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The trace element content of indigenous salts

compared with commercially refined substitutes
a
Harriet V. Kuhnlein
a
Division of Human Nutrition , University of British Columbia , Vancouver, B.C., V6T 1W5,
Canada
Published online: 31 Aug 2010.

To cite this article: Harriet V. Kuhnlein (1980) The trace element content of indigenous salts compared with commercially
refined substitutes, Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 10:2, 113-121, DOI: 10.1080/03670244.1980.9990626

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03670244.1980.9990626

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 Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 1980, Vol. 10, pp. 113-121 © Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Inc., 1980
0367-0244/80/1002-0113 $06.50/0 Printed in the United Kingdom

THE TRACE ELEMENT CONTENT OF INDIGENOUS SALTS

COMPARED WITH COMMERCIALLY REFINED
SUBSTITUTES
HARRIET V. KUHNLEIN
Division of Human Nutrition, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1W5, Canada
(Received March 27, 1980; in final form September 23, 1980)
Downloaded by [University of Newcastle, Australia] at 22:45 08 January 2015

Commercially refined salt has replaced many indigenous substances which formerly provided flavor and minerals to the
diet of native peoples. Although the refined product provides ample, perhaps excessive, sodium and chloride in modern
diets, the effect of the loss of minor nutrients from the diet due to this substitution is not known. Reported here are values
for 16 trace elements, potassium and calcium in 45 salts categorized as commercial refined, commercial special (marketed
sea salts, "health salts", etc.) or indigenous (used by native groups before commercial salt was available). The highest
levels of all trace elements analyzed were in the indigenous salts. Iron was present in all samples and in greatest quantity
(up to 1.1 percent) in indigenous salts of plant origin. Combined essential and nonessential trace elements were higher in
indigenous than in commercial special or commercial refined salts.

KEY WORDS: salts, trace elements, indigenous foods, essential minerals, iron, plant ash.

It is generally recognized that people consuming common table salt is actually a byproduct of this
grain-based diets need additional essential miner- industry (Young, 1977).
als in the form of animal foods or dietary salts to Various plants were also used for the prepara-
maintain physiological homeostasis (Bloch, 1963). tion of salts for food purposes. From the Neolithic
After the Agricultural Revolution (12,000 to period until the Late Middle Age, people living
10,000 B.C.), the need and search for complemen- along the North Sea coast used sea water soaked in
tary mineral salts shaped economic and political peat that was dried and burned, then extracted the
history in several areas of the world (Bloch, 1963). ashes with sea water which was evaporated to
Eventually salt came to be used for food preserva- obtain salt (Bloch, 1963). Several Indian tribes in
tion and for other food and nonfood commercial California, including the Tachi Yokuts, utilized a
processes (Bloch, 1963; Young, 1977; Soyer, paste-like substance extracted from a "salty"
1853). reed/grass (possibly Phragmites communis) as salt
Preindustrial groups used many different kinds (Medsger, 1939). Dried or fried stalks of Herac-
of salts for dietary and ceremonial purposes. These leum lanatum (cow parsnip) was used as a salt
may be classed as salts of geologic (mineral) origin, substitute by the Indians of Round Valley,
and those of plant or animal origin. Indigenous California (Chestnut, 1902).
salts of geologic origin were obtained from sea North American Indian tribes that used ash pre-
water in coastal regions and inland from salt lakes, pared from plants in lieu of salt include the Huron,
salt springs or mined from quarries. These crude Virginia Indians and Cherokee (Hunter, 1940).
salts have been noted to contain a variety of colors The Yuki of Mendocino County, California,
and flavors, and various ingenious methods were burned Petasites palmatus (coltsfoot) for salt
devised to harvest and prepare them for human (Chestnut, 1902). The Hopi still use ash prepared
consumption (Bloch, 1963; Hunter, 1940; Young, by burning Atriplex canescens (chamisa, four-
1977; Watt, 1908). Only recently has refining wing salt bush) or Phaseolus sp. (bean plants) as a
become so technologically efficient as to yield flavor additive in blue maize foods, and ash from
nearly pure sodium chloride. This efficiency prob- corn cobs or juniper (Juniperus utahensis) for the
ably resulted from the enormous and relatively preparation of hominy (Kuhnlein and Calloway,
recent industrial demand for purified salt. At the 1977; 1979b). The Pima still occasionally use solu-
present time, this demand accounts for more than tions containing mesquite (Proscopsis sp.) ash to
90 percent of the total world production, and loosen the hulls of corn (Greenhouse, 1979).
113
 114 H. V. KUHNLEIN

