4/25/2021 ECMAScript® 2022 Language 

Specification

Draft ECMA-262 / April 6, 2021

ECMAScript® 2022
Language Specification

About this Specification

The document at https://tc39.es/ecma262/ is the most accurate and up-to-date ECMAScript
specification. It contains the content of the most recent yearly snapshot plus any finished
proposals (those that have reached Stage 4 in the proposal process and thus are implemented in
several implementations and will be in the next practical revision) since that snapshot was taken.

This document is available as a single page and as multiple pages.

Contributing to this Specification

This specification is developed on GitHub with the help of the ECMAScript community. There
are a number of ways to contribute to the development of this specification:

GitHub Repository: https://github.com/tc39/ecma262

Issues: All Issues, File a New Issue
Pull Requests: All Pull Requests, Create a New Pull Request
Test Suite: Test262
Editors:
Shu-yu Guo (@_shu)
Michael Ficarra (@smooshMap)
Kevin Gibbons (@bakkoting)

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Community:
Discourse: https://es.discourse.group
IRC: #tc39 on freenode
Mailing List Archives: https://esdiscuss.org/

Refer to the colophon for more information on how this document is created.

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Introduction
This Ecma Standard defines the ECMAScript 2022 Language. It is the twelfth edition of the
ECMAScript Language Specification. Since publication of the first edition in 1997, ECMAScript has
grown to be one of the world's most widely used general-purpose programming languages. It is best
known as the language embedded in web browsers but has also been widely adopted for server and
embedded applications.

ECMAScript is based on several originating technologies, the most well-known being JavaScript
(Netscape) and JScript (Microsoft). The language was invented by Brendan Eich at Netscape and
first appeared in that company's Navigator 2.0 browser. It has appeared in all subsequent browsers
from Netscape and in all browsers from Microsoft starting with Internet Explorer 3.0.

The development of the ECMAScript Language Specification started in November 1996. The first
edition of this Ecma Standard was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly of June 1997.

That Ecma Standard was submitted to ISO/IEC JTC 1 for adoption under the fast-track procedure,
and approved as international standard ISO/IEC 16262, in April 1998. The Ecma General Assembly
of June 1998 approved the second edition of ECMA-262 to keep it fully aligned with ISO/IEC
16262. Changes between the first and the second edition are editorial in nature.

The third edition of the Standard introduced powerful regular expressions, better string handling,
new control statements, try/catch exception handling, tighter definition of errors, formatting for
numeric output and minor changes in anticipation of future language growth. The third edition of the
ECMAScript standard was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly of December 1999 and
published as ISO/IEC 16262:2002 in June 2002.

After publication of the third edition, ECMAScript achieved massive adoption in conjunction with
the World Wide Web where it has become the programming language that is supported by essentially
all web browsers. Significant work was done to develop a fourth edition of ECMAScript. However,
that work was not completed and not published as the fourth edition of ECMAScript but some of it
was incorporated into the development of the sixth edition.

The fifth edition of ECMAScript (published as ECMA-262 5th edition) codified de facto
interpretations of the language specification that have become common among browser
implementations and added support for new features that had emerged since the publication of the
third edition. Such features include accessor properties, reflective creation and inspection of objects,
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program control of property attributes, additional array manipulation functions, support for the JSON
object encoding format, and a strict mode that provides enhanced error checking and program
security. The fifth edition was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly of December 2009.

The fifth edition was submitted to ISO/IEC JTC 1 for adoption under the fast-track procedure, and
approved as international standard ISO/IEC 16262:2011. Edition 5.1 of the ECMAScript Standard
incorporated minor corrections and is the same text as ISO/IEC 16262:2011. The 5.1 Edition was
adopted by the Ecma General Assembly of June 2011.

Focused development of the sixth edition started in 2009, as the fifth edition was being prepared for
publication. However, this was preceded by significant experimentation and language enhancement
design efforts dating to the publication of the third edition in 1999. In a very real sense, the
completion of the sixth edition is the culmination of a fifteen year effort. The goals for this edition
included providing better support for large applications, library creation, and for use of ECMAScript
as a compilation target for other languages. Some of its major enhancements included modules, class
declarations, lexical block scoping, iterators and generators, promises for asynchronous
programming, destructuring patterns, and proper tail calls. The ECMAScript library of built-ins was
expanded to support additional data abstractions including maps, sets, and arrays of binary numeric
values as well as additional support for Unicode supplemental characters in strings and regular
expressions. The built-ins were also made extensible via subclassing. The sixth edition provides the
foundation for regular, incremental language and library enhancements. The sixth edition was
adopted by the General Assembly of June 2015.

ECMAScript 2016 was the first ECMAScript edition released under Ecma TC39's new yearly
release cadence and open development process. A plain-text source document was built from the
ECMAScript 2015 source document to serve as the base for further development entirely on GitHub.
Over the year of this standard's development, hundreds of pull requests and issues were filed
representing thousands of bug fixes, editorial fixes and other improvements. Additionally, numerous
software tools were developed to aid in this effort including Ecmarkup, Ecmarkdown, and
Grammarkdown. ES2016 also included support for a new exponentiation operator and adds a new
method to Array.prototype called includes.

ECMAScript 2017 introduced Async Functions, Shared Memory, and Atomics along with smaller
language and library enhancements, bug fixes, and editorial updates. Async functions improve the
asynchronous programming experience by providing syntax for promise-returning functions. Shared
Memory and Atomics introduce a new memory model that allows multi-agent programs to
communicate using atomic operations that ensure a well-defined execution order even on parallel

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CPUs. It also included new static methods on Object: Object.values, Object.entries, and
Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptors.

ECMAScript 2018 introduced support for asynchronous iteration via the AsyncIterator protocol and
async generators. It also included four new regular expression features: the dotAll flag, named
capture groups, Unicode property escapes, and look-behind assertions. Lastly it included object rest
and spread properties.

ECMAScript 2019 introduced a few new built-in functions: flat and flatMap on
Array.prototype for flattening arrays, Object.fromEntries for directly turning the return
value of Object.entries into a new Object, and trimStart and trimEnd on
String.prototype as better-named alternatives to the widely implemented but non-standard
String.prototype.trimLeft and trimRight built-ins. In addition, it included a few
minor updates to syntax and semantics. Updated syntax included optional catch binding parameters
and allowing U+2028 (LINE SEPARATOR) and U+2029 (PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR) in string
literals to align with JSON. Other updates included requiring that Array.prototype.sort be a
stable sort, requiring that JSON.stringify return well-formed UTF-8 regardless of input, and
clarifying Function.prototype.toString by requiring that it either return the
corresponding original source text or a standard placeholder.

ECMAScript 2020, the 11th edition, introduces the matchAll method for Strings, to produce an
iterator for all match objects generated by a global regular expression; import(), a syntax to
asynchronously import Modules with a dynamic specifier; BigInt, a new number primitive for
working with arbitrary precision integers; Promise.allSettled, a new Promise combinator
that does not short-circuit; globalThis, a universal way to access the global this value;
dedicated export * as ns from 'module' syntax for use within modules; increased
standardization of for-in enumeration order; import.meta, a host-populated object available in
Modules that may contain contextual information about the Module; as well as adding two new
syntax features to improve working with “nullish” values (null or undefined): nullish
coalescing, a value selection operator; and optional chaining, a property access and function
invocation operator that short-circuits if the value to access/invoke is nullish.

ECMAScript 2021, the 12th edition, introduces the replaceAll method for Strings;
Promise.any, a Promise combinator that short-circuits when an input value is fulfilled;
AggregateError, a new Error type to represent multiple errors at once; logical assignment
operators (??=, &&=, ||=); WeakRef, for referring to a target object without preserving it from

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garbage collection, and FinalizationRegistry, to manage registration and unregistration of

cleanup operations performed when target objects are garbage collected; separators for numeric
literals (1_000); and Array.prototype.sort was made more precise, reducing the amount of
cases that result in an implementation-defined sort order.

Dozens of individuals representing many organizations have made very significant contributions
within Ecma TC39 to the development of this edition and to the prior editions. In addition, a vibrant
community has emerged supporting TC39's ECMAScript efforts. This community has reviewed
numerous drafts, filed thousands of bug reports, performed implementation experiments, contributed
test suites, and educated the world-wide developer community about ECMAScript. Unfortunately, it
is impossible to identify and acknowledge every person and organization who has contributed to this
effort.

Allen Wirfs-Brock
ECMA-262, Project Editor, 6th Edition

Brian Terlson
ECMA-262, Project Editor, 7th through 10th Editions

Jordan Harband
ECMA-262, Project Editor, 10th through 12th Editions

1 Scope
This Standard defines the ECMAScript 2022 general-purpose programming language.

2 Conformance
A conforming implementation of ECMAScript must provide and support all the types, values,
objects, properties, functions, and program syntax and semantics described in this specification.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript must interpret source text input in conformance with
the latest version of the Unicode Standard and ISO/IEC 10646.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript that provides an application programming interface

(API) that supports programs that need to adapt to the linguistic and cultural conventions used by
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different human languages and countries must implement the interface defined by the most recent
edition of ECMA-402 that is compatible with this specification.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript may provide additional types, values, objects,

properties, and functions beyond those described in this specification. In particular, a conforming
implementation of ECMAScript may provide properties not described in this specification, and
values for those properties, for objects that are described in this specification.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript may support program and regular expression syntax
not described in this specification. In particular, a conforming implementation of ECMAScript may
support program syntax that makes use of any “future reserved words” noted in subclause 12.6.2 of
this specification.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript must not implement any extension that is listed as a
Forbidden Extension in subclause 17.1.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript must not redefine any facilities that are not
implementation-defined, implementation-approximated, or host-defined.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript may choose to implement or not implement

Normative Optional subclauses. If any Normative Optional behaviour is implemented, all of the
behaviour in the containing Normative Optional clause must be implemented. A Normative Optional
clause is denoted in this specification with the words "Normative Optional" in a coloured box, as
shown below.

