Cardiologist

Cardiology (from Greek καρδίᾱ kardiā, "heart" and -λογία -logia, "study") is a branch of
medicine that deals with the disorders of the heart as well as some parts of the circulatory
system. The field includes medical diagnosis and treatment of congenital heart defects, coronary
artery disease, heart failure, valvular heart disease, and electrophysiology. Physicians who
specialize in this field of medicine are called cardiologists, a specialty of internal medicine.
Pediatric cardiologists are pediatricians who specialize in cardiology. Physicians who specialize
in cardiac surgery are called cardiothoracic surgeons or cardiac surgeons, a specialty of general
surgery.

Specializations
All cardiologists study the disorders of the heart, but the study of adult and child heart disorders
are through different training pathways. Therefore, an adult cardiologist (often simply called
"cardiologist") is inadequately trained to take care of children, and pediatric cardiologists are not
trained to take care of adult heart disease. The surgical aspects are not included in cardiology and
are in the domain of cardiothoracic surgery. For example, coronary artery bypass surgery
(CABG), cardiopulmonary bypass, and valve replacement are surgical procedures performed by
surgeons, not cardiologists. However, the insertion of stents and pacemakers is performed by
cardiologists.

Adult cardiology

Cardiology is a specialty of internal medicine. To be a cardiologist in the United States, a three-

year residency in internal medicine is followed by a three-year fellowship in cardiology. It is
possible to specialize further in a sub-specialty. Recognized sub-specialties in the United States
by the ACGME are cardiac electrophysiology, echocardiography, interventional cardiology, and
nuclear cardiology. Recognized subspecialties in the United States by the American Osteopathic
Association Bureau of Osteopathic Specialists (AOABOS) include clinical cardiac
electrophysiology and interventional cardiology. While in India, a person needs to undergo three
years of residency in General Medicine or Pediatrics after M.B.B.S and then three years of
residency in Cardiology to be a D.M/Diplomate of National Board (DNB) in Cardiology. Per
Doximity, adult cardiologists make an average of $436,849 in the United States.

Cardiac electrophysiology

Cardiac electrophysiology is the science of elucidating, diagnosing, and treating the electrical
activities of the heart. The term is usually used to describe studies of such phenomena by
invasive (intracardiac) catheter recording of spontaneous activity as well as of cardiac responses
to programmed electrical stimulation (PES). These studies are performed to assess complex
arrhythmias, elucidate symptoms, evaluate abnormal electrocardiograms, assess the risk of
developing arrhythmias in the future, and design treatment. These procedures increasingly
include therapeutic methods (typically radiofrequency ablation, or cryoablation) in addition to
diagnostic and prognostic procedures. Other therapeutic modalities employed in this field include
antiarrhythmic drug therapy and implantation of pacemakers and automatic implantable
cardioverter-defibrillators (AICD). The cardiac electrophysiology study (EPS) typically
measures the response of the injured or cardiomyopathic myocardium to PES on specific
pharmacological regimens in order to assess the likelihood that the regimen will successfully
prevent potentially fatal sustained ventricular tachycardia (VT) or ventricular fibrillation (VF) in
the future. Sometimes a series of EPS drug trials must be conducted to enable the cardiologist to
select the one regimen for long-term treatment that best prevents or slows the development of
VT or VF following PES. Such studies may also be conducted in the presence of a newly
implanted or newly replaced cardiac pacemaker or AICD.

Clinical cardiac electrophysiology

Clinical cardiac electrophysiology is a branch of the medical specialty of cardiology and is

concerned with the study and treatment of rhythm disorders of the heart. Cardiologists with
expertise in this area are usually referred to as electrophysiologists. Electrophysiologists are
trained in the mechanism, function, and performance of the electrical activities of the heart.
Electrophysiologists work closely with other cardiologists and cardiac surgeons to assist or guide
therapy for heart rhythm disturbances (arrhythmias). They are trained to perform interventional
and surgical procedures to treat cardiac arrhythmia. The training required to become an
electrophysiologist is long and requires 7 to 8 years after medical school (within the U.S.). Three
years of internal medicine residency, three years of Clinical Cardiology fellowship, and one to
two (in most instances) years of clinical cardiac electrophysiology.

