Running Head: Math Anxiety in Adolescents 1
Running Head: Math Anxiety in Adolescents 1
Running Head: Math Anxiety in Adolescents 1
Address correspondence to April LaGue, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 97330
april.lague@oregonstate.edu
MATH ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENTS
Abstract
expanded to the treatment of math anxiety. Three high school students who were assessed with
high levels of math anxiety met individually twice a week for 6 weeks with the school counselor
who used a manualized MBCT treatment for anxiety as the intervention. A weekly
administration of a math anxiety measurement tool showed a decrease in math anxiety for all
three participants.
One common debilitating psychological issue present in K–12 settings is math anxiety
(Vukovic, Kieffer, Bailey, & Harari, 2013). Math anxiety is originally defined as “feelings of
anxiety, dread, nervousness, and associated bodily symptoms related to doing mathematics”
(Fennema & Sherman, 1976, p. 326). The discussion of math anxiety was first introduced by
Dreger and Aiken (1957), as they brought attention to this emotionally driven response to
elements. Research suggests that math anxiety in students can originate from external influences,
such as attitudes toward math that teachers and parents present. In addition,, internal factors play
a large role in the development of anxiety. These may include students’ low self-esteem, learning
styles, or ability to regulate emotions (Fotoples, 2000; Hadfield & Trujillo, 1999).
This impairment affects students across a variety of grade levels and throughout several
cultures (Hembree, 1990; Ma, 1999; Vukovic et al., 2013). A meta-analysis that Hembree (1990)
conducted suggests that math anxiety levels peak in grades 9 and 10. The timing of this peak in
anxiety levels prevents students from taking the necessary college preparatory math courses in
grades 11 and 12. Further research indicates that math anxiety contributes to the drop in overall
mathematics performance among students across elementary, middle, and high school grades
(Ashcraft & Moore, 2009; Ashcraft & Krause, 2007; Hembree, 1990). As such, effective
When examining the literature on math anxiety in K-12 settings, four areas of focus
emerged. These areas were: (1) impact of high math anxiety on students can have longitudinal
outcomes, (2) math anxiety impacts working memory, (3) measurement of math anxiety, and (4)
MATH ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENTS
treatment of math anxiety. After these four areas are examined, the research question for this
The impact of high math anxiety in students can have longitudinal outcomes, including
experiencing reduced math achievement, avoiding majors that involve large amounts of math,
and being less likely to choose career paths that require math (Ashcraft & Moore, 2009;Ma,
1999). These potential outcomes are problematic given the fact that society has placed increased
technology, engineering, and math (STEM) (Peterson, Woessmann, Hansushek, & Lastra-
Anadon, 2011) and, therefore, foundational to the ability of the United States to stay competitive
in the global economy (Khadaroo, 2011). These educational, economic, and political forces are
increasing the need for intervention strategies for youth who experience math anxiety (Furner &
Duffy, 2002).
Research shows that math anxiety impacts mathematic performance by compromising the
resources of the student’s working memory (Ashcraft & Krause, 2007; Daneshamooz,
Alamolhodaei, & Darvishian, 2012). The cognitive impact that math anxiety has on working
memory is problematic because working memory plays a large role in the successful
processing (Ashcraft & Krause, 2007; Daneshamooz et al., 2012; Engle, 2002). Working
memory workspace allows a person to exert mental energy on problem solving, reasoning, and
other cognitive tasks that require information to be stored for a short period of time in the
memory so information can be pieced together and processed (Engle, 2012). Math anxiety seems
abilities with internal worry and anxiety over math (Ashcraft & Krause, 2007).