NORMATIVE OPTIONAL

2.1 Example Clause Heading

Example clause contents.

3 Normative References

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The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document. For
dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the
referenced document (including any amendments) applies.

ISO/IEC 10646 Information Technology — Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set (UCS)
plus Amendment 1:2005, Amendment 2:2006, Amendment 3:2008, and Amendment 4:2008, plus
additional amendments and corrigenda, or successor

ECMA-402, ECMAScript 2015 Internationalization API Specification.

https://ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-402.htm

ECMA-404, The JSON Data Interchange Format.

https://ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-404.htm

4 Overview
This section contains a non-normative overview of the ECMAScript language.

ECMAScript is an object-oriented programming language for performing computations and

manipulating computational objects within a host environment. ECMAScript as defined here is not
intended to be computationally self-sufficient; indeed, there are no provisions in this specification for
input of external data or output of computed results. Instead, it is expected that the computational
environment of an ECMAScript program will provide not only the objects and other facilities
described in this specification but also certain environment-specific objects, whose description and
behaviour are beyond the scope of this specification except to indicate that they may provide certain
properties that can be accessed and certain functions that can be called from an ECMAScript
program.

ECMAScript was originally designed to be used as a scripting language, but has become widely used
as a general-purpose programming language. A scripting language is a programming language that
is used to manipulate, customize, and automate the facilities of an existing system. In such systems,
useful functionality is already available through a user interface, and the scripting language is a
mechanism for exposing that functionality to program control. In this way, the existing system is said
to provide a host environment of objects and facilities, which completes the capabilities of the
scripting language. A scripting language is intended for use by both professional and non-
professional programmers.
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ECMAScript was originally designed to be a Web scripting language, providing a mechanism to

enliven Web pages in browsers and to perform server computation as part of a Web-based client-
server architecture. ECMAScript is now used to provide core scripting capabilities for a variety of
host environments. Therefore the core language is specified in this document apart from any
particular host environment.

ECMAScript usage has moved beyond simple scripting and it is now used for the full spectrum of
programming tasks in many different environments and scales. As the usage of ECMAScript has
expanded, so have the features and facilities it provides. ECMAScript is now a fully featured
general-purpose programming language.

4.1 Web Scripting

A web browser provides an ECMAScript host environment for client-side computation including, for
instance, objects that represent windows, menus, pop-ups, dialog boxes, text areas, anchors, frames,
history, cookies, and input/output. Further, the host environment provides a means to attach scripting
code to events such as change of focus, page and image loading, unloading, error and abort,
selection, form submission, and mouse actions. Scripting code appears within the HTML and the
displayed page is a combination of user interface elements and fixed and computed text and images.
The scripting code is reactive to user interaction, and there is no need for a main program.

A web server provides a different host environment for server-side computation including objects
representing requests, clients, and files; and mechanisms to lock and share data. By using browser-
side and server-side scripting together, it is possible to distribute computation between the client and
server while providing a customized user interface for a Web-based application.

Each Web browser and server that supports ECMAScript supplies its own host environment,
completing the ECMAScript execution environment.

4.2 Hosts and Implementations

To aid integrating ECMAScript into host environments, this specification defers the definition of
certain facilities (e.g., abstract operations), either in whole or in part, to a source outside of this
specification. Editorially, this specification distinguishes the following kinds of deferrals.

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An implementation is an external source that further defines facilities enumerated in Annex D or

those that are marked as implementation-defined or implementation-approximated. In informal use,
an implementation refers to a concrete artefact, such as a particular web browser.

An implementation-defined facility is one that defers its definition to an external source without
further qualification. This specification does not make any recommendations for particular
behaviours, and conforming implementations are free to choose any behaviour within the constraints
put forth by this specification.

An implementation-approximated facility is one that defers its definition to an external source while
recommending an ideal behaviour. While conforming implementations are free to choose any
behaviour within the constraints put forth by this specification, they are encouraged to strive to
approximate the ideal. Some mathematical operations, such as Math.exp, are implementation-
approximated.

A host is an external source that further defines facilities listed in Annex D but does not further
define other implementation-defined or implementation-approximated facilities. In informal use, a
host refers to the set of all implementations, such as the set of all web browsers, that interface with
this specification in the same way via Annex D. A host is often an external specification, such as
WHATWG HTML (https://html.spec.whatwg.org/). In other words, facilities that are host-defined
are often further defined in external specifications.

A host hook is an abstract operation that is defined in whole or in part by an external source. All host
hooks must be listed in Annex D.

A host-defined facility is one that defers its definition to an external source without further
qualification and is listed in Annex D. Implementations that are not hosts may also provide
definitions for host-defined facilities.

A host environment is a particular choice of definition for all host-defined facilities. A host
environment typically includes objects or functions which allow obtaining input and providing
output as host-defined properties of the global object.

This specification follows the editorial convention of always using the most specific term. For
example, if a facility is host-defined, it should not be referred to as implementation-defined.

Both hosts and implementations may interface with this specification via the language types,
specification types, abstract operations, grammar productions, intrinsic objects, and intrinsic symbols

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defined herein.

4.3 ECMAScript Overview

The following is an informal overview of ECMAScript—not all parts of the language are described.
This overview is not part of the standard proper.

ECMAScript is object-based: basic language and host facilities are provided by objects, and an
ECMAScript program is a cluster of communicating objects. In ECMAScript, an object is a
collection of zero or more properties each with attributes that determine how each property can be
used—for example, when the Writable attribute for a property is set to false, any attempt by
executed ECMAScript code to assign a different value to the property fails. Properties are containers
that hold other objects, primitive values, or functions. A primitive value is a member of one of the
following built-in types: Undefined, Null, Boolean, Number, BigInt, String, and Symbol; an
object is a member of the built-in type Object; and a function is a callable object. A function that is
associated with an object via a property is called a method.

ECMAScript defines a collection of built-in objects that round out the definition of ECMAScript
entities. These built-in objects include the global object; objects that are fundamental to the runtime
semantics of the language including Object, Function, Boolean, Symbol, and various
Error objects; objects that represent and manipulate numeric values including Math, Number,
and Date; the text processing objects String and RegExp; objects that are indexed collections of
values including Array and nine different kinds of Typed Arrays whose elements all have a specific
numeric data representation; keyed collections including Map and Set objects; objects supporting
structured data including the JSON object, ArrayBuffer, SharedArrayBuffer, and
DataView; objects supporting control abstractions including generator functions and Promise
objects; and reflection objects including Proxy and Reflect.

ECMAScript also defines a set of built-in operators. ECMAScript operators include various unary
operations, multiplicative operators, additive operators, bitwise shift operators, relational operators,
equality operators, binary bitwise operators, binary logical operators, assignment operators, and the
comma operator.

Large ECMAScript programs are supported by modules which allow a program to be divided into
multiple sequences of statements and declarations. Each module explicitly identifies declarations it

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uses that need to be provided by other modules and which of its declarations are available for use by
other modules.

ECMAScript syntax intentionally resembles Java syntax. ECMAScript syntax is relaxed to enable it
to serve as an easy-to-use scripting language. For example, a variable is not required to have its type
declared nor are types associated with properties, and defined functions are not required to have their
declarations appear textually before calls to them.

4.3.1 Objects
Even though ECMAScript includes syntax for class definitions, ECMAScript objects are not
fundamentally class-based such as those in C++, Smalltalk, or Java. Instead objects may be created
in various ways including via a literal notation or via constructors which create objects and then
execute code that initializes all or part of them by assigning initial values to their properties. Each
constructor is a function that has a property named "prototype" that is used to implement prototype-
based inheritance and shared properties. Objects are created by using constructors in new
expressions; for example, new Date(2009, 11) creates a new Date object. Invoking a
constructor without using new has consequences that depend on the constructor. For example,
Date() produces a string representation of the current date and time rather than an object.

Every object created by a constructor has an implicit reference (called the object's prototype) to the
value of its constructor's "prototype" property. Furthermore, a prototype may have a non-null
implicit reference to its prototype, and so on; this is called the prototype chain. When a reference is
made to a property in an object, that reference is to the property of that name in the first object in the
prototype chain that contains a property of that name. In other words, first the object mentioned
directly is examined for such a property; if that object contains the named property, that is the
property to which the reference refers; if that object does not contain the named property, the
prototype for that object is examined next; and so on.

Figure 1: Object/Prototype Relationships

CF implicit prototype link

prototype CF p
P1
explicit prototype property
P2 CFP1

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cf 1 cf 2 cf 3 cf 4 cf 5

q1 q1 q1 q1 q1
q2 q2 q2 q2 q2

In a class-based object-oriented language, in general, state is carried by instances, methods are

carried by classes, and inheritance is only of structure and behaviour. In ECMAScript, the state and
methods are carried by objects, while structure, behaviour, and state are all inherited.

