Seminar Report
Seminar Report
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ABSTRACT
In today’s world it is possible to travel to any part of the world within short
span of time using air transport. Earlier aviation industry was not as well developed
as today as they were using Rotary Piston IC engines which limited the travel speed
and distance; moreover the fuel consumption of these engines was high leading to
increased cost of transport.
A significant breakthrough in aviation industry took place with the advent of
turbojet engines which were Rotary -Reaction Turbine Engines which were much
efficient than Rotary piston engines and all other engines such as turbofan,
turboprop, and turbo shaft engines were developed as improvement over turbojet
engines.
This paper reviews the introduction to primary components of turbojet
engines, principle of operation, Newton’s third law of motion governing turbojet
propulsion, Brayton cycle which is governing thermodynamic cycle for open cycle
gas turbines, vehicles currently employing turbojet engines few advantages,
disadvantages, applications & key differences.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Acknowledgment 1
Abstract 2
Table of content 3
List of Figures 4
1. Introduction 5
2. History 6
3. Primary components of turbojet engine 7
3.1 Air intake 7
3.2 Compressor 7
3.5 Turbine 15
3.7 Nozzle 18
4. After burner 19
5. Thrust reversal 20
8. Cycle improvement 26
10. Reference 31
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LIST OF FIGURES
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1. INTRODUCTION
Most modern passenger and military aircraft are powered by gas turbine engines,
which are also called jet engines. The first and simplest type of gas turbine is the turbojet.
Turbojet engines had a significant impact on commercial aviation. Aside from being faster
than piston engines, turbojets had greater reliability. Turbojets are the oldest kind of
general-purpose jet engines and are reaction engines. Turbojet engines operate on Newton’s
third law of motion i.e. “For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”.
Turbojets consist of an air inlet, an air compressor, a combustion chamber, a gas
turbine (that drives the air compressor) and a nozzle. The air is compressed into the
chamber, heated and expanded by the fuel combustion and then allowed to expand out
through the turbine into the nozzle where it is accelerated to high speed to provide
propulsion.
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2. HISTORY
The first patent for using a gas turbine to power an aircraft was filed in 1921 by
Frenchman Maxime Guillaume. His engine was to be an axial-flow turbojet, but was never
constructed, as it would have required considerable advances over the state of the art in
compressors.
On 27 August 1939 the Henkel He 178 became the world's first aircraft to fly under
turbojet power with test-pilot Erich Wrists at the controls, thus becoming the first practical
jet plane. The first two operational turbojet aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me 262 and then the
Gloster Meteor entered service towards the end of World War II in 1944.
Early generation jet engines were pure turbojets, designed initially to use a
centrifugal compressor (as in the Henkel HeS 3), and very shortly afterwards began to use
Axial compressors (as in the Junkers Jumo 004) for a smaller diameter to the overall engine
housing. They were used because they were able to achieve very high altitudes and speeds,
much higher than propeller engines, because of a better compression ratio and because of
their high exhaust speed. However they were not very fuel efficient.
One of the most recent uses of turbojet engines was the Olympus 593 on Concorde.
Concorde used turbojet engines because it turns out that the small cross-section and high
exhaust speed is ideal for operation at Mach 2. Concorde's engine burnt less fuel to produce
a given thrust for a mile at Mach 2.0 than a modern high-bypass turbofan.
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3. VARIOUS PART OF ENGINE
1. AIR INTAKE
2. COMPRESSOR
Preceding the compressor is the air intake (or inlet). It is designed to be as efficient
as possible at recovering the ram pressure of the air stream tube approaching the intake. The
air leaving the intake then enters the compressor. The stators (stationary blades) guide the
airflow of the compressed gases.
3.2 COMPRESSOR
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The compressor is driven by the turbine. The compressor rotates at very high speed,
adding energy to the airflow and at the same time squeezing (compressing) it into a smaller
space. Compressing the air increases its pressure and temperature.
The compressors used in turbojet engines are classified as:
Axial flow compressors.
Centrifugal compressors.