MATH ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENTS
Several assessments have been used to identify or reduce levels of math anxiety in
students. The Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale (MARS) (Richardson & Suinn, 1972) and the
Fennema-Sherman Mathematics Anxiety Scale (FSMAS) (Fennema & Sherman, 1976) are
widely used tools that measure the constructs of mathematics anxiety due to their high validity
and reliability. Treatments used to reduce math anxiety in students include cognitive behavior
therapy (Ruff, S. E., & Boes, S. R., 2014)), tai chi (Field, Diego, & Hernandez-Reif, 2010),
bibliotherapy (Hines, C. L., Brown, N. W, & Myran, S., 2016). ), and a variety of classroom
interventions Lim, S. Y., & Chapman, E., 2015). However, these studies are limited in number
and depth, indicating a need for further research in this area (Ashcraft & Krause, 2007).
Given the relationship between math anxiety and math achievement, the construct of
math anxiety is an area of concern among researchers (Ashcraft & Krause, 2007). Regulating
negative emotions seems to act as a protective factor in moderating the effects of anxiety (Busari,
2013; Thompson, 1994). The term “emotion regulation” has been theorized as a foundational
element to the structure of psychological health and development (Gullone & Taffe, 2012;
Spinrad et al., 2007; Thompson, 1994). Interventions that focus on this construct seem to show
promising results in reducing math anxiety and freeing up working memory resources (Keogh,
Bond, & Flaxman, 2006; Wood, 2006). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for children
emotion regulation (Lee, Semple, Rosa, & Miller, 2008; Semple, Lee, Rosa, & Miller, 2010).
observe and evaluate cognitions, emotions, and physical sensations through a nonjudgmental
lens in which events are described, rather than changed (Lee et al., 2008; Semple et al., 2010).
variety of psychological, biological, and physical disorders (Biegel, Brown, Shapiro, & Shubert,
Recently, MBCT-C was modified to address the adolescent population, and it has been
shown to treat depression and anxiety successfully, as well as to enhance overall social-
emotional resiliency in children ages 7–13 (Semple et al., 2010). Mindfulness-based cognitive
therapy for children contains several adaptations from the original adult-based model that appear
adaptations include the following: (a) experiential mindfulness exercises that account for
adolescents’ limited abstract conceptualization and their need to engage in concrete cognitive
activities, (b) physical movement as part of the therapy, and (c) the involvement of family
members as an integral part of the process (Semple & Lee, 2011). MBCT-C has been adapted in
a variety of ways to be appropriate for the educational setting, including targeting a broader,
potentially non-clinical population; shortening the session length; and validating expectations so
that educators who have no background in mindfulness meditation could facilitate mindfulness
and integrates cognitive strategies to “help patients achieve affective self-regulation through the
development of mindful attention” (Semple et al., 2010, p. 222). MBCT-C is a manualized 12-
session program that integrates a variety of activities focused on guiding students through the
process of recognizing their mental and physical states without any evaluation (Semple & Lee,
Semple and Lee (2011) outline specific principles of the approach. There are three phases to this
approach:
MATH ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENTS
1. The opening phase (sessions 1–3). The therapeutic goal is cultivating mindfulness of the
2. The middle phase (sessions 4–10). The therapeutic goal is creating and deepening a
mindful awareness with sensory-based practices. Children may start to understand that
their own thoughts, feelings, and body sensations can contribute to increasing or
decreasing emotions and behaviors. They may see more clearly what response choices
3. The termination phase (sessions 11–12). The therapeutic goal is the integration of
mindful awareness across the senses and the maintenance of mindfulness practices in
daily life.