Townsend, Liao and Konlande (1973) have 1977). Yet to be considered is the effect of sub-
reviewed the use of ash from dozens of different stituting commercial sodium chloride for native
plants (including the sago palm, Metroxylon sp.) as salts in terms of the dietary loss of minor mineral
native salts in Africa and New Guinea. nutrients which were present in the latter.
Marine algae were used in place of salt by The nutrient composition of crude native salts is
Penobscot, Yurok and British Columbia Comox largely unknown, and the contribution of these
Indians (Hunter, 1940); and Kroeber (1925) salts to human nutritional status in contrast to that
reported the Costanoans used the seaweed, Por- of the refined counterpart cannot be estimated
phyra perforata, dried into black cakes. More until their mineral contents are documented.
recently, Turner (1975) has noted the use of two Reported here are values for 16 trace elements,
dried marine algae, P. perforata and Macrocystis potassium and calcium in 45 salts (Tables I—III).
integrifolia (giant kelp) by several coastal Indian The salts have been categorized as indigenous
groups in British Columbia as well as its trade to (used by native groups before commercial salt was
the Carrier and Chilcotin people in the interior of available or adopted) or commercial refined. A
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the Province. In other parts of the world, other third category, commercial special salts, was added
species of dried marine algae, for example, to include currently marketed sea salts and the
Laminaria sp., are also used as salty condiments mineral and plant combination of salts sold as
(Madlener, 1977). Other plant substances used in "health salts."
lieu of geological salts are dried maple sap by the
Menomini and Iroquois (Hoffman, 1896) and the
well known fermented soy products of Asia (miso,
soy sauces, etc.). METHODS
A few animal foods with a strong salt flavor have
been documented as being used in place of salt Salts were obtained from commercial outlets or
condiments. These include dried fish eggs among native people. These are listed by location, type,
the West Coast native groups of North America date of acquisition, and primary storage container
(Hunter, 1940; Turner, 1975) and the Roman in Table I. Salts purchased commercially were pro-
delicacy, garum, prepared by fermenting marine cessed from several mining locations and packaged
fish blood and entrails (Soyer, 1853). in a variety of locations in North America; two
In this report, the term "salt" is defined to were obtained in Europe. The commercial salts
include substances sought for their desirable flavor were classified as to whether they were refined
that in reasonable use would enhance the mineral (intended to be purified sodium chloride) or spe-
content of the diet. Excluded from this discussion cial (sold as health salts or unique flavoring
are herbacious condiments that would not substan- agents).
tially add minerals to the diet. If plant materials are The indigenous salts were obtained from a vari-
dried or burned and the ash is used, the mineral ety of sources and locations. The first eleven of
content per unit weight is considerably increased. these represent salts used by several Indian groups
Similarly, dried animal or fish products would also in Northeastern Arizona (Zuni, Hopi, Navajo,
be expected to have reasonably high mineral early Anasazi, etc.); most were catalogued by the
levels. For logistic reasons earth substances con- Museum of Northern Arizona in Flagstaff. Some
sumed by geophagics are not considered here, of the indigenous samples were previously
even though these may meet the above criteria for documented as to use, site of collection and/or
a salt (Vermeer and prate, 1979) and should be some chemical analyses (Colton, 1946; Eiseman,
studied. 1959; Calloway, Giauque and Costa, 1974; Kuhn-
Modern technology has resulted in the supplant- lein and Calloway, 1979a, 1979b; Taylor, 1954;
ing of crude native salts with highly refined com- Townsend, Liao and Konlande, 1973; Turner,
mercial varieties. Commercial salts are inexpen- .1975).
sive and readily available to nearly all people in the The salts were stored in cardboard, glass, plastic,
world today. Although need for the essential ele- aluminum or cellophane containers as noted.
ments, sodium and chloride, is recognized, exces- Museum samples may have been transferred into
sive use of salt has prompted concern on the part of other containers over the years. The possibly con-
public health authorities in its possible relationship taminated exterior of compact samples or large
to hypertensive disease (Tobian, 1979; Desai, crystals was removed by scraping and an interior
 TRACE ELEMENTS IN SALTS 115