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3.2.2 Centrifugal impeller
The key component that makes a compressor centrifugal is the centrifugal impeller,
Figure 01. It is the impeller's rotating set of vanes (or blades) that gradually raises the energy
of the working gas. This is identical to an axial compressor with the exception that the gases
can reach higher velocities and energy levels through the impeller's increasing radius. In
many modern high-efficiency centrifugal compressors the gas exiting the impeller is
traveling near the speed of sound. Impellers are designed in many configurations including
"open" (visible blades), "covered or shrouded", "with splitters" (every other inducer
removed) and "w/o splitters" (all full blades). Both Figures 0.1 and 3.1 show open impellers
with splitters. Most modern high efficiency impellers use "back sweep" in the blade shape.
3.2.3 Diffuser
The next key component to the simple centrifugal compressor is the
diffuser. Downstream of the impeller in the flow path, it is the diffuser's responsibility to
convert the kinetic energy (high velocity) of the gas into pressure by gradually slowing
(diffusing) the gas velocity. Diffusers can be vane less, vanes or an alternating combination.
High efficiency vanes diffusers are also designed over a wide range of solidities from less
than 1 to over 4. Hybrid versions of vanes diffusers include: wedge, channel, and pipe
diffusers. There are turbocharger applications that benefit by incorporating no diffuser.
3.2.4 Collector
The collector of a centrifugal compressor can take many shapes and forms. When the
diffuser discharges into a large empty chamber, the collector may be termed a Plenum.
When the diffuser discharges into a device that looks somewhat like a snail shell, bull's horn
or a French horn, the collector is likely to be termed a volute or scroll. As the name implies,
a collector’s purpose is to gather the flow from the diffuser discharge annulus and deliver
this flow to a downstream pipe. Either the collector or the pipe may also contain valves and
instrumentation to control the compressor.
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Fig. 3.3 Air Suction by Centrifugal Compressor
As the fluid enters and leaves in the axial direction, the centrifugal component in the energy
equation does not come into play. Here the compression is fully based on diffusing action of
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the passages. The diffusing action in stator converts absolute kinetic head of the fluid into
rise in pressure. The relative kinetic head in the energy equation is a term that exists only
because of the rotation of the rotor. The rotor reduces the relative kinetic head of the fluid
and adds it to the absolute kinetic head of the fluid i.e., the impact of the rotor on the fluid
particles increases its velocity (absolute) and thereby reduces the relative velocity between
the fluid and the rotor. In short, the rotor increases the absolute velocity of the fluid and the
stator converts this into pressure rise. Designing the rotor passage with a diffusing capability
can produce a pressure rise in addition to its normal functioning. This produces greater
pressure rise per stage which constitutes a stator and a rotor together. This is the reaction
principle in turbo machines. If 50% of the pressure rise in a stage is obtained at the rotor
section, it is said to have a 50% reaction.
The increase in pressure produced by a single stage is limited by the relative velocity
between the rotor and the fluid, and the turning and diffusion capabilities of the airfoils. A
typical stage in a commercial compressor will produce a pressure increase of between 15%
and 60% (pressure ratios of 1.15–1.6) at design conditions with a poly tropic efficiency in
the region of 90–95%. To achieve different pressure ratios, axial compressors are designed
with different numbers of stages and rotational speeds. As a general rule-of-thumb we can
assume that each stage in a given compressor has the same temperature rise. Therefore, at
the entry, temperature to each stage must increase progressively through the compressor and
the ratio entry must decrease, thus implying a progressive reduction in stage pressure ratio
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through the unit. Hence the rear stage develops a significantly lower pressure ratio than the
first stage. Higher stage pressure ratios are also possible if the relative velocity between fluid
and rotors is supersonic, but this is achieved at the expense of efficiency and operability.