All objects that do not directly contain a particular property that their prototype contains share that
property and its value. Figure 1 illustrates this:

CF is a constructor (and also an object). Five objects have been created by using new expressions:
cf1, cf2, cf3, cf4, and cf5. Each of these objects contains properties named "q1" and "q2". The
dashed lines represent the implicit prototype relationship; so, for example, cf3's prototype is CFp.
The constructor, CF, has two properties itself, named "P1" and "P2", which are not visible to CFp,
cf1, cf2, cf3, cf4, or cf5. The property named "CFP1" in CFp is shared by cf1, cf2, cf3, cf4, and cf5
(but not by CF), as are any properties found in CFp's implicit prototype chain that are not named
"q1", "q2", or "CFP1". Notice that there is no implicit prototype link between CF and CFp.

Unlike most class-based object languages, properties can be added to objects dynamically by
assigning values to them. That is, constructors are not required to name or assign values to all or any
of the constructed object's properties. In the above diagram, one could add a new shared property for
cf1, cf2, cf3, cf4, and cf5 by assigning a new value to the property in CFp.

Although ECMAScript objects are not inherently class-based, it is often convenient to define class-
like abstractions based upon a common pattern of constructor functions, prototype objects, and
methods. The ECMAScript built-in objects themselves follow such a class-like pattern. Beginning
with ECMAScript 2015, the ECMAScript language includes syntactic class definitions that permit
programmers to concisely define objects that conform to the same class-like abstraction pattern used
by the built-in objects.

4.3.2 The Strict Variant of ECMAScript

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The ECMAScript Language recognizes the possibility that some users of the language may wish to
restrict their usage of some features available in the language. They might do so in the interests of
security, to avoid what they consider to be error-prone features, to get enhanced error checking, or
for other reasons of their choosing. In support of this possibility, ECMAScript defines a strict variant
of the language. The strict variant of the language excludes some specific syntactic and semantic
features of the regular ECMAScript language and modifies the detailed semantics of some features.
The strict variant also specifies additional error conditions that must be reported by throwing error
exceptions in situations that are not specified as errors by the non-strict form of the language.

The strict variant of ECMAScript is commonly referred to as the strict mode of the language. Strict
mode selection and use of the strict mode syntax and semantics of ECMAScript is explicitly made at
the level of individual ECMAScript source text units as described in 11.2.2. Because strict mode is
selected at the level of a syntactic source text unit, strict mode only imposes restrictions that have
local effect within such a source text unit. Strict mode does not restrict or modify any aspect of the
ECMAScript semantics that must operate consistently across multiple source text units. A complete
ECMAScript program may be composed of both strict mode and non-strict mode ECMAScript
source text units. In this case, strict mode only applies when actually executing code that is defined
within a strict mode source text unit.

In order to conform to this specification, an ECMAScript implementation must implement both the
full unrestricted ECMAScript language and the strict variant of the ECMAScript language as defined
by this specification. In addition, an implementation must support the combination of unrestricted
and strict mode source text units into a single composite program.

4.4 Terms and Definitions

For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.

4.4.1 implementation-approximated
an implementation-approximated facility is defined in whole or in part by an external source but has
a recommended, ideal behaviour in this specification

4.4.2 implementation-defined

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an implementation-defined facility is defined in whole or in part by an external source to this

specification

4.4.3 host-defined
same as implementation-defined

NOTE Editorially, see clause 4.2.

4.4.4 type
set of data values as defined in clause 6

4.4.5 primitive value

member of one of the types Undefined, Null, Boolean, Number, BigInt, Symbol, or String as defined
in clause 6

NOTE A primitive value is a datum that is represented directly at the lowest level of the
language implementation.

4.4.6 object
member of the type Object

NOTE An object is a collection of properties and has a single prototype object. The
prototype may be the null value.

4.4.7 constructor
function object that creates and initializes objects

NOTE The value of a constructor's "prototype" property is a prototype object that is used
to implement inheritance and shared properties.
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4.4.8 prototype
object that provides shared properties for other objects

NOTE When a constructor creates an object, that object implicitly references the
constructor's "prototype" property for the purpose of resolving property references.
The constructor's "prototype" property can be referenced by the program
expression constructor.prototype, and properties added to an object's
prototype are shared, through inheritance, by all objects sharing the prototype.
Alternatively, a new object may be created with an explicitly specified prototype by
using the Object.create built-in function.

4.4.9 ordinary object

object that has the default behaviour for the essential internal methods that must be supported by all
objects

4.4.10 exotic object

object that does not have the default behaviour for one or more of the essential internal methods

NOTE Any object that is not an ordinary object is an exotic object.

4.4.11 standard object

object whose semantics are defined by this specification

4.4.12 built-in object

object specified and supplied by an ECMAScript implementation

NOTE Standard built-in objects are defined in this specification. An ECMAScript

implementation may specify and supply additional kinds of built-in objects. A built-

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in constructor is a built-in object that is also a constructor.

4.4.13 undefined value

primitive value used when a variable has not been assigned a value

4.4.14 Undefined type

type whose sole value is the undefined value

4.4.15 null value

primitive value that represents the intentional absence of any object value

4.4.16 Null type

type whose sole value is the null value

4.4.17 Boolean value

member of the Boolean type

NOTE There are only two Boolean values, true and false.

4.4.18 Boolean type

type consisting of the primitive values true and false

4.4.19 Boolean object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in Boolean constructor

NOTE A Boolean object is created by using the Boolean constructor in a new expression,
supplying a Boolean value as an argument. The resulting object has an internal slot
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whose value is the Boolean value. A Boolean object can be coerced to a Boolean
value.

4.4.20 String value

primitive value that is a finite ordered sequence of zero or more 16-bit unsigned integer values

NOTE A String value is a member of the String type. Each integer value in the sequence
usually represents a single 16-bit unit of UTF-16 text. However, ECMAScript does
not place any restrictions or requirements on the values except that they must be 16-
bit unsigned integers.

4.4.21 String type

set of all possible String values

4.4.22 String object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in String constructor

NOTE A String object is created by using the String constructor in a new expression,
supplying a String value as an argument. The resulting object has an internal slot
whose value is the String value. A String object can be coerced to a String value by
calling the String constructor as a function (22.1.1.1).

4.4.23 Number value

primitive value corresponding to a double-precision 64-bit binary format IEEE 754-2019 value

NOTE A Number value is a member of the Number type and is a direct representation of a
number.

4.4.24 Number type

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set of all possible Number values including the special “Not-a-Number” (NaN) value, positive
infinity, and negative infinity

4.4.25 Number object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in Number constructor

NOTE A Number object is created by using the Number constructor in a new expression,
supplying a Number value as an argument. The resulting object has an internal slot
whose value is the Number value. A Number object can be coerced to a Number
value by calling the Number constructor as a function (21.1.1.1).

4.4.26 Infinity
Number value that is the positive infinite Number value

4.4.27 NaN
Number value that is an IEEE 754-2019 “Not-a-Number” value

4.4.28 BigInt value

primitive value corresponding to an arbitrary-precision integer value

4.4.29 BigInt type

set of all possible BigInt values

4.4.30 BigInt object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in BigInt constructor

4.4.31 Symbol value

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primitive value that represents a unique, non-String Object property key

4.4.32 Symbol type

set of all possible Symbol values

4.4.33 Symbol object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in Symbol constructor

4.4.34 function
member of the Object type that may be invoked as a subroutine

NOTE In addition to its properties, a function contains executable code and state that
determine how it behaves when invoked. A function's code may or may not be
written in ECMAScript.

4.4.35 built-in function

built-in object that is a function

NOTE Examples of built-in functions include parseInt and Math.exp. A host or

implementation may provide additional built-in functions that are not described in
this specification.

4.4.36 property
part of an object that associates a key (either a String value or a Symbol value) and a value

NOTE Depending upon the form of the property the value may be represented either
directly as a data value (a primitive value, an object, or a function object) or
indirectly by a pair of accessor functions.

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4.4.37 method
function that is the value of a property

NOTE When a function is called as a method of an object, the object is passed to the
function as its this value.

4.4.38 built-in method

method that is a built-in function

NOTE Standard built-in methods are defined in this specification. A host or

implementation may provide additional built-in methods that are not described in
this specification.

4.4.39 attribute
internal value that defines some characteristic of a property

4.4.40 own property

property that is directly contained by its object

4.4.41 inherited property

property of an object that is not an own property but is a property (either own or inherited) of the
object's prototype

4.5 Organization of This Specification

The remainder of this specification is organized as follows:

Clause 5 defines the notational conventions used throughout the specification.

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Clauses 6 through 10 define the execution environment within which ECMAScript programs
operate.

Clauses 11 through 17 define the actual ECMAScript programming language including its syntactic
encoding and the execution semantics of all language features.

Clauses 18 through 28 define the ECMAScript standard library. They include the definitions of all of
the standard objects that are available for use by ECMAScript programs as they execute.

Clause 29 describes the memory consistency model of accesses on SharedArrayBuffer-backed

memory and methods of the Atomics object.

5 Notational Conventions

5.1 Syntactic and Lexical Grammars

5.1.1 Context-Free Grammars

A context-free grammar consists of a number of productions. Each production has an abstract
symbol called a nonterminal as its left-hand side, and a sequence of zero or more nonterminal and
terminal symbols as its right-hand side. For each grammar, the terminal symbols are drawn from a
specified alphabet.

A chain production is a production that has exactly one nonterminal symbol on its right-hand side
along with zero or more terminal symbols.

Starting from a sentence consisting of a single distinguished nonterminal, called the goal symbol, a
given context-free grammar specifies a language, namely, the (perhaps infinite) set of possible
sequences of terminal symbols that can result from repeatedly replacing any nonterminal in the
sequence with a right-hand side of a production for which the nonterminal is the left-hand side.