TABLE I
Sources of commercial and indigenous salts

Date
purchased
Where packaged(P) or Storage
Name Type or collected(C) collected container

COMMERCIAL REFINED SALTS

Co-op Iodized Mineral (P)Albert Lea, Minnesota 1976 Cardboard
Co-op Mineral (P)Albert Lea, Minnesota 1976 Cardboard
Signet Iodized Mineral (P)Toronto, Ontario 1977 Plastic
Windsor Iodized Mineral (P)Montreal, Quebec 1977 Cardboard
Sifto Iodized Mineral (P)Vancouver, British Columbia 1977 Cardboard
Leslie Iodized Mineral (P)Newark, California 1977 Cardboard
Mineral (P)Geneva, Switzerland 1972 Aluminum
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Swissair
packet

COMMERCIAL SPECIAL SALTS

Farefax Sea Salt Mineral (P)Vancouver, British Columbia 1977 Cardboard
Farefax Organic Plant-Mineral (P)Vancouver, British Columbia 1977 Glass
Mineral Salt (various
minerals and
imported herbs)
Farefax Vegetable Plant-Mineral (P)Vancouver, British Columbia 1977 Glass
Seasoned Salt (sea-salt, yeast
and various
dried herbs)
Lifestream Sea Salt Mineral (P)Vancouver, British Columbia 1977 Cellophane
Dr. Bronner's All-One Plant-Mineral (P)Escondito, California 1977 Glass
Salt (minerals, dulse,
soy protein, dried
herbs)
Dr. Bronner's Balanced Plant (P)Escondito, California 1977 Glass
Protein Seasoning (mostly plant
protein extracts)
Bioforce Herbamare Plant-Mineral (P)Roggwil, Switzerland 1977 Cardboard
(sea salt, kelp,
dried herbs)
Instant Spike De-licious Plant (P)Milwaukee, Wisconsin 1977 Glass
Seasoning (salts, spices,
dried herbs)
Seazun Seasoning Plant (P)Westport, Connecticut 1977 Cardboard
(kelp, seeds,
dried herbs)
Adolph's Low Sodium Mineral (P)Markham, Ontario 1977 Plastic
Salt Substitute (KC1)
INDIGENOUS SALTS
Zuni Lake-A Mineral (C)Hopi Household, Third 1976 Glass
Mesa, Arizona
Zuni Lake-B Mineral (C)Zuni Lake, New Mexico* 1959 Plastic
Grand Canyon-A Mineral (C)Grand Canyon, Arizona11 1960 Plastic
Grand Canyon-B Mineral (C)Grand Canyon, Arizona0 1957 Plastic
Grand Canyon-C Mineral (C)Grand Canyon, Arizona" 1957 Plastic
Grand Canyon-D Mineral (C)Grand Canyon, Arizona' 1957 Plastic

"Museum of Northern Arizona Sample G3-411. (All MNA samples courtesy of Dr. W. Breed, Dr. A. Lindsay and Dr. M.
Gallagher.)
b
Museum of Northern Arizona Sample G3-419.
'Museum of Northern Arizona Sample E2345 identified in Eisman, 1959.
"Museum of Northern Arizona Sample E2346 identified in Eisman, 1959.
'Museum of Northern Arizona Sample E2347 identified in Eisman, 1959.
 116 H. V. KUHNLEIN

TABLE I (continued)

Date
purchased
Where packaged(P) or Storage
Name Type or collected(C) collected container