Such compressors, with stage pressure ratios of over 2, are only used where minimizing the
compressor size, weight or complexity is critical, such as in military jets. The airfoil profiles
are optimized and matched for specific velocities and turning. Although compressors can be
run at other conditions with different flows, speeds, or pressure ratios, this can result in an
efficiency penalty or even a partial or complete breakdown in flow (known as compressor
stall and pressure surge respectively). Thus, a practical limit on the number of stages, and
the overall pressure ratio, comes from the interaction of the different stages when required to
work away from the design conditions. These “off-design” conditions can be mitigated to a
certain extent by providing some flexibility in the compressor. This is achieved normally
through the use of adjustable stators or with valves that can bleed fluid from the main flow
between stages (inter-stage bleed). Modern jet engines use a series of compressors, running
at different speeds; to supply air at around 40:1 pressure ratio for combustion with sufficient
flexibility for all flight conditions.
The combustion process increases the internal energy of a gas, which translates into
an increase in temperature, pressure, or volume depending on the configuration. In an
enclosure, for example the cylinder of a reciprocating engine, the volume is controlled and
the combustion creates an increase in pressure. In a continuous flow system, for example
a jet engine combustor, the pressure is controlled and the combustion creates an increase in
volume.This increase in pressure or volume can be used to do work, for example, to move
a piston on a crankshaft or a turbine disc in a gas turbine. If the gas velocity changes,
thrust is produced, such as in the nozzle of a rocket engine. Various shapes of combustion
chamber have been used, such as L-head (or flathead) for side-valve engines;"bathtub",
"hemispherical" and "wedge" for overhead valve engines; and "pent-roof" for engines
having 3, 4 or 5 valves per cylinder. The shape of the chamber has a marked effect on power
output, efficiency and emissions; the designer's objectives are to burn all of the mixture as
completely as possible while avoiding excessive temperatures (which create NOx). This is
best achieved with a compact rather than elongated chamber.
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Fig. 3.6 Combustion Chamber
3.4.1 Swirl
The intake valve/port is usually placed to give the mixture a pronounced "swirl" (the
term is preferred to turbulence which implies movement without overall pattern) above the
rising piston, improving mixing and combustion. The shape of the piston top also affects the
amount of swirl.
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Finally, the spark plug must be situated in a position from which the flame front can
reach all parts of the chamber at the desired point, usually around 15 degrees after top dead
centre. It is strongly desirable to avoid narrow crevices where stagnant "end gas" can
become trapped, as this tends to detonate violently after the main charge, adding little useful
work and potentially damaging the engine. Also, the residual gases displace room for fresh
air/fuel mixture and will thus reduce the power potential of each firing stroke.
The combustor is fed with high pressure air by the compression system, adds fuel
and burns the mix and feeds the hot, high pressure exhaust into the turbine components of
the engine or out the exhaust nozzle.
Can type: Can combustors are self-contained cylindrical combustion chambers. Each
"can" has its own fuel injector, liner, interconnectors, casing. Each "can" get an air
source from individual opening.
Cannular type: Like the can type combustor, can annular combustors have discrete
combustion zones contained in separate liners with their own fuel injectors. Unlike the
can combustor, all the combustion zones share a common air casing.
Annular type: Annular combustors do away with the separate combustion zones and
simply have a continuous liner and casing in a ring (the annulus).
Micro combustion chambers are the devices in which combustion happens at a very small
volume, due to which surface to volume ratio increases which plays a vital role in stabilizing
the flame.
3.5 TURBINE
The turbo propeller engine consists of a gas turbine engine driving a propeller.Most of the
energy of the gas flow (air and burned fuel) is used to drive the propeller and compressor.
The remaining energy, in the form of differential velocity of the airflow exiting the turbine,
provides
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a small amount of residual thrust (effectively, a small amount of jet pro pulsion). Additional
information on the specifics of the gas turbine cycle is provided elsewhere in this training
package.
1. Single shaft
2. Free turbine
The main difference between single shaft and free turbines is in the transmission of the
power to the propeller. In the majority of turboprops, the fuel pump is driven by the engine.