The approach detailed by Semple and Lee form the foundation for the intervention that was used
Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for children may have a positive impact on the
academic success for children, as the core of mindfulness is to increase awareness and regulation
specific to emotions (Erisman & Roemer, 2010; Gratz & Roemer, 2008). Hill and Updegraff
(2012) found that mindfulness increased emotional awareness and was linked to improved
emotion regulation in young adults. Furthermore, emotion regulation has been shown to
positively impact grade point averages, standardized test scores, school adjustment, and pro-
social skills in students (Blair, 2002; Eisenberg, Sadovsky, & Spinrad, 2005; Rapp-Paglicci,
Given the aforenoted gaps in the gaps in the literature on math anxiety, a specific
research question designed to examine the efficacy of an intervention was designed to guide this
MATH ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENTS
study. This specific research question was as follows: What is the impact of a 12-session
Method
Research Design
Participants
The first author requested from teachers at her high school referrals of students who
suffer from “high math anxiety.” The participants in this study were the first three students
referred to the counselor who met the following criteria: (a) a pre-experimental screening score
of 229 or above, which is the recommendation by the author of the Math Anxiety Rating Scale
for Adolescents (MARS-A), (b) enrollment in the 9th or 10th grade, (c) not currently receiving
medication and/or psychotherapy for an anxiety disorder, (d) absent no more than once in the
previous 30 calendar days, (e) consent to be part of the study, (f) a signed consent form from a
parent for the child to participate in the study, and (g) not being on an Individualized Education
Plan.
Caucasian male. His algebra teacher referred him to the first author, who was also his school
counselor. Other than his mathematics courses, he had maintained an average or above grade
point average in his middle school and high school courses. He scored a 252 on the Math
Caucasian male. His algebra teacher referred him to the first author, who was also his school
counselor. Like Participant A, his grades revealed that other than his mathematics courses, he
MATH ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENTS
had maintained an average grade point average in his middle school and high school courses. He
scored a 245 on the Math Anxiety Rating Scale for Adolescents (MARS-A).
Participant C. Participant A was a 10th grade student, age 16. She self-identified as a
Caucasian female. Her algebra teacher referred her to her counselor, who then referred her to the
first author for possible screening for math anxiety. Her grades revealed that as of the current
academic year she was failing her mathematics course. Prior to the current school year, she had
maintained an average or above grade point average in all of her middle school and high school
courses. She scored a 328 on the Math Anxiety Rating Scale for Adolescents (MARS-
A).Measures
High Math Anxiety Screening Measure: Math Anxiety Ratings Scale for Adolescents
(MARS-A). This scale is designed to measure anxiety specifically associated with math (Suinn
& Edwards, 1982). It is a self-administered, 98-item scale that lists circumstances in which a
student may deal with numbers. These circumstances include “deciding how much tip to leave”
or “doing a word problem in algebra.” The level of anxiety that the participant feels from the
noted circumstance is indicated on a 5-point Likert-scale format. The range is from “not at all” to
“very much.” The lowest score possible is 98, which would indicate that the student possessed a
low anxiety level. The highest score would be 490 and would indicate extreme anxiety in the
student. It has an internal consistency coefficient alpha of .96. The author of the scale
recommends a score of 229 as a qualifier for math anxiety. All three of the participants’MARS-A
Revised FSMAS-R: FS-ANX subscale. This scale is designed to measure negative feelings,
attitudes, or beliefs toward mathematics in the high school setting (Fennema & Sherman, 1976).
MATH ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENTS
It consists of 5-item statements in which a student agrees or disagrees. The 5-point, Likert-scale
format ranges from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.” Examples of the statements include
the following: “Mathematics makes me feel uncomfortable and nervous” and “My mind goes
blank when I am unable to think clearly when working mathematics.” It has an internal
consistency of .91, and the research suggests that it may be a useful tool in the evaluation of
interventions specifically intended to reduce mathematics anxiety in students (Lim & Chapman,
2013). In the representation of data, the lower scores indicate a higher level of math anxiety, and
Baseline Phase
The design for this study was a non-concurrent, multiple-baseline design across three
subjects (Gast & Ledford, 2010). Once the three subjects were identified, the principal researcher
used www.random.org to randomly assign the students to their baseline lengths of 5 days for
subscale was administered to each student on each day of their baseline phase. With each
student, the researcher checked to ensure that the data points had a consistent pattern before
Intervention Phase
Following the baseline period, each participant individually attended sessions of MBCT-
C twice a week over the course of 6 weeks for a total of 12 sessions. Each session was
approximately 45 minutes in length. The content for each session was Semple and Lee’s (2011)
MBCT-C manual. The manual outlines a specific curriculum and criteria that are used in each
session. It included materials needed and a rationale for each lesson. The specific activities create
MATH ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENTS
and increase mindful awareness by helping participants use their senses to fully experience the
mindful movement activities, body scans, visualization practices, and drawing or writing.