5.1.2 The Lexical and RegExp Grammars

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A lexical grammar for ECMAScript is given in clause 12. This grammar has as its terminal symbols
Unicode code points that conform to the rules for SourceCharacter defined in 11.1. It defines a set of
productions, starting from the goal symbol InputElementDiv, InputElementTemplateTail, or
InputElementRegExp, or InputElementRegExpOrTemplateTail, that describe how sequences of such
code points are translated into a sequence of input elements.

Input elements other than white space and comments form the terminal symbols for the syntactic
grammar for ECMAScript and are called ECMAScript tokens. These tokens are the reserved words,
identifiers, literals, and punctuators of the ECMAScript language. Moreover, line terminators,
although not considered to be tokens, also become part of the stream of input elements and guide the
process of automatic semicolon insertion (12.9). Simple white space and single-line comments are
discarded and do not appear in the stream of input elements for the syntactic grammar. A
MultiLineComment (that is, a comment of the form /*…*/ regardless of whether it spans more than
one line) is likewise simply discarded if it contains no line terminator; but if a MultiLineComment
contains one or more line terminators, then it is replaced by a single line terminator, which becomes
part of the stream of input elements for the syntactic grammar.

A RegExp grammar for ECMAScript is given in 22.2.1. This grammar also has as its terminal
symbols the code points as defined by SourceCharacter. It defines a set of productions, starting from
the goal symbol Pattern, that describe how sequences of code points are translated into regular
expression patterns.

Productions of the lexical and RegExp grammars are distinguished by having two colons “::” as
separating punctuation. The lexical and RegExp grammars share some productions.

5.1.3 The Numeric String Grammar

Another grammar is used for translating Strings into numeric values. This grammar is similar to the
part of the lexical grammar having to do with numeric literals and has as its terminal symbols
SourceCharacter. This grammar appears in 7.1.4.1.

Productions of the numeric string grammar are distinguished by having three colons “:::” as
punctuation.

5.1.4 The Syntactic Grammar

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The syntactic grammar for ECMAScript is given in clauses 13 through 16. This grammar has
ECMAScript tokens defined by the lexical grammar as its terminal symbols (5.1.2). It defines a set
of productions, starting from two alternative goal symbols Script and Module, that describe how
sequences of tokens form syntactically correct independent components of ECMAScript programs.

When a stream of code points is to be parsed as an ECMAScript Script or Module, it is first

converted to a stream of input elements by repeated application of the lexical grammar; this stream
of input elements is then parsed by a single application of the syntactic grammar. The input stream is
syntactically in error if the tokens in the stream of input elements cannot be parsed as a single
instance of the goal nonterminal (Script or Module), with no tokens left over.

When a parse is successful, it constructs a parse tree, a rooted tree structure in which each node is a
Parse Node. Each Parse Node is an instance of a symbol in the grammar; it represents a span of the
source text that can be derived from that symbol. The root node of the parse tree, representing the
whole of the source text, is an instance of the parse's goal symbol. When a Parse Node is an instance
of a nonterminal, it is also an instance of some production that has that nonterminal as its left-hand
side. Moreover, it has zero or more children, one for each symbol on the production's right-hand
side: each child is a Parse Node that is an instance of the corresponding symbol.

New Parse Nodes are instantiated for each invocation of the parser and never reused between parses
even of identical source text. Parse Nodes are considered the same Parse Node if and only if they
represent the same span of source text, are instances of the same grammar symbol, and resulted from
the same parser invocation.

NOTE 1 Parsing the same String multiple times will lead to different Parse Nodes. For
example, consider:

let str = "1 + 1;";

eval(str);
eval(str);

Each call to eval converts the value of str into an ECMAScript source text and
performs an independent parse that creates its own separate tree of Parse Nodes. The
trees are distinct even though each parse operates upon a source text that was
derived from the same String value.

NOTE 2 Parse Nodes are specification artefacts, and implementations are not required to use
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an analogous data structure.

Productions of the syntactic grammar are distinguished by having just one colon “:” as punctuation.

The syntactic grammar as presented in clauses 13 through 16 is not a complete account of which
token sequences are accepted as a correct ECMAScript Script or Module. Certain additional token
sequences are also accepted, namely, those that would be described by the grammar if only
semicolons were added to the sequence in certain places (such as before line terminator characters).
Furthermore, certain token sequences that are described by the grammar are not considered
acceptable if a line terminator character appears in certain “awkward” places.

In certain cases, in order to avoid ambiguities, the syntactic grammar uses generalized productions
that permit token sequences that do not form a valid ECMAScript Script or Module. For example,
this technique is used for object literals and object destructuring patterns. In such cases a more
restrictive supplemental grammar is provided that further restricts the acceptable token sequences.
Typically, an early error rule will then define an error condition if "P is not covering an N", where P
is a Parse Node (an instance of the generalized production) and N is a nonterminal from the
supplemental grammar. Here, the sequence of tokens originally matched by P is parsed again using
N as the goal symbol. (If N takes grammatical parameters, then they are set to the same values used
when P was originally parsed.) An error occurs if the sequence of tokens cannot be parsed as a single
instance of N, with no tokens left over. Subsequently, algorithms access the result of the parse using
a phrase of the form "the N that is covered by P". This will always be a Parse Node (an instance of N,
unique for a given P), since any parsing failure would have been detected by an early error rule.

5.1.5 Grammar Notation

Terminal symbols are shown in fixed width font, both in the productions of the grammars and
throughout this specification whenever the text directly refers to such a terminal symbol. These are
to appear in a script exactly as written. All terminal symbol code points specified in this way are to
be understood as the appropriate Unicode code points from the Basic Latin range, as opposed to any
similar-looking code points from other Unicode ranges. A code point in a terminal symbol cannot be
expressed by a \ UnicodeEscapeSequence.

Nonterminal symbols are shown in italic type. The definition of a nonterminal (also called a
“production”) is introduced by the name of the nonterminal being defined followed by one or more
colons. (The number of colons indicates to which grammar the production belongs.) One or more

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alternative right-hand sides for the nonterminal then follow on succeeding lines. For example, the
syntactic definition:

WhileStatement :
while ( Expression ) Statement

states that the nonterminal WhileStatement represents the token while, followed by a left
parenthesis token, followed by an Expression, followed by a right parenthesis token, followed by a
Statement. The occurrences of Expression and Statement are themselves nonterminals. As another
example, the syntactic definition:

ArgumentList :
AssignmentExpression
ArgumentList , AssignmentExpression

states that an ArgumentList may represent either a single AssignmentExpression or an ArgumentList,

followed by a comma, followed by an AssignmentExpression. This definition of ArgumentList is
recursive, that is, it is defined in terms of itself. The result is that an ArgumentList may contain any
positive number of arguments, separated by commas, where each argument expression is an
AssignmentExpression. Such recursive definitions of nonterminals are common.

The subscripted suffix “opt”, which may appear after a terminal or nonterminal, indicates an optional
symbol. The alternative containing the optional symbol actually specifies two right-hand sides, one
that omits the optional element and one that includes it. This means that:

VariableDeclaration :
BindingIdentifier Initializeropt

is a convenient abbreviation for:

VariableDeclaration :
BindingIdentifier
BindingIdentifier Initializer

and that:

ForStatement :
for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

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is a convenient abbreviation for:

ForStatement :
for ( LexicalDeclaration ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( LexicalDeclaration Expression ; Expressionopt ) Statement

which in turn is an abbreviation for:

ForStatement :
for ( LexicalDeclaration ; ) Statement
for ( LexicalDeclaration ; Expression ) Statement
for ( LexicalDeclaration Expression ; ) Statement
for ( LexicalDeclaration Expression ; Expression ) Statement

so, in this example, the nonterminal ForStatement actually has four alternative right-hand sides.

A production may be parameterized by a subscripted annotation of the form “[parameters]”, which

may appear as a suffix to the nonterminal symbol defined by the production. “parameters” may be
either a single name or a comma separated list of names. A parameterized production is shorthand
for a set of productions defining all combinations of the parameter names, preceded by an
underscore, appended to the parameterized nonterminal symbol. This means that:

StatementList[Return] :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

is a convenient abbreviation for:

StatementList :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

StatementList_Return :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

and that:

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StatementList[Return, In] :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

is an abbreviation for:

StatementList :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

StatementList_Return :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

StatementList_In :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

StatementList_Return_In :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

Multiple parameters produce a combinatory number of productions, not all of which are necessarily
referenced in a complete grammar.

References to nonterminals on the right-hand side of a production can also be parameterized. For
example:

StatementList :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement[+In]

is equivalent to saying:

StatementList :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement_In

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and:

StatementList :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement[~In]

is equivalent to:

StatementList :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

A nonterminal reference may have both a parameter list and an “opt” suffix. For example:

VariableDeclaration :
BindingIdentifier Initializer[+In] opt

is an abbreviation for:

VariableDeclaration :
BindingIdentifier
BindingIdentifier Initializer_In

Prefixing a parameter name with “?” on a right-hand side nonterminal reference makes that
parameter value dependent upon the occurrence of the parameter name on the reference to the
current production's left-hand side symbol. For example:

VariableDeclaration[In] :
BindingIdentifier Initializer[?In]

is an abbreviation for:

VariableDeclaration :
BindingIdentifier Initializer

VariableDeclaration_In :
BindingIdentifier Initializer_In

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If a right-hand side alternative is prefixed with “[+parameter]” that alternative is only available if the
named parameter was used in referencing the production's nonterminal symbol. If a right-hand side
alternative is prefixed with “[~parameter]” that alternative is only available if the named parameter
was not used in referencing the production's nonterminal symbol. This means that:

StatementList[Return] :
[+Return] ReturnStatement

ExpressionStatement

is an abbreviation for:

StatementList :
ExpressionStatement

StatementList_Return :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

and that:

StatementList[Return] :
[~Return] ReturnStatement

ExpressionStatement

is an abbreviation for:

StatementList :
ReturnStatement
ExpressionStatement

StatementList_Return :
ExpressionStatement

When the words “one of” follow the colon(s) in a grammar definition, they signify that each of the
terminal symbols on the following line or lines is an alternative definition. For example, the lexical
grammar for ECMAScript contains the production:

NonZeroDigit :: one of

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

which is merely a convenient abbreviation for:

NonZeroDigit ::
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

If the phrase “[empty]” appears as the right-hand side of a production, it indicates that the
production's right-hand side contains no terminals or nonterminals.