Cardiogeriatrics

Cardiogeriatrics, or geriatric cardiology, is the branch of cardiology and geriatric medicine that
deals with cardiovascular disorders in elderly people.

Cardiac disorders such as coronary heart disease, including myocardial infarction, heart failure,
cardiomyopathy, and arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation, are common and are a major cause of
mortality in elderly people. Vascular disorders such as atherosclerosis and peripheral arterial
disease cause significant morbidity and mortality in aged people.

Echocardiography

Echocardiography uses standard two-dimensional, three-dimensional, and Doppler ultrasound to

create images of the heart.

Echocardiography has become routinely used in the diagnosis, management, and follow-up of
patients with any suspected or known heart diseases. It is one of the most widely used diagnostic
tests in cardiology. It can provide a wealth of helpful information, including the size and shape of
the heart (internal chamber size quantification), pumping capacity, and the location and extent of
any tissue damage. An echocardiogram can also give physicians other estimates of heart
function, such as a calculation of the cardiac output, ejection fraction, and diastolic function
(how well the heart relaxes).
Echocardiography can help detect cardiomyopathies, such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy,
dilated cardiomyopathy, and many others. The use of stress echocardiography may also help
determine whether any chest pain or associated symptoms are related to heart disease. The
biggest advantage to echocardiography is that it is not invasive (does not involve breaking the
skin or entering body cavities) and has no known risks or side effects.

Interventional cardiology

Interventional cardiology is a branch of cardiology that deals specifically with the catheter-based
treatment of structural heart diseases. A large number of procedures can be performed on the
heart by catheterization. This most commonly involves the insertion of a sheath into the femoral
artery (but, in practice, any large peripheral artery or vein) and cannulating the heart under X-ray
visualization (most commonly Fluoroscopy).

The main advantages of using the interventional cardiology or radiology approach are the
avoidance of the scars and pain and long post-operative recovery. Additionally, the
interventional cardiology procedure of primary angioplasty is now the gold standard of care for
acute Myocardial infarction. This procedure can also be done proactively when areas of the
vascular system become occluded from Atherosclerosis. The Cardiologist will thread this sheath
through the vascular system to access the heart. This sheath has a balloon and a tiny wire mesh
tube wrapped around it, and if the cardiologist finds a blockage or Stenosis, they can inflate the
balloon at the occlusion site in the vascular system to flatten or compress the plaque against the
vascular wall. Once that is complete a Stent is placed as a type of scaffold to hold the vasculature
open permanently.

Preventive cardiology and cardiac rehabilitation

In recent times, the focus is gradually shifting to Preventive cardiology due to increased
Cardiovascular Disease burden at an early age. As per WHO, 37% of all premature deaths are
due to cardiovascular diseases, and out of this, 82% are in low and middle-income countries.
Clinical cardiology is the sub-specialty of Cardiology that looks after preventive cardiology and
cardiac rehabilitation. Preventive cardiology also deals with routine preventive checkup through
non-invasive tests specifically Electrocardiography, Stress Tests, Lipid Profile, and General
Physical examination to detect any cardiovascular diseases at an early age while cardiac
rehabilitation is the upcoming branch of cardiology which helps a person regain his overall
strength and live a normal life after a cardiovascular event. A subspecialty of preventive
cardiology is sports cardiology.

Pediatric cardiology

Helen B. Taussig is known as the founder of pediatric cardiology. She became famous through
her work with Tetralogy of Fallot, a congenital heart defect in which oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood enters the circulatory system resulting from a ventricular septal defect
(VSD) right beneath the aorta. This condition causes newborns to have a bluish-tint, cyanosis,
and have a deficiency of oxygen to their tissues, hypoxemia. She worked with Alfred Blalock
and Vivien Thomas at the Johns Hopkins Hospital where they experimented with dogs to look at
how they would attempt to surgically cure these "blue babies." They eventually figured out how
to do just that by the anastomosis of the systemic artery to the pulmonary artery and called this
the Blalock-Taussig Shunt. Tetralogy of Fallot, pulmonary atresia, double outlet right ventricle,
transposition of the great arteries, persistent truncus arteriosus, and Ebstein's anomaly are various
congenital cyanotic heart diseases, in which the blood of the newborn is not oxygenated
efficiently, due to the heart defect.