(Semple & Lee, 2011). Once each week, the school counselor administered the FS-ANX
subscale to assess the anxiety level in the student. The counselor collected and compiled the data
after each assessment to measure the reduction of math anxiety in each student.
Data Analysis
The best data analysis practice for single-case designs is to use both visual and statistical
methods (Heyvaert, Wendt, Van den Noortgate, & Onghena, 2015). Visual analysis followed the
protocol set forth in Gast and Ledford (2010). Statistical analysis of the results for each
participant was accomplished via an analysis of the Nonoverlap of All Pairs (NAP). This
approach “…summarizes data overlap between each phase A datapoint and each phase B
datapoint” (Parker & Vannest, 2009, p. 358). The NAP score for each AB phase and an overall
all three AB phases combined were completed by means of an online NAP calculator (Vannest,
Parker, & Gonen, 2011). The alpha level set for all analyses was .05.
Results
Visual Analysis
Figure 1 visually presents the AB results for each participant. Visual inspection in all three cases
revealed lower math anxiety in the intervention phase. As noted in the review of the Fennema-
Sherman Mathematics Anxiety Scale Revised FSMAS-R: FS-ANX subscale - provided on page
ten - lower FS-ANX scores on the graphs indicate a higher level of math anxiety, and the higher
Note: the lower scores indicate a higher level of math anxiety, and the higher scores indicate a
Baseline Intervention
Participant
A
M
H
A
A
N
X
Y
T
E
T
I
Participant
B
Participant
C
Time
MATH ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENTS
Data gathered from Participant A reported a mean baseline score of 10.80 (SD = 1.92)
on the FS-ANX subscale. The intervention phase mean was 16.67 (SD = 4.80). There were 20
non-overlapping data pairs out of 30 possible (83%). This percentage approached but did not
meet the pre-set alpha level (p = .068). A follow-up score of 22 that the researcher obtained 2
weeks post-intervention indicated that Participant A was continuing to experience a lower level
Data gathered from Participant B reported a mean baseline score of 9.63 (SD = 1.06) on
the FS-ANX subscale. The intervention phase mean was 12.67 (SD = 2.34). There were 34 non-
overlapping data pairs out of 48 possible (85%). This percentage met the pre-set alpha level (p =
.028). In addition, 67% of the weekly data scores that the researcher gathered were above all of
indicated that Participant B was continuing to experience a lower level of math anxiety than
levels present pre-intervention. This participant’s math grade also improved during the course of
the intervention.
Data gathered from Participant B reported a mean baseline score of 7.00 (SD = 0.00) on
the FS-ANX subscale. The intervention phase mean was 15.00 (SD = 4.00). There were 66 non-
overlapping data pairs out of 66 possible (100%). This percentage met the pre-set alpha level (p
was continuing to experience a lower level of math anxiety than levels present pre-intervention.
This participant’s math grade also improved during the course of the intervention.
MATH ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENTS
The mean from combining baseline scores for all of the participants was 8.61 (SD =
1.92) on the FS-ANX subscale. The combined intervention phase mean was 14.87 (SD = 4.05).
There were 120 non-overlapping data pairs out of 144 possible (91%). This percentage met the
Discussion
The hypothesis that mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for children decreases feelings
of mathematics anxiety in adolescent students was supported by the data. These findings seem to
suggest a need for interventions that school counselors can use to treat math anxiety in
adolescents. Based on their last reflection activity, it is suggested that the students genuinely
understood and appreciated the intervention. The school counselor asked the students to write a
letter to their future selves based on a variety of questions from their mindfulness-based
activities.