Grand Canyon-E Mineral (C)Grand Canyon, Arizona' 1967 Plastic

Grand Canyon-F Mineral (C)Grand Canyon, Arizona' 1979 Plastic
Camp Verde(2) Mineral (C)Verde salt mine, Arizona11 1931 Plastic
Medicine Cave Mineral (C)Prehistoric archaeologic 1928 Plastic
site near Flagstaff, Ariz.1
Wupatki Mineral (C)Prehistoric archaeologic 1930's Plastic
site near Flagstaff, Ariz.'
Laguna Lake Mineral (C)from San Juan Pueblo, Plastic
New Mexico"
Porno Indian salt Mineral (C)Salt springs in Colusa 1962 Cardborad
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Co., California1
Miwok Indian salt Mineral (C)Bodega Bay, California, 1961 Glass
sea salt, unrefined1
Miwok refined salt Mineral (C)As above but dried, washed, 1961 Glass
redried and. pulverized with
stone morter and pestle1
Lower Swatow coarse Mineral (P)Kwangtung, China, sea 1977 Plastic
salt salt for pickling and
cooking
Chinese salt condiment Mineral-Plant (P)Chinatown, Vancouver 1979 Glass
Peruvian Indian salt Mineral (C)Rio Cempa, Huampami, Peru™ 1978 Plastic
Hopi chamisa ash Plant (C)Hopi reservation, Arizona" 1973 Plastic
(Atriplex
canescens)
Hopi bean pod ash Plant (C)Hopi reservation, Arizona" 1973 Plastic
(Phaseolus sp)
Sanio-Hiowe sago ash Plant (C)Papua, New Guinea"
(Metroxylon sp)
Yokuts salt grass Plant (C)Dned grass and exudate 1 1961 Glass
(? Phragmites sp) near Lemore, California
Kwakiutl black seaweed Plant (C)Sundried near Alert Bay, 1977 Plastic
(Porphyra sp) British Columbia"
Bella Bella seaweed Plant (C)Sundried near Bella Bella 1977 Plastic
(Porphyra sp) British Columbia"
Haida seaweed Plant (C)near Masset, Queen Charlotte 1976 Plastic
(Macrocystis Is., British Columbia
integrifolia)
Haidi herring roe Animal-Plant (C)near Skidegate, Queen Charlotte 1977 Plastic
on kelp roe sundried on Is., British Columbia
Macrocystis
integrifolia
Bella Bella herring Aninal-PIant (C)near Bella Bella, British 1977 Plastic
roe on hemlock roe sundried on Columbia"
Tsuga
heterophytta
"Museum of Northern Arizona Sample G3-790 identified in Taylor, 1954.
•Collected by R. Sims and R. Packard, Mus. No. Az. Identified as Hopi ceremonial salt.
"Museum of Northern Arizona Samples G3-230 and G3-69, identified in Taylor, 1954.
'Museum of Northern Arizona Samples NA-863.1, identified in Colton, 1946.
'Museum of Northern Arizona Samples 405M.44, identified in Colton, 1946.
"From the Museum of Anthropology, U. Michigan, Ann Arbor, Cat. No. 25822. Courtesy of Dr. R. Ford. Date unknown.
!
Lowie Museum of Anthropology, Berkeley, Sample 1-22389, 1-214286A and 1-214286B. Courtesy of Dr. L. Dawson.
"Courtesy of Dr. E. A. Berlin, U. California, Berkeley.
"Prepared by burning Atriplex canescens or Phaseolus sp. and used in preparing blue maize foods as described in Kuhnlein and
Calloway, 1979.
"As reported in Townsend, Liao and Konlande, 1973. Date and collection container unknown.
"Courtesy of D. Kennedy, R. Bouchard and M. Siwallace, affiliated with British Columbia Indian Language Project.
 TRACE ELEMENTS IN SALTS 117