If the phrase “[lookahead = seq]” appears in the right-hand side of a production, it indicates that the
production may only be used if the token sequence seq is a prefix of the immediately following input
token sequence. Similarly, “[lookahead ∈ set]”, where set is a finite nonempty set of token
sequences, indicates that the production may only be used if some element of set is a prefix of the
immediately following token sequence. For convenience, the set can also be written as a
nonterminal, in which case it represents the set of all token sequences to which that nonterminal
could expand. It is considered an editorial error if the nonterminal could expand to infinitely many
distinct token sequences.

These conditions may be negated. “[lookahead ≠ seq]” indicates that the containing production may
only be used if seq is not a prefix of the immediately following input token sequence, and
“[lookahead ∉ set]” indicates that the production may only be used if no element of set is a prefix of
the immediately following token sequence.

As an example, given the definitions:

DecimalDigit :: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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DecimalDigits ::
DecimalDigit
DecimalDigits DecimalDigit

the definition:

LookaheadExample ::
n [lookahead ∉ { 1 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 9 }] DecimalDigits
DecimalDigit [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]

matches either the letter n followed by one or more decimal digits the first of which is even, or a
decimal digit not followed by another decimal digit.

Note that when these phrases are used in the syntactic grammar, it may not be possible to
unambiguously identify the immediately following token sequence because determining later tokens
requires knowing which lexical goal symbol to use at later positions. As such, when these are used in
the syntactic grammar, it is considered an editorial error for a token sequence seq to appear in a
lookahead restriction (including as part of a set of sequences) if the choices of lexical goal symbols
to use could change whether or not seq would be a prefix of the resulting token sequence.

If the phrase “[no LineTerminator here]” appears in the right-hand side of a production of the
syntactic grammar, it indicates that the production is a restricted production: it may not be used if a
LineTerminator occurs in the input stream at the indicated position. For example, the production:

ThrowStatement :
throw [no LineTerminator here] Expression ;

indicates that the production may not be used if a LineTerminator occurs in the script between the
throw token and the Expression.

Unless the presence of a LineTerminator is forbidden by a restricted production, any number of

occurrences of LineTerminator may appear between any two consecutive tokens in the stream of
input elements without affecting the syntactic acceptability of the script.

When an alternative in a production of the lexical grammar or the numeric string grammar appears to
be a multi-code point token, it represents the sequence of code points that would make up such a
token.

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The right-hand side of a production may specify that certain expansions are not permitted by using
the phrase “but not” and then indicating the expansions to be excluded. For example, the
production:

Identifier ::
IdentifierName but not ReservedWord

means that the nonterminal Identifier may be replaced by any sequence of code points that could
replace IdentifierName provided that the same sequence of code points could not replace
ReservedWord.

Finally, a few nonterminal symbols are described by a descriptive phrase in sans-serif type in cases
where it would be impractical to list all the alternatives:

SourceCharacter ::
any Unicode code point

5.2 Algorithm Conventions

The specification often uses a numbered list to specify steps in an algorithm. These algorithms are
used to precisely specify the required semantics of ECMAScript language constructs. The algorithms
are not intended to imply the use of any specific implementation technique. In practice, there may be
more efficient algorithms available to implement a given feature.

Algorithms may be explicitly parameterized with an ordered, comma-separated sequence of alias

names which may be used within the algorithm steps to reference the argument passed in that
position. Optional parameters are denoted with surrounding brackets ([ , name ]) and are no different
from required parameters within algorithm steps. A rest parameter may appear at the end of a
parameter list, denoted with leading ellipsis (, ...name). The rest parameter captures all of the
arguments provided following the required and optional parameters into a List. If there are no such
additional arguments, that List is empty.

Algorithm steps may be subdivided into sequential substeps. Substeps are indented and may
themselves be further divided into indented substeps. Outline numbering conventions are used to
identify substeps with the first level of substeps labelled with lower case alphabetic characters and
the second level of substeps labelled with lower case roman numerals. If more than three levels are
required these rules repeat with the fourth level using numeric labels. For example:
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1. Top-level step
a. Substep.
b. Substep.
i. Subsubstep.
1. Subsubsubstep
a. Subsubsubsubstep
i. Subsubsubsubsubstep

A step or substep may be written as an “if” predicate that conditions its substeps. In this case, the
substeps are only applied if the predicate is true. If a step or substep begins with the word “else”, it is
a predicate that is the negation of the preceding “if” predicate step at the same level.

A step may specify the iterative application of its substeps.

A step that begins with “Assert:” asserts an invariant condition of its algorithm. Such assertions are
used to make explicit algorithmic invariants that would otherwise be implicit. Such assertions add no
additional semantic requirements and hence need not be checked by an implementation. They are
used simply to clarify algorithms.

Algorithm steps may declare named aliases for any value using the form “Let x be someValue”.
These aliases are reference-like in that both x and someValue refer to the same underlying data and
modifications to either are visible to both. Algorithm steps that want to avoid this reference-like
behaviour should explicitly make a copy of the right-hand side: “Let x be a copy of someValue”
creates a shallow copy of someValue.

Once declared, an alias may be referenced in any subsequent steps and must not be referenced from
steps prior to the alias's declaration. Aliases may be modified using the form “Set x to
someOtherValue”.

5.2.1 Abstract Operations

In order to facilitate their use in multiple parts of this specification, some algorithms, called abstract
operations, are named and written in parameterized functional form so that they may be referenced
by name from within other algorithms. Abstract operations are typically referenced using a
functional application style such as OperationName(arg1, arg2). Some abstract operations are treated
as polymorphically dispatched methods of class-like specification abstractions. Such method-like

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abstract operations are typically referenced using a method application style such as
someValue.OperationName(arg1, arg2).

5.2.2 Syntax-Directed Operations

A syntax-directed operation is a named operation whose definition consists of algorithms, each of
which is associated with one or more productions from one of the ECMAScript grammars. A
production that has multiple alternative definitions will typically have a distinct algorithm for each
alternative. When an algorithm is associated with a grammar production, it may reference the
terminal and nonterminal symbols of the production alternative as if they were parameters of the
algorithm. When used in this manner, nonterminal symbols refer to the actual alternative definition
that is matched when parsing the source text. The source text matched by a grammar production is
the portion of the source text that starts at the beginning of the first terminal that participated in the
match and ends at the end of the last terminal that participated in the match.

When an algorithm is associated with a production alternative, the alternative is typically shown
without any “[ ]” grammar annotations. Such annotations should only affect the syntactic recognition
of the alternative and have no effect on the associated semantics for the alternative.

Syntax-directed operations are invoked with a parse node and, optionally, other parameters by using
the conventions on steps 1, 3, and 4 in the following algorithm:

1. Let status be SyntaxDirectedOperation of SomeNonTerminal.

2. Let someParseNode be the parse of some source text.
3. Perform SyntaxDirectedOperation of someParseNode.
4. Perform SyntaxDirectedOperation of someParseNode passing "value" as the argument.

Unless explicitly specified otherwise, all chain productions have an implicit definition for every
operation that might be applied to that production's left-hand side nonterminal. The implicit
definition simply reapplies the same operation with the same parameters, if any, to the chain
production's sole right-hand side nonterminal and then returns the result. For example, assume that
some algorithm has a step of the form: “Return the result of evaluating Block” and that there is a
production:

Block :
{ StatementList }

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but the Evaluation operation does not associate an algorithm with that production. In that case, the
Evaluation operation implicitly includes an association of the form:

Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

Block : { StatementList }

1. Return the result of evaluating StatementList.

5.2.3 Runtime Semantics

Algorithms which specify semantics that must be called at runtime are called runtime semantics.
Runtime semantics are defined by abstract operations or syntax-directed operations. Such algorithms
always return a completion record.

5.2.3.1 Implicit Completion Values

The algorithms of this specification often implicitly return Completion Records whose [[Type]] is
normal. Unless it is otherwise obvious from the context, an algorithm statement that returns a value
that is not a Completion Record, such as:

1. Return "Infinity".

means the same thing as:

1. Return NormalCompletion("Infinity").

However, if the value expression of a “return” statement is a Completion Record construction literal,
the resulting Completion Record is returned. If the value expression is a call to an abstract operation,
the “return” statement simply returns the Completion Record produced by the abstract operation.

The abstract operation Completion(completionRecord) is used to emphasize that a previously

computed Completion Record is being returned. The Completion abstract operation takes a single
argument, completionRecord, and performs the following steps:

1. Assert: completionRecord is a Completion Record.

2. Return completionRecord as the Completion Record of this abstract operation.

A “return” statement without a value in an algorithm step means the same thing as:

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1. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).

Any reference to a Completion Record value that is in a context that does not explicitly require a
complete Completion Record value is equivalent to an explicit reference to the [[Value]] field of the
Completion Record value unless the Completion Record is an abrupt completion.