Tetralogy of Fallot

Tetralogy of Fallot is the most common congenital heart disease arising in 1–3 cases per 1,000
births. The cause of this defect is a ventricular septal defect (VSD) and an overriding aorta.
These two defects combined cause deoxygenated blood to bypass the lungs and going right back
into the circulatory system. The modified Blalock-Taussig shunt is usually used to fix the
circulation. This procedure is done by placing a graft between the subclavian artery and the
ipsilateral pulmonary artery to restore the correct blood flow.

Pulmonary atresia

Pulmonary atresia happens in 7–8 per 100,000 births and is characterized by the aorta branching
out of the right ventricle. This causes the deoxygenated blood to bypass the lungs and enter the
circulatory system. Surgeries can fix this by redirecting the aorta and fixing the right ventricle
and pulmonary artery connection.

There are two types of pulmonary atresia, classified by whether or not the baby also has a
ventricular septal defect.

Pulmonary atresia with an intact ventricular septum: This type of pulmonary atresia is associated
with a complete and intact septum between the ventricles.

Pulmonary atresia with a ventricular septal defect: This type of pulmonary atresia happens when
a ventricular septal defect allows blood to flow into and out of the right ventricle.

Double outlet right ventricle

Double outlet right ventricle (DORV) is when both great arteries, the pulmonary artery and the
aorta, are connected to the right ventricle. There is usually a VSD in different particular places
depending on the variations of DORV, typically 50% are subaortic and 30%. The surgeries that
can be done to fix this defect can vary due to the different physiology and blood flow in the
defective heart. One way it can be cured is by a VSD closure and placing conduits to restart the
blood flow between the left ventricle and the aorta and between the right ventricle and the
pulmonary artery. Another way is systemic-to-pulmonary artery shunt in cases associated with
pulmonary stenosis. Also, a balloon atrial septostomy can be done to fix DORV with the
Taussig-Bing anomaly.

Transposition of great arteries

There are two different types of transposition of the great arteries, the Dextro-transposition of the
great arteries and the Levo-transposition of the great arteries, depending on where the chambers
and vessels connect. Dextro-transposition happens in about 1 in 4,000 newborns and is when the
right ventricle pumps blood into the aorta and deoxygenated blood enters the bloodstream. The
temporary procedure is to create an atrial septal defect (ASD). A permanent fix is more
complicated and involves redirecting the pulmonary return to the right atrium and the systemic
return to the left atrium, which is known as the Senning procedure. The Rastelli procedure can
also be done by rerouting the left ventricular outflow, dividing the pulmonary trunk, and placing
a conduit in between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk. Levo-transposition happens in
about 1 in 13,000 newborns and is characterized by the left ventricle pumping blood into the
lungs and the right ventricle pumps the blood into the aorta. This may not produce problems at
the beginning, but will eventually due to the different pressures each ventricle uses to pump
blood. Switching the left ventricle to be the systemic ventricle and the right ventricle to pump
blood into the pulmonary artery can repair Levo-transposition.

Persistent truncus arteriosus

Persistent truncus arteriosus is when the truncus arteriosus fails to split into the aorta and
pulmonary trunk. This occurs in about 1 in 11,000 live births and allows both oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood into the body. The repair consists of a VSD closure and the Rastelli
procedure.

Ebstein anomaly

Ebstein's anomaly is characterized by a right atrium that is significantly enlarged and a heart that
is shaped like a box. This is very rare and happens in less than 1% of congenital heart disease
cases. The surgical repair varies depending on the severity of the disease. Pediatric cardiology is
a sub-specialty of pediatrics. To become a pediatric cardiologist in the United States, one must
complete a three-year residency in pediatrics, followed by a three-year fellowship in pediatric
cardiology. Per doximity, pediatric cardiologists make an average of $303,917 in the United
States.

The heart
As the center focus of cardiology, the heart has numerous anatomical features (e.g., atria,
ventricles, heart valves) and numerous physiological features (e.g., systole, heart sounds,
afterload) that have been encyclopedically documented for many centuries.

Disorders of the heart lead to heart disease and cardiovascular disease and can lead to a
significant number of deaths: cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the United
States and caused 24.95% of total deaths in 2008. The primary responsibility of the heart is to
pump blood throughout the body.

