colonists more than likely

headed inland, like the plan they told John White in the beginning. Remaining archeological

discoveries, like the ring with the lion emblem, show that the colonists assimilated into Native

American tribes. Even the fact that multiple surnames are found among the Lumbee tribe prove

that the colonists did not disappear, but rather assimilated into Native American culture. In

conclusion, this over 400-year-old mystery is solved when all of the evidence is examined and

added up together.

21
 BIBLIOGRAPY

Primary Sources

Amadas, Captain Philip M., and Barlowe, Captain Arthur M. "The first voyage made to the
coasts of America, with two barks, where in were captains M. Philip Amadas, and M.
Arthur Barlowe, who discovered part of the Country now called Virginia," (1584).
Accessed November 10, 2020.
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1014.

Grenville, Sir Richard. "The third voyage made by a ship sent in the year 1586, to the relief of
the colony planted in Virginia, at the sole charge of Sir Walter Raleigh." (1586).
Accessed November 10, 2020.
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1017.

Hariot, Thomas. “A brief and true report of the new found land of Virginia." (1588). Accessed
November 10, 2020.
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1009.

Lane, Ralph. "An account of the particularities of the employments of the English men left in
Virginia by Sir Richard Grenville under the charge of Master Ralph Lane." (1585-86).
Accessed November 10, 2020.
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1016.

Pearce, Haywood J. "New Light on the Roanoke Colony: A Preliminary Examination of a Stone
Found in Chowan County, North Carolina." The Journal of Southern History 4, no. 2
(1938): 148-63. Accessed November 10, 2020. doi:10.2307/2192000.

Segar, William. “The Armorial Bearings of Captain John Smith of Virginia” as Recorded at the
College of Arms, London, by Sir William Segar, Garter Principal King of Arms, 19
August 1625. Rouge Dragon Pursuivant of Arms. Accessed November 11, 2020.
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha-js/SmiWorks1.

White, John. "The fifth voyage of M. John White into the West Indies and parts of America
called Virginia". (1590). Accessed November 13, 2020.
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1019.

22
White, John. "The fourth voyage made to Virginia with three ships, in the year 1587, wherein
was transported the second colony." (1587). Accessed November 13, 2020.
http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1018.

23
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Secondary Sources

Arner, Robert D. "The Romance of Roanoke: Virginia Dare and the Lost Colony in American
Literature." The Southern Literary Journal 10, no. 2 (1978): 5-45. Accessed November
16, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20077586.

Dolan, Robert, and Kenton Bosserman. "Shoreline Erosion and the Lost Colony." Annals of the
Association of American Geographers 62, no. 3 (1972): 424-26. Accessed November 17,
2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2562295.

Horn, James. A Kingdom Strange: The Brief and Tragic History of the Lost Colony of Roanoke.
New York: Basic Books, 2010. Accessed November 18, 2020. ProQuest Central.

Horn, James. "The Founding of English America: Jamestown." OAH Magazine of History 25,
no. 1 (2011): 25-29. Accessed November 24, 2020.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/23210257.

Jones, Evan T. “Alwyn Ruddock: ‘John Cabot and the Discovery of America.” Historical
Research 81 (2008): 224–54. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2281.2007.00422.x.

Kozak, Catherine. “New Hints to Lost Colonists Found”. The Lost Colony Center for Science
and Research. (2001). Accessed November 24, 2020. https://www.lost-
colony.com/newhint.html.

La Vere, David. "The 1937 Chowan River "Dare Stone": A Re-evaluation." The North Carolina
Historical Review 86, no. 3 (2009): 251-81. Accessed November 24, 2020.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/23523860.

Parramore, Thomas C. "The "Lost Colony" Found: A Documentary Perspective." The North
Carolina Historical Review 78, no. 1 (2001): 67-83. Accessed November 24, 2020.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/23522231.

24
Singh, Renee. "Our Roots Go Back to Roanoke: Investigating the Link Between the Lost Colony
and the Lumbee People of North Carolina." Prized Writing, UC Davis. (2006). Accessed
November 24, 2020. https://prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/our-roots-go-back-roanoke-
investigating-link-between-lost-colony-and-lumbee-people-north-carolina.

Vaughan, Alden T. "Sir Walter Ralegh's Indian Interpreters, 1584-1618." The William and Mary
Quarterly 59, no. 2 (2002): 341-76. Accessed November 11, 2020. doi:10.2307/3491741.

25