5.2.3.2 Throw an Exception

Algorithms steps that say to throw an exception, such as

1. Throw a TypeError exception.

mean the same things as:

1. Return ThrowCompletion(a newly created TypeError object).

5.2.3.3 ReturnIfAbrupt

Algorithms steps that say or are otherwise equivalent to:

1. ReturnIfAbrupt(argument).

mean the same thing as:

1. If argument is an abrupt completion, return argument.

2. Else if argument is a Completion Record, set argument to argument.[[Value]].

Algorithms steps that say or are otherwise equivalent to:

1. ReturnIfAbrupt(AbstractOperation()).

mean the same thing as:

1. Let hygienicTemp be AbstractOperation().

2. If hygienicTemp is an abrupt completion, return hygienicTemp.
3. Else if hygienicTemp is a Completion Record, set hygienicTemp to hygienicTemp.[[Value]].

Where hygienicTemp is ephemeral and visible only in the steps pertaining to ReturnIfAbrupt.

Algorithms steps that say or are otherwise equivalent to:

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1. Let result be AbstractOperation(ReturnIfAbrupt(argument)).

mean the same thing as:

1. If argument is an abrupt completion, return argument.

2. If argument is a Completion Record, set argument to argument.[[Value]].
3. Let result be AbstractOperation(argument).

5.2.3.4 ReturnIfAbrupt Shorthands

Invocations of abstract operations and syntax-directed operations that are prefixed by ? indicate that
ReturnIfAbrupt should be applied to the resulting Completion Record. For example, the step:

1. ? OperationName().

is equivalent to the following step:

1. ReturnIfAbrupt(OperationName()).

Similarly, for method application style, the step:

1. ? someValue.OperationName().

is equivalent to:

1. ReturnIfAbrupt(someValue.OperationName()).

Similarly, prefix ! is used to indicate that the following invocation of an abstract or syntax-directed
operation will never return an abrupt completion and that the resulting Completion Record's
[[Value]] field should be used in place of the return value of the operation. For example, the step:

1. Let val be ! OperationName().

is equivalent to the following steps:

1. Let val be OperationName().

2. Assert: val is never an abrupt completion.
3. If val is a Completion Record, set val to val.[[Value]].

Syntax-directed operations for runtime semantics make use of this shorthand by placing ! or ?
before the invocation of the operation:
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1. Perform ! SyntaxDirectedOperation of NonTerminal.

5.2.4 Static Semantics

Context-free grammars are not sufficiently powerful to express all the rules that define whether a
stream of input elements form a valid ECMAScript Script or Module that may be evaluated. In some
situations additional rules are needed that may be expressed using either ECMAScript algorithm
conventions or prose requirements. Such rules are always associated with a production of a grammar
and are called the static semantics of the production.

Static Semantic Rules have names and typically are defined using an algorithm. Named Static
Semantic Rules are associated with grammar productions and a production that has multiple
alternative definitions will typically have for each alternative a distinct algorithm for each applicable
named static semantic rule.

A special kind of static semantic rule is an Early Error Rule. Early error rules define early error
conditions (see clause 17) that are associated with specific grammar productions. Evaluation of most
early error rules are not explicitly invoked within the algorithms of this specification. A conforming
implementation must, prior to the first evaluation of a Script or Module, validate all of the early error
rules of the productions used to parse that Script or Module. If any of the early error rules are
violated the Script or Module is invalid and cannot be evaluated.

5.2.5 Mathematical Operations

This specification makes reference to these kinds of numeric values:

Mathematical values: Arbitrary real numbers, used as the default numeric type.
Extended mathematical values: Mathematical values together with +∞ and -∞.
Numbers: IEEE 754-2019 double-precision floating point values.
BigInts: ECMAScript values representing arbitrary integers in a one-to-one correspondence.

In the language of this specification, numerical values are distinguished among different numeric
kinds using subscript suffixes. The subscript 𝔽 refers to Numbers, and the subscript ℤ refers to
BigInts. Numeric values without a subscript suffix refer to mathematical values.

Numeric operators such as +, ×, =, and ≥ refer to those operations as determined by the type of the
operands. When applied to mathematical values, the operators refer to the usual mathematical

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operations. When applied to Numbers, the operators refer to the relevant operations within IEEE
754-2019. When applied to BigInts, the operators refer to the usual mathematical operations applied
to the mathematical value of the BigInt.

In general, when this specification refers to a numerical value, such as in the phrase, "the length of y"
or "the integer represented by the four hexadecimal digits ...", without explicitly specifying a
numeric kind, the phrase refers to a mathematical value. Phrases which refer to a Number or a BigInt
value are explicitly annotated as such; for example, "the Number value for the number of code points
in …" or "the BigInt value for …".

Numeric operators applied to mixed-type operands (such as a Number and a mathematical value) are
not defined and should be considered an editorial error in this specification.

This specification denotes most numeric values in base 10; it also uses numeric values of the form 0x
followed by digits 0-9 or A-F as base-16 values.

When the term integer is used in this specification, it refers to a mathematical value which is in the
set of integers, unless otherwise stated. When the term integral Number is used in this specification,
it refers to a Number value whose mathematical value is in the set of integers.

Conversions between mathematical values and Numbers or BigInts are always explicit in this
document. A conversion from a mathematical value or extended mathematical value x to a Number
is denoted as "the Number value for x" or 𝔽(x), and is defined in 6.1.6.1. A conversion from an
integer x to a BigInt is denoted as "the BigInt value for x" or ℤ(x). A conversion from a Number or
BigInt x to a mathematical value is denoted as "the mathematical value of x", or ℝ(x). The
mathematical value of +0𝔽 and -0𝔽 is the mathematical value 0. The mathematical value of non-
finite values is not defined. The extended mathematical value of x is the mathematical value of x for
finite values, and is +∞ and -∞ for +∞𝔽 and -∞𝔽 respectively; it is not defined for NaN.

The mathematical function abs(x) produces the absolute value of x, which is -x if x < 0 and otherwise
is x itself.

The mathematical function min(x1, x2, … , xN) produces the mathematically smallest of x1 through
xN. The mathematical function max(x1, x2, ..., xN) produces the mathematically largest of x1 through
xN. The domain and range of these mathematical functions are the extended mathematical values.

The notation “x modulo y” (y must be finite and non-zero) computes a value k of the same sign as y
(or zero) such that abs(k) < abs(y) and x - k = q × y for some integer q.

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The phrase "the result of clamping x between lower and upper" (where x is an extended
mathematical value and lower and upper are mathematical values such that lower ≤ upper) produces
lower if x < lower, produces upper if x > upper, and otherwise produces x.

The mathematical function floor(x) produces the largest integer (closest to +∞) that is not larger than
x.

Mathematical functions min, max, abs, and floor are not defined for Numbers and BigInts, and any
usage of those methods that have non-mathematical value arguments would be an editorial error in
this specification.

NOTE floor(x) = x - (x modulo 1).

5.2.6 Value Notation

In this specification, ECMAScript language values are displayed in bold. Examples include null,
true, or "hello". These are distinguished from longer ECMAScript code sequences such as
Function.prototype.apply or let n = 42;.

Values which are internal to the specification and not directly observable from ECMAScript code are
indicated with a sans-serif typeface. For instance, a Completion Record's [[Type]] field takes on
values like normal, return, or throw.

6 ECMAScript Data Types and Values

Algorithms within this specification manipulate values each of which has an associated type. The
possible value types are exactly those defined in this clause. Types are further subclassified into
ECMAScript language types and specification types.

Within this specification, the notation “Type(x)” is used as shorthand for “the type of x” where
“type” refers to the ECMAScript language and specification types defined in this clause. When the
term “empty” is used as if it was naming a value, it is equivalent to saying “no value of any type”.

6.1 ECMAScript Language Types

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An ECMAScript language type corresponds to values that are directly manipulated by an

ECMAScript programmer using the ECMAScript language. The ECMAScript language types are
Undefined, Null, Boolean, String, Symbol, Number, BigInt, and Object. An ECMAScript language
value is a value that is characterized by an ECMAScript language type.

6.1.1 The Undefined Type

The Undefined type has exactly one value, called undefined. Any variable that has not been
assigned a value has the value undefined.

6.1.2 The Null Type

The Null type has exactly one value, called null.

6.1.3 The Boolean Type

The Boolean type represents a logical entity having two values, called true and false.

6.1.4 The String Type

The String type is the set of all ordered sequences of zero or more 16-bit unsigned integer values
(“elements”) up to a maximum length of 253 - 1 elements. The String type is generally used to
represent textual data in a running ECMAScript program, in which case each element in the String is
treated as a UTF-16 code unit value. Each element is regarded as occupying a position within the
sequence. These positions are indexed with non-negative integers. The first element (if any) is at
index 0, the next element (if any) at index 1, and so on. The length of a String is the number of
elements (i.e., 16-bit values) within it. The empty String has length zero and therefore contains no
elements.

ECMAScript operations that do not interpret String contents apply no further semantics. Operations
that do interpret String values treat each element as a single UTF-16 code unit. However,
ECMAScript does not restrict the value of or relationships between these code units, so operations
that further interpret String contents as sequences of Unicode code points encoded in UTF-16 must
account for ill-formed subsequences. Such operations apply special treatment to every code unit with
a numeric value in the inclusive range 0xD800 to 0xDBFF (defined by the Unicode Standard as a

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leading surrogate, or more formally as a high-surrogate code unit) and every code unit with a
numeric value in the inclusive range 0xDC00 to 0xDFFF (defined as a trailing surrogate, or more
formally as a low-surrogate code unit) using the following rules:

A code unit that is not a leading surrogate and not a trailing surrogate is interpreted as a code
point with the same value.
A sequence of two code units, where the first code unit c1 is a leading surrogate and the second
code unit c2 a trailing surrogate, is a surrogate pair and is interpreted as a code point with the
value (c1 - 0xD800) × 0x400 + (c2 - 0xDC00) + 0x10000. (See 11.1.3)
A code unit that is a leading surrogate or trailing surrogate, but is not part of a surrogate pair, is
interpreted as a code point with the same value.