It pumps blood from the body — called the systemic circulation — through the lungs — called
the pulmonary circulation — and then back out to the body.
This means that the heart is connected to and affects the entirety of the body. Simplified, the
heart is a circuit of the Circulation.

While plenty is known about the healthy heart, the bulk of study in cardiology is in disorders of
the heart and restoration, and where possible, of function.

The heart is a muscle that squeezes blood and functions like a pump.

Each part of the heart is susceptible to failure or dysfunction and the heart can be divided into
mechanical and electrical parts.

The electrical part of the heart is centered on the periodic contraction (squeezing) of the muscle
cells that is caused by the cardiac pacemaker located in the sinoatrial node.

The study of the electrical aspects is a sub-field of electrophysiology called cardiac

electrophysiology and is epitomized with the electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG).

The action potentials generated in the pacemaker propagate throughout the heart in a specific
pattern. The system that carries this potential is called the electrical conduction system.

Dysfunction of the electrical system manifests in many ways and may include Wolff–Parkinson–
White syndrome, ventricular fibrillation, and heart block. The mechanical part of the heart is
centered on the fluidic movement of blood and the functionality of the heart as a pump.

The mechanical part is ultimately the purpose of the heart and many of the disorders of the heart
disrupt the ability to move blood.

Failure to move sufficient blood can result in failure in other organs and may result in death if
severe.

Heart failure is one condition in which the mechanical properties of the heart have failed or are
failing, which means insufficient blood is being circulated.

Coronary circulation

Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the blood vessels of the heart muscle
(myocardium). The vessels that deliver oxygen-rich blood to the myocardium are known as
coronary arteries. The vessels that remove the deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle are
known as cardiac veins. These include the great cardiac vein, the middle cardiac vein, the small
cardiac vein, and the anterior cardiac veins. As the left and right coronary arteries run on the
surface of the heart, they can be called epicardial coronary arteries. These arteries, when healthy,
are capable of autoregulation to maintain coronary blood flow at levels appropriate to the needs
of the heart muscle. These relatively narrow vessels are commonly affected by atherosclerosis
and can become blocked, causing angina or a heart attack. (See also: circulatory system.) The
coronary arteries that run deep within the myocardium are referred to as subendocardial. The
coronary arteries are classified as "end circulation" since they represent the only source of blood
supply to the myocardium; there is very little redundant blood supply, which is why blockage of
these vessels can be so critical.

Cardiac examination

The cardiac examination (also called the "precordial exam"), is performed as part of a physical
examination, or when a patient presents with chest pain suggestive of cardiovascular pathology.
It would typically be modified depending on the indication and integrated with other
examinations especially the respiratory examination. Like all medical examinations, the cardiac
examination follows the standard structure of inspection, palpation, and auscultation.

Heart disorders
Cardiology is concerned with the normal functionality of the heart and the deviation from a
healthy heart.

Many disorders involve the heart itself but some are outside of the heart and in the vascular
system.

Collectively, the two together are termed the cardiovascular system, and diseases of one part tend
to affect the other.

Hypertension

Hypertension, also known as "high blood pressure", is a long-term medical condition in which
the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure usually does not
cause symptoms. Long-term high blood pressure, however, is a major risk factor for coronary
artery disease, stroke, heart failure, peripheral vascular disease, vision loss, and chronic kidney
disease. Lifestyle factors can increase the risk of hypertension. These include excess salt in the
diet, excess body weight, smoking, and alcohol. Hypertension can also be caused by other
diseases, or as a side-effect of drugs. Blood pressure is expressed by two measurements, the
systolic and diastolic pressures, which are the maximum and minimum pressures, respectively.
Normal blood pressure at rest is within the range of 100–140 millimeters mercury (mmHg)
systolic and 60–90 mmHg diastolic. High blood pressure is present if the resting blood pressure
is persistently at or above 140/90 mmHg for most adults. Different numbers apply to children.
Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring over a 24-hour period appears more accurate than the
office's best blood pressure measurement. Lifestyle changes and medications can lower blood
pressure and decrease the risk of health complications. Lifestyle changes include weight loss,
decreased salt intake, physical exercise, and a healthy diet. If lifestyle changes are not sufficient
then blood pressure medications are used. Up to three medications can control blood pressure in
90% of people. The treatment of moderate to severe high arterial blood pressure (defined as
>160/100 mmHg) with medications is associated with an improved life expectancy and reduced
morbidity. The effect of treatment of blood pressure between 140/90 mmHg and 160/100 mmHg
is less clear, with some reviews finding benefit and others finding a lack of evidence for benefit.
High blood pressure affects between 16 and 37% of the population globally. In 2010
hypertension was believed to have been a factor in 18% (9.4 million) deaths.
Essential vs Secondary hypertension