portion was used for analysis. In all cases, the TABLE II

samples were kept dry and free of contact with Mean concentrations of elements in commercial refined and
metals after acquisition by the author (except for commercial special salts*
the one commercial aluminum packet noted).
Museum samples were previously stored in various Commercial Commercial
receptacles, and those known to be stored in metal Element refined special
n 7 10
containers were not used. The commercial samples
were removed directly from the container pur- mean + SEM
chased and therefore represent the salt as intended ppm
for human consumption. There was no correlation Cr 0 0
between storage container and trace element Mn 0 11.4 + 4.6
levels, indicating that the containers did not sys- Fe 21.0 + 12.5 158.8 +. 66.0
Ni 0.7 + 0.5 0.9 ± 0.5
tematically contaminate the samples. Cu 1.0 + 0.5 5.2 ± 1.9
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In the laboratory the salts were pulverized into a Zn 4.4 + 2.6 38.2 ± 19.6
fine powder with an acid-washed agate mortar and Ga 0 0
Hg 0 0
pestle and stored in acid-washed glass vials placed As 0 7.7 ± 7.3
in a dessicator. Thin, uniform pellets, 0.005 g/cm2, Pb
were prepared from approximately 50 mg of pul- Se
0
0
o-
0
verized salt and 100 mg of pure cellulose control- Br 59.1 + 13.0 168.0 + 85.1
led for mineral content, which served as a binder. Rb 0 9.7 ± 4.5
Sr 2.9 ± 2.1 95.2 + 78.5
The elements were determined by x-ray fluores- Y 0 0.8 ± 0.5
cence using the techniques reported by Giauque, et Zr 9.3 ± 0.5 3.9 + 1.6
al., (1973) at the Berkeley Lawrence Laboratory.
_b
After excitation by a molybdenum transmission K 1.0 + 1.4
x-ray tube, the intensities of the characteristic Ca — 0.4 + 0.4
x-ray lines were measured simultaneously using an
'Mean values were calculated without 2cr variance in spec-
energy dispersive (semi-conductor detector) x-ray trometer readings; for ease in calculation, zero values were
spectrometer. Concentrations of the elements assigned where elements were not detectable.
were calculated with adjustment for matrix b
Not determined.
absorption, and the error of the method for a stan-
dard sample was less than ten percent. Duplicate
analyses of samples were within ten percent for given. Iron and bromine were the only elements
most elements. However, samples from two or present in amounts above ten ppm in the commer-
more collection sites in the same area had more cial refined salts. The commercial special salts con-
variability. This was most prominent for iron in tained much higher levels of iron and bromine as
the six Grand Canyon samples and less so for well as manganese, zinc and strontium. Large
the samples from Zuni Lake, Camp Verde and amounts of potassium and calcium were also found
Rio Cempa. The elements determined were in the commercial special salts.
chromium, manganese, iron, nickel, copper, zinc, The composition of mineral elements in indi-
gallium, mercury, arsenic, lead, selenium, genous salts is given individually in Table III. The
bromine, rubidium, strontium, ytrium and zir- average concentration is given where more than
conium. In some cases percentage estimations of one sample was taken from a region (Zuni Lake,
potassium and calcium content were also made Grand Canyon, Camp Verde and Rio Cempa).
from the spectra. Precise determinations of these Potassium and calcium were present in several
elements were not possible with x-ray fluorescence salts, and in highest levels in the three samples of
because of the large quantities present in many of plant ash. In general, these two elements are pres-
the salts. ent in relatively large quantities in green plants and
are concentrated with drying or ashing. Plant ash
was also rich in manganese, iron, copper, zinc,
RESULTS lead, bromine, rubidium and strontium.
Iron was present in all the salt samples, but it was
In Table II the mean concentrations of elements in present in greatest quantity in the indigenous
seven refined and ten special commercial salts are salts—up to 11,700 ppm (1.1 percent) in the salt
 118 H. V. KUHNLEIN

TABLE III
Mineral elements in indigenous salts

Zuni Grand Camp Porno Miwok Miwok Lower

Element Lake Canyon Verde Medicine Laguna ]Indian Indian refined Swatow
(») (2) («) (2) Cave Wupatki Lake salt salt salt coarse salt

Cr (ppm) <12 <12.0 <12 <12 <15 <1 2 <10 <10 <10 <9
Mn <9 19*6 <9.0 <9 10*7 <8 <7 <7 <7 <6
Fe 24*5 422*25" 15*5 436*21 265*13 64*3 25*4 20*4 40*4 24*4
Ni <3 3.2*2.4 <3 12*2 <4 <3 <3 <3 <3 <3
Cu <3 3.4*1.8 5.1*2.0 2.8*1.8 <3 3.2*1.7 :J.ltl.8 <2 <2 2.0*1.4
Zn 3.4*1.4 5.1*1.4 3.0*1.4 4.0*1.4 2.2*1.6 1.9*1.3 2.4*1.4 1.9*1.2 1.7*1.2 . 1.7*1.2
Ga <2 <2 <2 <2 <2 — <2 <2 <2 <2
Hg <4 <4 <4 <4 <4 — <3 <3 <3 <3
As 1.6*0.4 108*6 1.2*0.8 <1 1.1*1.0 <2 <1 <1 <1 <1
Pb <4 <4" <4 <4 3.7*3.2 <5 <4 <4 <4 <4
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Se <1 3.5*0.8 <1 <1 <1 <2 <1 <] <1 <]
Br 23*1.1 540*30 9.7*1.0 <1 4.5*1.0 16*1 387*19 259*12 312*15 360*18
Rb <2 140*5 <2 1.7*1.2 5.0*1.4 1.8*1 .2 <2 2.0*1.4 <2 2.6*1.6
Sr 3.9*1.6 23*2 1.8*1.6 9.1*1.6 4.7*1.8 9*2 17*2 89*4 92*5 78*4
Y <3 3 <3 2.0*1.8 <3 - <3 <3 <3 <3
Zr 10*3 12*3 11*3 11*3 12*3 _ <» 9.1*2.6 7.7*2.6 <1