This is known as "direct drive.” In some older types of engines, the fuel pump is driven by
the propeller, which can affect proper response to an engine failure. Refer to type-specific
procedures. Single Shaft. In a single-shaft engine, the propeller is driven by the same shaft
(spool) that drives the compressor. Because the propeller needs to rotate at a lower RPM
than the turbine, a reduction gearbox reduces the engine shaft rotational speed to
accommodate the propeller through the propeller drive shaft. Free Turbine. In a free-turbine
engine, the propeller is driven by a dedicated turbine. A different turbine drives the
compressor; this turbine and its compressor run at near-constant RPM regardless of the
propeller pitch and speed. Because the propeller needs to rotate at lower RPM than the
turbine, a reduction gearbox converts the turbine RPM to an appropriate level for the
propeller. The chief advantage of the free turbine is that it reduces torque loads during
engine start, since the start mechanism does not have to rotate the propeller and reduction
gear, but only the compressor and its turbine. In a single-shaft engine, the starter must rotate
not only the engine basic components, but the reduction gear and a propeller as well. An
important requirement of the single-shaft engine is that the propeller must be able to move to
a very fine pitch setting (8° to 12°) before startup of the engine, so that the power required to
turn the propeller while the engine is idling is kept to a minimum. Propellers may be in a
high-pitch or feather condition during the start of free-turbine engines.
The total work of the turboprop gas turbine engine is taken out as shaft horsepower
(S.H.P.) to drive the propeller rather than as the equal-and-opposite kinetic energy of the
accelerated air expelled out the exhaust of a turbojet. However, not all the energy of the air
in a turboprop engine has been used to drive the compressor and propeller; there remains a
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small residual amount of energy from the accelerated air. This provides some additional
thrust in the form of jet exhaust. The proportion of total thrust between the propeller and the
jet force is about 90% propeller to 10% jet. It is often useful and sometimes necessary for
the pilot to know the S.H.P. output of a turboprop engine. Since the torque (that is, the
reaction of the complete engine to the power output) is directly proportional to the S.H.P.,
measurement of the torque gives the desired information. Torque meters can be calibrated to
read either torque (ft.-lb.) or S.H.P. The weight of a turboprop engine is about half that of a
comparable piston engine. The propulsive efficiency of the turboprop is at its maximum at
speeds below about 450 knots; above this speed, propeller efficiency falls off.
3.7 NOZZLE
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After the turbine, the gases are allowed to expand through the exhaust nozzle to
atmospheric pressure, producing a high velocity jet in the exhaust plume. In a convergent
nozzle, the ducting narrows progressively to a throat. The nozzle pressure ratio on a turbojet
is usually high enough for the expanding gases to reach Mach 1.0 and choke the throat.
Normally, the flow will go supersonic in the exhaust plume outside the engine.
4. AFTERBURNER
An afterburner or "reheat jet pipe" is a device added to the rear of the jet engine. It
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provides a means of spraying fuel directly into the hot exhaust, where it ignites and boosts
available thrust significantly; a drawback is its very high fuel consumption rate.
Afterburners are used mostly on military aircraft, but the two supersonic civilian transports,
Concorde and the TU-144, also utilized afterburners.
Fig.4.1 Afterburner
5. THRUST REVERSER
A thrust reverser is, essentially, a pair of clamshell doors mounted at the rear of the
engine which, when deployed, divert thrust normal to the jet engine flow to help slow an
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aircraft upon landing. They are often used in conjunction with spoilers. The accidental
deployment of a thrust reverser during flight is a dangerous event that can lead to loss of
control and destruction of the aircraft. Thrust reversers are more convenient than drogue
parachute, though mechanically more complex and expensive. thrust reverser.
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6. INTRODUCTION OF GENERAL ELECTRIC J85-GE-17A
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The General Electric J85 is a small single-shaft turbojet engine. Military versions produce
up to 2,950 lbf (13.1 kN) of thrust dry, afterburning variants can reach up to
5,000 lbf (22 kN). The engine, depending upon additional equipment and specific model,
weighs from 300 to 500 pounds (140 to 230 kg). It is one of GE's most successful and
longest in service military jet engines, the civilian versions having logged over 16.5 million
hours of operation. The United States Air Force plans to continue using the J85 in aircraft
through 2040. Civilian models, known as the CJ610, are similar but supplied without an
afterburner, while the CF700adds a rear-mounted fan for improved fuel economy.