Essential hypertension is the form of hypertension that by definition has no identifiable cause. It
is the most common type of hypertension, affecting 95% of hypertensive patients, it tends to be
familial and is likely to be the consequence of an interaction between environmental and genetic
factors. The prevalence of essential hypertension increases with age, and individuals with
relatively high blood pressure at younger ages are at increased risk for the subsequent
development of hypertension.

Hypertension can increase the risk of cerebral, cardiac, and renal events. Secondary hypertension
is a type of hypertension that is caused by an identifiable underlying secondary cause. It is much
less common than essential hypertension, affecting only 5% of hypertensive patients. It has many
different causes including endocrine diseases, kidney diseases, and tumors. It also can be a side
effect of many medications.

Complications of hypertension

Complications of hypertension are clinical outcomes that result from persistent elevation of
blood pressure. Hypertension is a risk factor for all clinical manifestations of atherosclerosis
since it is a risk factor for atherosclerosis itself. It is an independent predisposing factor for heart
failure, coronary artery disease, stroke, renal disease, and peripheral arterial disease. It is the
most important risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, in industrialized countries.
Cardiac arrhythmia

Cardiac arrhythmia, also known as "cardiac dysrhythmia" or "irregular heartbeat", is a group of

conditions in which the heartbeat is irregular, too fast, or too slow. A heart rate that is too fast –
above 100 beats per minute in adults – is called tachycardia and a heart rate that is too slow –
below 60 beats per minute – is called bradycardia. Many types of arrhythmia have no symptoms.
When symptoms are present these may include palpitations or feeling a pause between
heartbeats. More seriously there may be lightheadedness, passing out, shortness of breath, or
chest pain. While most types of arrhythmia are not serious, some predispose a person to
complications such as stroke or heart failure. Others may result in cardiac arrest. There are four
main types of arrhythmia: extra beats, supraventricular tachycardias, ventricular arrhythmias, and
bradyarrhythmias. Extra beats include premature atrial contractions, premature ventricular
contractions, and premature junctional contractions. Supraventricular tachycardias include atrial
fibrillation, atrial flutter, and paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. Ventricular arrhythmias
include ventricular fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia. Arrhythmias are due to problems with
the electrical conduction system of the heart. Arrhythmias may occur in children; however, the
normal range for the heart rate is different and depends on age. A number of tests can help with
diagnosis including an electrocardiogram (ECG) and Holter monitor. Most arrhythmias can be
effectively treated. Treatments may include medications, medical procedures such as a
pacemaker, and surgery. Medications for a fast heart rate may include beta-blockers or agents
that attempt to restore a normal heart rhythm such as procainamide. This latter group may have
more significant side effects especially if taken for a long period of time. Pacemakers are often
used for slow heart rates. Those with an irregular heartbeat are often treated with blood thinners
to reduce the risk of complications. Those who have severe symptoms from an arrhythmia may
receive urgent treatment with a jolt of electricity in the form of cardioversion or defibrillation.
Arrhythmia affects millions of people. In Europe and North America, as of 2014, atrial
fibrillation affects about 2% to 3% of the population. Atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter resulted
in 112,000 deaths in 2013, up from 29,000 in 1990. Sudden cardiac death is the cause of about
half of deaths due to cardiovascular disease or about 15% of all deaths globally. About 80% of
sudden cardiac death is the result of ventricular arrhythmias. Arrhythmias may occur at any age
but are more common among older people.