Participant A
The participant wrote the following to their future self: “How far have I come? Did I
pass math? I know I passed because I am you and you are me and I’m confident that I will
pass. On another note, did the tennis team go on to an all win streak? Hopefully you (I) got
way better. When you look back and see where you are (no matter good or bad), thank those
Participant B
The participant wrote the following to their future self: “The past 8 weeks or so I have
has helped me with math and my scores have been going up consistently. But this skill has
helped me with my life in general. I am definitely more aware of my surroundings and more
MATH ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENTS
observant. Being mindful of my surroundings has helped me both at home and at school. At
home I have remembered to not forget anything and at school I have gotten most of my
Participant C
The participant wrote the following to their future self: “When you get anxious, take a
breath, count to 10 if you have to. Always remember a test will always just be a test. Never
Limitations
One threat to internal validity may have been involvement of parents. Knowledge that
their student was participating in the study could have led to increased parental involvement,
thus skewing the results of the study. According to Christ (2007), the methodology of a multiple
baseline study addresses potential threats to internal validity, such as testing and instrumentation
effects that create an improved performance by the participant due to multiple administrations of
the same assessment. In this study, the FS-ANX subscale was used weekly to measure the
current math anxiety level that the participants were experiencing. A study that Uses a multiple-
probe design might reduce this threat to internal validity. In addition, one threat to external
validity was that the participants were all Caucasian, and the results must be interpreted
Further research is needed to expand the results of the current study, particularly given
the increasingly more defined role of the school counselor’s responsibility for utilizing evidence-
based interventions with students. Opportunities for future research with larger sample sizes or
MATH ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENTS
different methodologies may be able to give more validity for the impact of MBCT-C on
adolescents who experience math anxiety. More research is needed to understand the usefulness
and acceptance of using mindfulness-based interventions in school settings. Lastly, a study that
involved more ways of measuring academic success, such as grades and work production, could
Educators are encouraged to use the specific modalities of MBCT-C within their
classroom to potentially decrease math anxiety experiences by adolescents. The activities and
practices can be easily modified to adapt to a variety of curriculum. Examples include: Mindful
breathing during activity transition, openly discussing sensory awareness, and drawing or writing
to illustrate feelings and emotions. More research needs to be conducted on the infusion of
The potential impact of this study and future studies that produce similar results could be
profound given the increasing emphasis our society has put on the importance of math and math-
related careers. The magnitude of the problem of math anxiety at the research site and other
schools could be dramatically reduced with future studies that can duplicate the present research
with similar findings. Given the adoption of national and state standards and the shift in the role
for school counselors, successful interventions, such as the one presented in this study, should be
adopted. These and other interventions that produce promising results should also be infused into
pre-service counselor education programs so that new counselors may be educated and equipped
with these methods prior to going into their profession as school counselors.
MATH ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENTS
Author Notes
April LaGue, Ph.D., is an instructor in the Counseling Academic Unit at Oregon State
University. She has served in the role of school counselor at all levels of K-12 public schools.
Her current research interests include math anxiety in adolescence, the influence of motivational
interviewing on students outcomes, developing and supporting the professional school counselor
identity, and curriculum development within online learning platforms.
Gene Eakin, Ph.D., is an instructor in the Counseling Academic Unit at Oregon State University.
He is starting his 43rd year of service to the school counseling profession in Oregon either as a
school counselor or school counselor educator. His expertise is the use of motivational
interviewing and influencer leadership strategies in the school counseling field.
Cass Dykeman, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Counseling Academic Unit at Oregon
State University. He is the author of 2 books, 32 book chapters, and 41 peer reviewed articles.
His expertise is the use of corpus linguistics in counseling research. Prior to working in higher
education, Cass was an elementary and high school counselor in Seattle.
MATH ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENTS
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