6.1specifications
General characteristics
Components
Performance
Maximum thrust: 2,850–3,100 lbf (12.7–13.8 kN) (dry)
Overall pressure ratio: 8.3
Air mass flow: 45 lb (20 kg) per second
Turbine inlet temperature: 977C
Specific fuel consumption: 0.96 - 0.97 lb/(lbf·h) (27 g/kN·s)
Thrust-to-weight ratio: 7.5 (-21), 6.6 (-5), 6.8 (-13), 7 (-15)
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6.2 Design and development
The J85 was originally designed to power a large decoy missile, the McDonnell ADM-20
Quail. The Quail was designed to be released from a B-52 Stratofortress in-flight and fly for
long distances in formation with the launch aircraft, multiplying the number of targets facing
the SA-2 surface-to-air missile operators on the ground. This mission demanded a small
engine that could nevertheless provide enough power to keep up with the jet bomber. Like
the similar Armstrong Siddeley Viper being built in England, the engine on a Quail drone
had no need to last for extended periods of time, so therefore could be built of low-quality
materials.
The fit was a success on the Quail, but again like the Viper it was later built with normal
grade materials and subsequently used to power small jet aircraft, including the Northrop T-
38 Talon, Northrop F-5, Canadair CT-114 Tutor, and Cessna A-37 Dragonfly light attack
aircraft. More recently, J85s have powered the Scaled Composites White Knight aircraft, the
carrier for the Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne spacecraft, and the Me 262 Project.
The basic engine design is quite small, about 18 inches (46 cm) in diameter, and 45 inches
(110 cm) long. It features an eight-stage axial-flow compressor powered by two turbine
stages, and is capable of generating up to 2,950 lbf (13.1 kN) of dry thrust, or more with an
afterburner. At full throttle at sea level, this engine, without afterburner, consumes
approximately 400 US gallons (1,500 L) of fuel per hour. At cruise altitude and power, it
consumes approximately 100 US gal (380 L) per hour.Several variants were produced. The
J85-21 variant added a stage ahead of the base 8-stage compressor for a total of 9 stages,
improving thrust.More than 12,000 J85 engines had been built by the time production ended
in 1988.[1] Early German turbojets had severe limitations on the amount of running they
could do due to the lack of suitable high temperature materials for the turbines. British
engines such as the Rolls-Royce Welland used better materials giving improved durability.
The Welland was type certificated for 80 hours initially, later extended to 150 hours between
overhauls, as a result of an extended 500 hour run being achieved in tests.[7] A few of the
original fighters still exist with their original engines, but many have been re-engined with
more modern engines with greater fuel efficiency and a
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longer TBO (such as the reproduction Me-262 powered by General Electric J85s).J85-GE-
17A turbojet engine from General Electric (1970)
General Electric in the United States was in a good position to enter the jet engine business
due to its experience with the high temperature materials used in their turbo superchargers
during World War II. Water injection was a common method used to increase thrust, usually
during takeoff, in early turbojets that were thrust-limited by their allowable turbine entry
temperature. The water, whilst it increased thrust at the temperature limit, prevented
complete combustion often leaving a very visible smoke trail.Allowable turbine entry
temperatures have increased steadily over time both with the introduction of superior alloys,
and coatings, and with the introduction and progressive effectiveness of blade cooling
designs. On early engines the turbine temperature limit had to be monitored, and avoided, by
the pilot, typically during starting and at maximum thrust settings. Automatic temperature
limiting was introduced to reduce pilot workload and reduce the likelihood of turbine
damage due to over temperature.
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7. EQUATIONS OF NET THRUST
The net thrust of a turbojet is given by
is the rate of flow of air through the engine is the rate of flow of
fuel entering the engine is the speed of the je t is the true airspeed
of the aircraft represents the nozzle gross thrust represents the ram
drag of the intake.