Coronary artery disease

Coronary artery disease, also known as "ischemic heart disease", is a group of diseases that
includes: stable angina, unstable angina, myocardial infarction, and is one of the causes of
sudden cardiac death. It is within the group of cardiovascular diseases of which it is the most
common type. A common symptom is chest pain or discomfort which may travel into the
shoulder, arm, back, neck, or jaw. Occasionally it may feel like heartburn. Usually, symptoms
occur with exercise or emotional stress, last less than a few minutes, and get better with rest.
Shortness of breath may also occur and sometimes no symptoms are present. The first sign is
occasionally a heart attack. Other complications include heart failure or an irregular heartbeat.
Risk factors include high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, lack of exercise, obesity, high blood
cholesterol, poor diet, and excessive alcohol, among others. Other risks include depression. The
underlying mechanism involves atherosclerosis of the arteries of the heart. A number of tests
may help with diagnoses including electrocardiogram, cardiac stress testing, coronary computed
tomographic angiography, and coronary angiogram, among others. Prevention is by eating a
healthy diet, regular exercise, maintaining a healthy weight, and not smoking. Sometimes
medication for diabetes, high cholesterol, or high blood pressure is also used. There is limited
evidence for screening people who are at low risk and do not have symptoms. Treatment
involves the same measures as prevention. Additional medications such as antiplatelets including
aspirin, beta-blockers, or nitroglycerin may be recommended. Procedures such as percutaneous
coronary intervention (PCI) or coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG) may be used in severe
diseases. In those with stable CAD, it is unclear if PCI or CABG in addition to the other
treatments improves life expectancy or decreases heart attack risk. In 2013 CAD was the most
common cause of death globally, resulting in 8.14 million deaths (16.8%) up from 5.74 million
deaths (12%) in 1990. The risk of death from CAD for a given age has decreased between 1980
and 2010 especially in developed countries. The number of cases of CAD for a given age has
also decreased between 1990 and 2010. In the United States in 2010 about 20% of those over 65
had CAD, while it was present in 7% of those 45 to 64, and 1.3% of those 18 to 45. Rates are
higher among men than women of a given age.

Cardiac arrest

Cardiac arrest is a sudden stop in effective blood flow due to the failure of the heart to contract
effectively. Symptoms include loss of consciousness and abnormal or absent breathing. Some
people may have chest pain, shortness of breath, or nausea before this occurs. If not treated
within minutes, death usually occurs. The most common cause of cardiac arrest is coronary
artery disease. Less common causes include major blood loss, lack of oxygen, very low
potassium, heart failure, and intense physical exercise. A number of inherited disorders may also
increase the risk including long QT syndrome. The initial heart rhythm is most often ventricular
fibrillation. The diagnosis is confirmed by finding no pulse. While a cardiac arrest may be
caused by heart attack or heart failure these are not the same. Prevention includes not smoking,
physical activity, and maintaining a healthy weight. Treatment for cardiac arrest is immediate
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and, if a shockable rhythm is present, defibrillation.
Among those who survive targeted temperature management may improve outcomes. An
implantable cardiac defibrillator may be placed to reduce the chance of death from recurrence. In
the United States, cardiac arrest outside of hospital occurs in about 13 per 10,000 people per year
(326,000 cases). In hospital cardiac arrest occurs in an additional 209,000 Cardiac arrest
becomes more common with age. It affects males more often than females. The percentage of
people who survive with treatment is about 8%. Many who survive have significant disabilities.
Many U.S. television shows, however, have portrayed unrealistically high survival rates of 67%.

Congenital heart defects

A congenital heart defect, also known as a "congenital heart anomaly" or "congenital heart
disease", is a problem in the structure of the heart that is present at birth. Signs and symptoms
depend on the specific type of problem. Symptoms can vary from none to life-threatening. When
present they may include rapid breathing, bluish skin, poor weight gain, and feeling tired. It does
not cause chest pain. Most congenital heart problems do not occur with other diseases.
Complications that can result from heart defects include heart failure. The cause of a congenital
heart defect is often unknown. Certain cases may be due to infections during pregnancy such as
rubella, use of certain medications or drugs such as alcohol or tobacco, parents being closely
related, or poor nutritional status or obesity in the mother. Having a parent with a congenital
heart defect is also a risk factor. A number of genetic conditions are associated with heart defects
including Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Marfan syndrome. Congenital heart defects
are divided into two main groups: cyanotic heart defects and non-cyanotic heart defects,
depending on whether the child has the potential to turn bluish in color. The problems may
involve the interior walls of the heart, the heart valves, or the large blood vessels that lead to and
from the heart. Congenital heart defects are partly preventable through rubella vaccination, the
adding of iodine to salt, and the adding of folic acid to certain food products. Some defects do
not need treatment. Others may be effectively treated with catheter-based procedures or heart
surgery. Occasionally a number of operations may be needed. Occasionally heart transplantation
is required. Appropriate treatment outcomes, even with complex problems, are generally good.
Heart defects are the most common birth defect. In 2013 they were present in 34.3 million people
globally. They affect between 4 and 75 per 1,000 live births depending upon how they are
diagnosed. About 6 to 19 per 1,000 cause a moderate to severe degree of problems. Congenital
heart defects are the leading cause of birth defect-related deaths. In 2013 they resulted in 323,000
deaths down from 366,000 deaths in 1990.