Ca(%) <0.01 .
K — >1.0 — — — <0.01 — — — —

TABLE III
(continued)

Chinese Peruvian Hopi Hopi Sanio-Hiowe KwakiutI Haida Bella Bella

Element salt Indian chamisa bean pod sago Yokuts black Bella Bella Haida herring roe herring roe
(») condiment salt ash ash ash salt grass seawood seaweed seaweed on kelp on hemlock

Cr (ppm) <1S <13 a — 18*8 <8 <8 <8 <8 <7

Mn <9 17*6 710*60 159*13 — 224*11 18*4 16*4 22*4 <6 7.0 * 3.2
Fe 15*5 859*4 3,840*310 5,720*460 400 11,700*500 61*3 92*5 123*6 48*3 26*3
Ni <3 <3 <20 <20 — 17*2 <2 3.6*1.6 1.8*1.6 <2 2.5 * 1.4
Cu 3.1*1.8 3.1*1.8 96*8 87*7 — 11*1 5.9*1.2 3.3*1.2 32*2 4.5*1.4 3.1 * 1.2
Zn 1.7*1.4 3.2*1.4 169*14 287*23 — 42*2 35*2 21*1 24*1 56*3 S4±3
Ga _ _ — — 7.0*1.0 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Hg <3 <3 — — — <3 <2 <2 <2 <3 1.8*1.6
As <2 <2 — _ — 1.7*0.8 12*1 29*1 22*1 7.0*0.8 1.8*0.6
Pb <6 <5 11*1 11*2 — 11*3 <4 <4 <4 <4 <4
Se <2 <2 8*2 <2 — <1 <1 <1 <1 7.0*0.8 3.0*0.6
Br 57*3 88*4 98*8 18*2 — 21*1 190*9 251*12 252*12 522*26 202*10
Rb 1.8*1.3 2.4*1.4 189*16 43*4 — 46*2 6.3*1.4 9.1*1.4 8.0*1.4 6.5*1.8 <2
Sr 4.4*1.6 146*7 1,060*110 :1,870*190 — 208*10 36*2 36*2 34*2 100*5 24*1
Y _ _ — 8.4*1.8 <3 2.4*1.8 <3 <3 <3
Zr — — — — — 31*3 3.9*2.4 7.1*2.4 5.4*2.4 <4

Ca (%) >.02 >0.4 12.5 13.2 11.7 >0.2 - - - -

K >.O3 >.O4 17.4 12.8 26.3 >0.3 >0.4 >0.5 >0.6 >0.2 >0.1

•not determined
'one sample had 1,530 * 70 ppm Fe
e
one sample had 6.0 * 3.4 ppm Pb
 TRACE ELEMENTS IN SALTS 119