If the speed of the jet is equal to sonic velocity the nozzle is said to be choked. If the
nozzle is choked the pressure at the nozzle exit plane is greater than atmospheric pressure,
and extra terms must be added to the above equation to account for the pressure thrust. The
rate of flow of fuel entering the engine is very small compared with the rate of flow of air. If
the contribution of fuel to the nozzle gross thrust is ignored, the net thrust is:
The speed of the jet must exceed the true airspeed of the aircraft if there is to be
a net forward thrust on the airframe.
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8. CYCLE IMPROVEMENTS
Thermodynamics of a jet engine are modeled approximately by a Brayton Cycle. The
Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that describes the workings of the gas turbine
engine, basis of the jet engine and others. The Ericsson cycle is similar but uses external
heat and incorporates the use of a regenerator.
A Brayton-type gas turbine cycle consists of three components
A gas compressor
An expansion turbine
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8.1 IDEAL BRAYTON CYCLE:
Following are the thermodynamic processes involved in Brayton Cycle ,PV and TS
1) Isentropic Process - Ambient air is drawn into the compressor, where it is pressurized.
2) Isobaric Process - The compressed air then runs through a combustion chamber, where
fuel is burned, heating that air—a constant-pressure process, since the chamber is open
to flow in and out.
3) Isentropic process - The heated, pressurized air then gives up its energy, expanding
through a turbine (or series of turbines). Some of the work extracted by the turbine is
used to drive the compressor.
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Since neither the compression nor the expansion can be truly isentropic, losses through the
compressor and the expander represent sources of inescapable working inefficiencies. In
general, increasing the compression ratio is the most direct way to increase the overall
power output of a Brayton system.Increasing the overall pressure ratio of the compression
system raises the combustor entry temperature. Therefore, at a fixed fuel flow and airflow,
there is an increase in turbine inlet temperature. Although the higher temperature rise
across the compression system implies a larger temperature drop over the turbine system,
the nozzle temperature is unaffected, because the same amount of heat is being added to
the system. There is, however, a rise in nozzle pressure, because overall pressure ratio
increases faster than the turbine expansion ratio. Consequently, net thrust increases, while
specific fuel consumption (fuel flow/net thrust) decreases.
Thus turbojets can be made more fuel efficient by raising overall pressure ratio and
turbine inlet temperature in union. However, better turbine materials and/or improved
vane/blade cooling are required to cope with increases in both turbine inlet temperature and
compressor delivery temperature. Increasing the latter requires better compressor materials.
Minimizing heat losses and optimizing the inlet temperature ratio will increase the
system's useful work and the thermal efficiency of the turbo jet engine.
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9. MERITS AND DEMERITS OF TURBOJET ENGINES
Merits of Turbojet Engines:
Very high power-to-weight ratio, compared to reciprocating engines;
Moves in one direction only, with far less vibration than a reciprocating engine.
Cost.
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9.1 NOTABLE VEHICLES USING TURBOJETS
Heinkel He 178 - first air breathing jet aircraft.
Thrust2 - land speed record car that held the record for 14 years.
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10. REFERENCE
"Turbojet Engine". NASA Glenn Research Center. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
Maxime Guillaume,"Propulseur par réaction sur l'air," French patent FR
534801 (filed: 3 May 1921; issued: 13 January 1922)
Experimental & Prototype US Air Force Jet Fighters, Jenkins & Landis, 2008
Warsitz, Lutz: THE FIRST JET PILOT - The Story of German Test Pilot Erich
Warsitz (p. 125), Pen and Sword Books Ltd., England, 2009, ISBN 978-1-84415-
818-8
Larson, George C. (April–May 2010), "Old Faithful", "Air & Space" 25 (1): 80
Sims, C.T., Chester, A History of Superalloy Metallurgy, Proc. 5th Symp. on
Superalloys, 1984.
"Rolls-Royce Derwent | 1945". Flight (Flightglobal.com): 448. 1945-10-25.
Retrieved 2013-12-14.
"Starting Something Big" Robert V. Garvin ISBN1-56347-289-2, p5
1960 | Flight | Archive
Cumpsty, Nicholas (2003). "3.1". Jet Propulsion (2nd ed.). Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-54144-1.
"Turbojet Thrust". NASA Glenn Research Center. Retrieved 2009-05-0
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