Diagnostic tests in cardiology

Diagnostic tests in cardiology are the methods of identifying heart conditions associated with
healthy vs. unhealthy, pathologic heart function. The starting point is obtaining a medical
history, followed by Auscultation. Then blood tests, electrophysiological procedures, and cardiac
imaging can be ordered for further analysis. Electrophysiological procedures include
electrocardiogram, cardiac monitoring, cardiac stress testing, and the electrophysiology study.

Cardiology community
Associations

American College of Cardiology

American Heart Association

European Society of Cardiology

Heart Rhythm Society

Canadian Cardiovascular Society

Indian Heart Association

National Heart Foundation of Australia

Cardiology Society of India

Journals

Acta Cardiologica

American Journal of Cardiology

Annals of Cardiac Anaesthesia

Current Research: Cardiology

Cardiology in Review

Circulation

Circulation Research

Clinical and Experimental Hypertension

Clinical Cardiology

EP – Europace
European Heart Journal

Heart

Heart Rhythm

International Journal of Cardiology

Journal of the American College of Cardiology

Pacing and Clinical Electrophysiology

Indian Heart Journal

Cardiologists

Robert Atkins (1930–2003), known for the Atkins diet

Eugene Braunwald (born 1929), editor of Braunwald's Heart Disease and 1000+ publications

Wallace Brigden (1916–2008), identified cardiomyopathy

Willem Einthoven (1860–1927), a physiologist who built the first practical ECG and won the
1924 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine ("for the discovery of the mechanism of the
electrocardiogram")

Werner Forssmann (1904–1979), who infamously performed the first human catheterization on
himself that led to him being let go from Berliner Charité Hospital, quitting cardiology as a
specialty, and then winning the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine ("for their
discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system")

Andreas Gruentzig (1939–1985), first developed balloon angioplasty

William Harvey (1578–1657), wrote Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in

Animalibus that first described the closed circulatory system and whom Forssmann described as
founding cardiology in his Nobel lecture

Murray S. Hoffman (born 1924) As president of the Colorado Heart Association, he initiated one
of the first jogging programs promoting cardiac health

Max Holzmann (1899–1994), co-founder of the Swiss Society of Cardiology, president from
1952–1955

Samuel A. Levine (1891–1966), recognized the sign known as Levine's sign as well as the
current grading of the intensity of heart murmurs, known as the Levine scale
Henry Joseph Llewellyn "Barney" Marriott (1917–2007), ECG interpretation and Practical
Electrocardiography

Bernard Lown (born 1921), original developer of the defibrillator

Woldemar Mobitz (1889–1951), described and classified the two types of second-degree
atrioventricular block often called "Mobitz Type I" and "Mobitz Type II"

Jacqueline Noonan (born 1928), discoverer of Noonan syndrome that is the top syndromic cause
of congenital heart disease

John Parkinson (1885–1976), known for Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

Helen B. Taussig (1898–1986), founder of pediatric cardiology and extensively worked on blue
baby syndrome

Paul Dudley White (1886–1973), known for Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

Louis Wolff (1898–1972), known for Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

Karel Frederik Wenckebach (1864–1940), first described what is now called type I second-
degree atrioventricular block in 1898

See also
Outline of cardiology

List of cardiac pharmaceutical agents

Glossary of medicine

References
Sources
Braunwald, Eugene, ed. (2019). Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular
Medicine. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-323-46299-0.

Ramrakha, Punit; Hill, Jonathan, eds. (2012). Oxford Handbook of Cardiology (2nd ed.). Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-964321-9.

External links
American Heart Association