grass preparation formerly used by the California trend, with most being present in the indigenous
Yokut Indians. Plant salt preparations were the salts.
highest sources of iron, in general, but the Grand Within type categories, the salts of plant origin
Canyon samples and the Peruvian Rio Cempa salt were highest in total essential and nonessential
were also high. As noted, iron was the only essen- elements, although the essential element sum was
tial trace element above 10 ppm (of those ana- much higher than that for nonessential elements
lyzed) in the commercial refined salts. (2324 and 719 ppm). This difference is largely due
Two other essential elements of specific note are to iron levels. Second in combined essential ele-
zinc in the seaweeds and selenium, in addition to ment levels are salts derived from mineral-plant
zinc, in the fish roe. mixtures. Salts from animal-plant mixtures are
Of the nonessential elements, stronium and second in combined nonessential element levels,
bromine were present in most of the indigenous and salts of geologic were lower for both essential
and commercial special salts. Arsenic concentra- and nonessential sums.
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tion was highest in the Grand Canyon samples. It The varying levels of elements in the salts, as
was also present in the seaweeds; lead was present well as the relatively few samples analyzed, pre-
in plant ash and salt grass. Rubidium, ytrium and cluded meaningful parametric statistical treatment
zirconium were present in varying levels in the of the data. However, two-tailed tests of Pearson
samples. The essentiality or toxicity of these latter correlation coefficients were possible and several
elements in human nutrition is not known. positive correlations were found, which indicated
Computing the sums of trace element levels those minerals tending to occur simultaneously in
generally thought to be essential or nonessential the salts. High positive correlations (r = 0.8,
for human health is one way to compare the rela- P ^ 0.05) are given in Table V. Iron and
tive composition of the various salt types. Table IV chromium correlated at this level with the sum of
presents the sums of essential (copper, zinc,
selenium, chromium, manganese, iron and nickel)
and nonessential (gallium, mercury, arsenic, lead, TABLE V
bromine, rubidium, strontium, ytrium, and zir- Mineral elements with strong correlations in indigenous and
commercial salts
conium) trace elements for the various categories
of salts. Within source categories, there was a
mean level of 900 ppm of essential elements in Elements with positive
indigenous salts in comparison to 214 and 27 ppm Element correlations"
in commercial special and refined salts. Sums of
Cr Fe, Ga, Y, Sum of
the nonessential elements followed the same essential trace elements
Mn Cu
Fe Cr, Sum of essential trace
TABLE IV elements
Essential and nonessential trace elements in sources and types Ni
of salts Cu Zn, Mn
Zn Cu
Ga Cr, Y
Sum of Sum of Hg
essential nonessential
elements elements As
Cu,Zn,Se,Cr, Ga,Hg,As,Pb, Pb
Mn,Fe,Ni Br,Rb,Sr,Y,Zr Se
Br
Rb
mean ppm ± SEM Sr
Source category Y Cr, Ga
Commercial refined 7 27 ± 1 5 71 ± 15 Zr
Commercial special 10 214 ± 9 2 279 ± 174
Sum of essential trace elements Cr, Fe
Indigenous 28 900 ± 470 440 ± 94 Sum of nonessential trace
Type category elements
K Ca
Plant 9 2324 ± 1379 719 ± 257 Ca K
Mineral 27 141 ± 6 2 274 ± 72
Animal-plant 2 106 ± 10 432 ± 20
Mineral-plant 7 373 ±154 124 ± 27 'Using two-tailed tests of Pearson correlation coefficients
(/• > 0.8, P < 0.05), and data from 45 salts.
 120 H. V. KUHNLEIN