The function String.prototype.normalize (see 22.1.3.13) can be used to explicitly

normalize a String value. String.prototype.localeCompare (see 22.1.3.10) internally
normalizes String values, but no other operations implicitly normalize the strings upon which they
operate. Only operations that are explicitly specified to be language or locale sensitive produce
language-sensitive results.

NOTE The rationale behind this design was to keep the implementation of Strings as
simple and high-performing as possible. If ECMAScript source text is in
Normalized Form C, string literals are guaranteed to also be normalized, as long as
they do not contain any Unicode escape sequences.

In this specification, the phrase "the string-concatenation of A, B, ..." (where each argument is a
String value, a code unit, or a sequence of code units) denotes the String value whose sequence of
code units is the concatenation of the code units (in order) of each of the arguments (in order).

The phrase "the substring of S from inclusiveStart to exclusiveEnd" (where S is a String value or a
sequence of code units and inclusiveStart and exclusiveEnd are integers) denotes the String value
consisting of the consecutive code units of S beginning at index inclusiveStart and ending
immediately before index exclusiveEnd (which is the empty String when inclusiveStart =
exclusiveEnd). If the "to" suffix is omitted, the length of S is used as the value of exclusiveEnd.

6.1.4.1 StringIndexOf ( string, searchValue, fromIndex )

The abstract operation StringIndexOf takes arguments string (a String), searchValue (a String), and
fromIndex (a non-negative integer). It performs the following steps when called:
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1. Assert: Type(string) is String.

2. Assert: Type(searchValue) is String.
3. Assert: fromIndex is a non-negative integer.
4. Let len be the length of string.
5. If searchValue is the empty String and fromIndex ≤ len, return fromIndex.
6. Let searchLen be the length of searchValue.
7. For each integer i starting with fromIndex such that i ≤ len - searchLen, in ascending order, do
a. Let candidate be the substring of string from i to i + searchLen.
b. If candidate is the same sequence of code units as searchValue, return i.
8. Return -1.

NOTE 1 If searchValue is the empty String and fromIndex is less than or equal to the length
of string, this algorithm returns fromIndex. The empty String is effectively found at
every position within a string, including after the last code unit.

NOTE 2 This algorithm always returns -1 if fromIndex > the length of string.

6.1.5 The Symbol Type

The Symbol type is the set of all non-String values that may be used as the key of an Object property
(6.1.7).

Each possible Symbol value is unique and immutable.

Each Symbol value immutably holds an associated value called [[Description]] that is either
undefined or a String value.

6.1.5.1 Well-Known Symbols

Well-known symbols are built-in Symbol values that are explicitly referenced by algorithms of this
specification. They are typically used as the keys of properties whose values serve as extension
points of a specification algorithm. Unless otherwise specified, well-known symbols values are
shared by all realms (9.2).

Within this specification a well-known symbol is referred to by using a notation of the form
@@name, where “name” is one of the values listed in Table 1.
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Table 1: Well-known Symbols

Specification Name [[Description]] Value and Purpose

@@asyncIterator "Symbol.asyncIterator" A method that returns the default

AsyncIterator for an object. Called by
the semantics of the for-await-of
statement.

@@hasInstance "Symbol.hasInstance" A method that determines if a

constructor object recognizes an
object as one of the constructor's
instances. Called by the semantics of
the instanceof operator.

@@isConcatSpreadable "Symbol.isConcatSpreadable" A Boolean valued property that if true

indicates that an object should be
flattened to its array elements by
Array.prototype.concat.

@@iterator "Symbol.iterator" A method that returns the default

Iterator for an object. Called by the
semantics of the for-of statement.

@@match "Symbol.match" A regular expression method that

matches the regular expression
against a string. Called by the
String.prototype.match
method.

@@matchAll "Symbol.matchAll" A regular expression method that

returns an iterator, that yields matches
of the regular expression against a
string. Called by the
String.prototype.matchAll
method.

@@replace "Symbol.replace" A regular expression method that

replaces matched substrings of a
string. Called by the
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String.prototype.replace
method.

@@search "Symbol.search" A regular expression method that

returns the index within a string that
matches the regular expression.
Called by the
String.prototype.search
method.

@@species "Symbol.species" A function valued property that is the

constructor function that is used to
create derived objects.

@@split "Symbol.split" A regular expression method that

splits a string at the indices that match
the regular expression. Called by the
String.prototype.split
method.

@@toPrimitive "Symbol.toPrimitive" A method that converts an object to a

corresponding primitive value. Called
by the ToPrimitive abstract operation.

@@toStringTag "Symbol.toStringTag" A String valued property that is used

in the creation of the default string
description of an object. Accessed by
the built-in method
Object.prototype.toString.

@@unscopables "Symbol.unscopables" An object valued property whose own

and inherited property names are
property names that are excluded
from the with environment bindings
of the associated object.

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6.1.6 Numeric Types

ECMAScript has two built-in numeric types: Number and BigInt. In this specification, every
numeric type T contains a multiplicative identity value denoted T::unit. The specification types also
have the following abstract operations, likewise denoted T::op for a given operation with
specification name op. All argument types are T. The "Result" column shows the return type, along
with an indication if it is possible for some invocations of the operation to return an abrupt
completion.

Table 2: Numeric Type Operations

Invocation Synopsis Example Invoked by the Evaluation Result
source semantics of ...

T::unaryMinus(x) -x Unary - Operator T

T::bitwiseNOT(x) ~x Bitwise NOT Operator ( ~ ) T

T::exponentiate(x, y) x ** y Exponentiation Operator and T, may

Math.pow ( base, exponent ) throw
RangeError

T::multiply(x, y) x * y Multiplicative Operators T

T::divide(x, y) x / y Multiplicative Operators T, may

throw
RangeError

T::remainder(x, y) x % y Multiplicative Operators T, may

throw
RangeError

T::add(x, y) x ++ Postfix Increment Operator, Prefix T

++ x Increment Operator, and The
x + y Addition Operator ( + )

T::subtract(x, y) x -- Postfix Decrement Operator, Prefix T

-- x Decrement Operator, and The
x - y Subtraction Operator ( - )

T::leftShift(x, y) x << y The Left Shift Operator ( << ) T

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T::signedRightShift(x, y) x >> y The Signed Right Shift Operator ( >> T

)

T::unsignedRightShift(x, y) x >>> y The Unsigned Right Shift Operator ( T, may

>>> ) throw
TypeError

T::lessThan(x, y) x < y Relational Operators, via Abstract Boolean or

x > y Relational Comparison undefined
x <= y (for
x >= y unordered
inputs)

T::equal(x, y) x == y Equality Operators, via Strict Boolean

x != y Equality Comparison
x === y
x !== y

T::sameValue(x, y) Object internal methods, via Boolean

SameValue ( x, y ), to test exact value
equality

T::sameValueZero(x, y) Array, Map, and Set methods, via Boolean

SameValueZero ( x, y ), to test value
equality ignoring differences among
members of the zero cohort (i.e., -0𝔽
and +0𝔽)

T::bitwiseAND(x, y) x & y Binary Bitwise Operators T

T::bitwiseXOR(x, y) x ^ y Binary Bitwise Operators T

T::bitwiseOR(x, y) x | y Binary Bitwise Operators T

T::toString(x) String(x) Many expressions and built-in String

functions, via ToString ( argument )

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The T::unit value and T::op operations are not a part of the ECMAScript language; they are defined
here solely to aid the specification of the semantics of the ECMAScript language. Other abstract
operations are defined throughout this specification.

Because the numeric types are in general not convertible without loss of precision or truncation, the
ECMAScript language provides no implicit conversion among these types. Programmers must
explicitly call Number and BigInt functions to convert among types when calling a function
which requires another type.

NOTE The first and subsequent editions of ECMAScript have provided, for certain
operators, implicit numeric conversions that could lose precision or truncate. These
legacy implicit conversions are maintained for backward compatibility, but not
provided for BigInt in order to minimize opportunity for programmer error, and to
leave open the option of generalized value types in a future edition.

6.1.6.1 The Number Type

The Number type has exactly 18,437,736,874,454,810,627 (that is, 264 - 253 + 3) values,
representing the double-precision 64-bit format IEEE 754-2019 values as specified in the IEEE
Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic, except that the 9,007,199,254,740,990 (that is, 253 -
2) distinct “Not-a-Number” values of the IEEE Standard are represented in ECMAScript as a single
special NaN value. (Note that the NaN value is produced by the program expression NaN.) In some
implementations, external code might be able to detect a difference between various Not-a-Number
values, but such behaviour is implementation-defined; to ECMAScript code, all NaN values are
indistinguishable from each other.

NOTE The bit pattern that might be observed in an ArrayBuffer (see 25.1) or a
SharedArrayBuffer (see 25.2) after a Number value has been stored into it is not
necessarily the same as the internal representation of that Number value used by the
ECMAScript implementation.