all essential elements and with each other; copper expect at least some minerals to be absorbed in
correlated with zinc and manganese. Low to high most cases.
positive correlations (r = 0.3 to 0.79, P s 0.05) The contemporary concern for dietary quality in
were noted for most elements. The most frequent of North America and Europe has created demand
these was lead, which had weak correlations with by some consumers for sea salts or prepared min-
potassium, calcium, chromium, manganese, iron, eral and plant combinations sold as relatively
copper, zinc, gallium, selenium, bromine, stron- expensive health foods. Per unit weight, the cost of
tium, ytrium and with the sum of nonessential the commercial special salts studied here was as
elements. much as thirty-five times that of the refined salts.
The combined trace element composition of these
salts taken as a group was less than that of the
DISCUSSION indigenous salts, although considerably better with
respect to essential elements than the group of
Many essential and nonessential minerals are pre- refined salts.
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sent in indigenous salts and were consumed by There is reason for concern about potentially
native groups. Because marketed refined salts are toxic elements such as arsenic and lead in some of
readily available and inexpensive, most indigenous the salts noted here, as well as for microbial
salts are rarely, if ever, consumed today. There is hazards in the use of fish roe. There are no data on
no way of knowing how much of the indigenous poisonings from these sources, and it is likely that
salts may have been consumed per capita by native human use of a particular salt would have been
groups. However, if daily consumption of indigen- discontinued if it had been associated with illness.
ous salts was 10-15 g, the range noted in many As analytical methods improve, low levels of
modern groups (Tobian, 1979), this would make potentially toxic elements are being detected in
an average contribution of 9-14 mg of combined most foods. Recently, Boppel (1976) recorded
essential trace elements. This is roughly one quar- levels of 0.03 - 1.8 ppm lead in marketed Euro-
ter to one third the amount of total combined pean salts. It is expected that natural unrefined
essential elements (30-56 mg) recommended for salts and ash would contain a spectrum of minerals
adults (NRC, 1980). It is, therefore, reasonable to including some considered potentially, toxic, and
assume that at least some indigenous dietary salts the concentration of these would depend on the
provided meaningful amounts of trace elements to geographic locale. In areas where toxic elements
the individual consumer. are known to be geographically present, indigen-
The Hopi use of ash and salt resulted in the ous salts should be used, ideally, only after chemical
ingestion of a larger quantity of minerals. When analysis has documented low levels of these ele-
blue maize foods provided their primary source of ments in the amount of salt regularly consumed.
dietary energy (Hough, 1897), it is estimated that The commercial preparation of salts intended
17-20 g, or more, of ash from Atriplex or for human diets could be modified to retain or add
Phaseolus was eaten daily by an individual in addi- essential minerals as well as to exclude toxic ele-
tion to small amounts of crystalline salts (esti- ments. It is well known that iodized salt has suc-
mated 5-10 g) from the Grand Canyon or Zuni cessfully alleviated goiter. A balanced mineral salt
Lake (Kuhnlein and Calloway, 1977; Calloway, has been proposed for marketing in the North
Giauque and Costa, 1974). Twenty g of Atriplex Kerelia project in Finland to'attempt to moderate
(chamisa) ash and 10 g of Grand Canyon salt hypertensive disease. (Dr. J. Tuomilehto, personal
would provide the following essential trace ele- communication, 1978). Iron-fortified salt (1 mg/g)
ments: 81 mg iron, 14 mg manganese, 3.4 mg zinc was used successfully to increase haemoglobin
and 2 mg copper. In addition, the adult recom- levels of children in India (Nadiger, et al, 1980);
mended allowance for calcium would have been and similar fortification has been proposed in
met. Germany (Bayrisches Salzkontor, 1969). It would
Phytate and other fibers contained in whole seem, therefore, that salt can be a useful vehicle for
grain foods are known to bind several elements, adding minerals to the diet.
and may influence bioavailability of the elements Although essential trace element deficiency is
contained in the salt eaten with these foods. There- not common in groups who regularly consume
fore, the bioavailability of minerals in any of the meats and other animal foods, those who depend
salts reported here is not known, but one would on a refined grain-based diet might benefit from
 TRACE ELEMENTS IN SALTS 121

the use of inexpensive mineral-enriched salt with Greenhouse, R. (1979). The iron and calcium content of some
acceptable flavor and reasonable cost. A revival of traditional Pima foods and the effects of preparation
methods. M.S. Thesis, Dept. of Nutrition, Arizona State
the use of locally available indigenous salts could University.
be especially helpful for native groups that need to Hoffman, W. J. (1896). The Menomini Indians. (as cited by
improve their status with respect to iron, zinc, Hunter, 1940).
manganese, or copper. In this study, salts of plant Hough, W. (1897). The Hopi in relation to their plant environ-
origin contained the highest levels of these and ment. American Anthropologist 10, 33-44.
Hunter, H. V. (1940). The ethnography of salt in aboriginal
other trace elements. North America. M.A. Thesis, Dept. of Anthropology,
University of Pennyslvania.
Kroeber, A. L. (1925). Handbook of the Indians of California.
U.S. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 78.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Reprinted in 1953 by the California Book Co., Ltd. San
Francisco.
The author thanks all the generous people noted in Table I who Kuhnlein, H. V. and D. H. Calloway. (1977). Contemporary
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assisted in location of the indigenous salts. Advice with statisti- Hopi food intake patterns. Ecology of Food and Nutrition
cal treatment of data was given by Dr. Tom Abernathy and 6, 159-173.
Louis James of the UBC Arts Computing Center. For helpful Kuhnlein, H. V. and D. H. Calloway. (1979a). Composition of
discussion and encouragement special appreciation is expres- traditional Hopi foods. Journal of the American Dietetic
sed to Drs. William Breed, Louis Grivetti, Doris Calloway, Association 75, 37-41.
Richard Ford and Nancy Turner. This work was supported in Kuhnlein, H. V. and D. H. Calloway. (1979b). Adventitious
part with funds made available by the British Columbia Dairy mineral elements in Hopi Indian diets. Journal of Food
Foundation. Science 44(1), 282-285.
Madlener, J. C. (1977). The Seavegetable Book. Clarkson N.
Potter, Inc. N.Y.
Medsger, O. P. (1939). Edible Wild Plants. Macmillan, New
York, 323 pp.
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