There are two other special values, called positive Infinity and negative Infinity. For brevity, these
values are also referred to for expository purposes by the symbols +∞𝔽 and -∞𝔽, respectively. (Note
that these two infinite Number values are produced by the program expressions +Infinity (or
simply Infinity) and -Infinity.)

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The other 18,437,736,874,454,810,624 (that is, 264 - 253) values are called the finite numbers. Half
of these are positive numbers and half are negative numbers; for every finite positive Number value
there is a corresponding negative value having the same magnitude.

Note that there is both a positive zero and a negative zero. For brevity, these values are also referred
to for expository purposes by the symbols +0𝔽 and -0𝔽, respectively. (Note that these two different
zero Number values are produced by the program expressions +0 (or simply 0) and -0.)

The 18,437,736,874,454,810,622 (that is, 264 - 253 - 2) finite non-zero values are of two kinds:

18,428,729,675,200,069,632 (that is, 264 - 254) of them are normalized, having the form

s × m × 2e

where s is 1 or -1, m is an integer such that 252 ≤ m < 253, and e is an integer such that -1074 ≤ e ≤
971.

The remaining 9,007,199,254,740,990 (that is, 253 - 2) values are denormalized, having the form

s × m × 2e

where s is 1 or -1, m is an integer such that 0 < m < 252, and e is -1074.

Note that all the positive and negative integers whose magnitude is no greater than 253 are
representable in the Number type. The integer 0 has two representations in the Number type: +0𝔽
and -0𝔽.

A finite number has an odd significand if it is non-zero and the integer m used to express it (in one of
the two forms shown above) is odd. Otherwise, it has an even significand.

In this specification, the phrase “the Number value for x” where x represents an exact real
mathematical quantity (which might even be an irrational number such as π) means a Number value
chosen in the following manner. Consider the set of all finite values of the Number type, with -0𝔽
removed and with two additional values added to it that are not representable in the Number type,
namely 21024 (which is +1 × 253 × 2971) and -21024 (which is -1 × 253 × 2971). Choose the member
of this set that is closest in value to x. If two values of the set are equally close, then the one with an
even significand is chosen; for this purpose, the two extra values 21024 and -21024 are considered to

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have even significands. Finally, if 21024 was chosen, replace it with +∞𝔽; if -21024 was chosen,
replace it with -∞𝔽; if +0𝔽 was chosen, replace it with -0𝔽 if and only if x < 0; any other chosen
value is used unchanged. The result is the Number value for x. (This procedure corresponds exactly
to the behaviour of the IEEE 754-2019 roundTiesToEven mode.)

The Number value for +∞ is +∞𝔽, and the Number value for -∞ is -∞𝔽.

Some ECMAScript operators deal only with integers in specific ranges such as -231 through 231 - 1,
inclusive, or in the range 0 through 216 - 1, inclusive. These operators accept any value of the
Number type but first convert each such value to an integer value in the expected range. See the
descriptions of the numeric conversion operations in 7.1.

The Number::unit value is 1𝔽.

6.1.6.1.1 Number::unaryMinus ( x )

The abstract operation Number::unaryMinus takes argument x (a Number). It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If x is NaN, return NaN.

2. Return the result of negating x; that is, compute a Number with the same magnitude but
opposite sign.

6.1.6.1.2 Number::bitwiseNOT ( x )

The abstract operation Number::bitwiseNOT takes argument x (a Number). It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let oldValue be ! ToInt32(x).

2. Return the result of applying bitwise complement to oldValue. The mathematical value of the
result is exactly representable as a 32-bit two's complement bit string.

6.1.6.1.3 Number::exponentiate ( base, exponent )

The abstract operation Number::exponentiate takes arguments base (a Number) and exponent (a
Number). It returns an implementation-approximated value representing the result of raising base to
the exponent power. It performs the following steps when called:

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1. If exponent is NaN, return NaN.

2. If exponent is +0𝔽 or exponent is -0𝔽, return 1𝔽.
3. If base is NaN, return NaN.
4. If base is +∞𝔽, then
a. If exponent > +0𝔽, return +∞𝔽. Otherwise, return +0𝔽.
5. If base is -∞𝔽, then
a. If exponent > +0𝔽, then
i. If exponent is an odd integral Number, return -∞𝔽. Otherwise, return +∞𝔽.
b. Else,
i. If exponent is an odd integral Number, return -0𝔽. Otherwise, return +0𝔽.
6. If base is +0𝔽, then
a. If exponent > +0𝔽, return +0𝔽. Otherwise, return +∞𝔽.
7. If base is -0𝔽, then
a. If exponent > +0𝔽, then
i. If exponent is an odd integral Number, return -0𝔽. Otherwise, return +0𝔽.
b. Else,
i. If exponent is an odd integral Number, return -∞𝔽. Otherwise, return +∞𝔽.
8. Assert: base is finite and is neither +0𝔽 nor -0𝔽.
9. If exponent is +∞𝔽, then
a. If abs(ℝ(base)) > 1, return +∞𝔽.
b. If abs(ℝ(base)) is 1, return NaN.
c. If abs(ℝ(base)) < 1, return +0𝔽.
10. If exponent is -∞𝔽, then
a. If abs(ℝ(base)) > 1, return +0𝔽.
b. If abs(ℝ(base)) is 1, return NaN.
c. If abs(ℝ(base)) < 1, return +∞𝔽.
11. Assert: exponent is finite and is neither +0𝔽 nor -0𝔽.
12. If base < +0𝔽 and exponent is not an integral Number, return NaN.
13. Return an implementation-approximated value representing the result of raising ℝ(base) to the
ℝ(exponent) power.

NOTE The result of base ** exponent when base is 1𝔽 or -1𝔽 and exponent is +∞𝔽 or -∞𝔽,
or when base is 1𝔽 and exponent is NaN, differs from IEEE 754-2019. The first
edition of ECMAScript specified a result of NaN for this operation, whereas later
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versions of IEEE 754-2019 specified 1𝔽. The historical ECMAScript behaviour is

preserved for compatibility reasons.

6.1.6.1.4 Number::multiply ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::multiply takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It

performs multiplication according to the rules of IEEE 754-2019 binary double-precision arithmetic,
producing the product of x and y. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If x is NaN or y is NaN, return NaN.

2. If x is +∞𝔽 or x is -∞𝔽, then
a. If y is +0𝔽 or y is -0𝔽, return NaN.
b. If y > +0𝔽, return x.
c. Return -x.
3. If y is +∞𝔽 or y is -∞𝔽, then
a. If x is +0𝔽 or x is -0𝔽, return NaN.
b. If x > +0𝔽, return y.
c. Return -y.
4. Return 𝔽(ℝ(x) × ℝ(y)).

NOTE Finite-precision multiplication is commutative, but not always associative.

6.1.6.1.5 Number::divide ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::divide takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs
division according to the rules of IEEE 754-2019 binary double-precision arithmetic, producing the
quotient of x and y where x is the dividend and y is the divisor. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. If x is NaN or y is NaN, return NaN.

2. If x is +∞𝔽 or x is -∞𝔽, then
a. If y is +∞𝔽 or y is -∞𝔽, return NaN.
b. If y is +0𝔽 or y > +0𝔽, return x.
c. Return -x.
3. If y is +∞𝔽, then

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a. If x is +0𝔽 or x > +0𝔽, return +0𝔽. Otherwise, return -0𝔽.

4. If y is -∞𝔽, then
a. If x is +0𝔽 or x > +0𝔽, return -0𝔽. Otherwise, return +0𝔽.
5. If x is +0𝔽 or x is -0𝔽, then
a. If y is +0𝔽 or y is -0𝔽, return NaN.
b. If y > +0𝔽, return x.
c. Return -x.
6. If y is +0𝔽, then
a. If x > +0𝔽, return +∞𝔽. Otherwise, return -∞𝔽.
7. If y is -0𝔽, then
a. If x > +0𝔽, return -∞𝔽. Otherwise, return +∞𝔽.
8. Return 𝔽(ℝ(x) / ℝ(y)).

6.1.6.1.6 Number::remainder ( n, d )

The abstract operation Number::remainder takes arguments n (a Number) and d (a Number). It yields
the remainder from an implied division of its operands where n is the dividend and d is the divisor. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. If n is NaN or d is NaN, return NaN.

2. If n is +∞𝔽 or n is -∞𝔽, return NaN.
3. If d is +∞𝔽 or d is -∞𝔽, return n.
4. If d is +0𝔽 or d is -0𝔽, return NaN.
5. If n is +0𝔽 or n is -0𝔽, return n.
6. Assert: n and d are finite and non-zero.
7. Let r be ℝ(n) - (ℝ(d) × q) where q is an integer that is negative if and only if n and d have
opposite sign, and whose magnitude is as large as possible without exceeding the magnitude of
ℝ(n) / ℝ(d).
8. Return 𝔽(r).

NOTE 1 In C and C++, the remainder operator accepts only integral operands; in
ECMAScript, it also accepts floating-point operands.

NOTE 2 The result of a floating-point remainder operation as computed by the % operator is

not the same as the “remainder” operation defined by IEEE 754-2019. The IEEE
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754-2019 “remainder” operation computes the remainder from a rounding division,

not a truncating division, and so its behaviour is not analogous to that of the usual
integer remainder operator. Instead the ECMAScript language defines % on floating-
point operations to behave in a manner analogous to that of the Java integer
remainder operator; this may be compared with the C library function fmod.

6.1.6.1.7 Number::add ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::add takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs
addition according to the rules of IEEE 754-2019 binary double-precision arithmetic, producing the
sum of its arguments. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If x is NaN or y is NaN, return NaN.

2. If x is +∞𝔽 and y is -∞𝔽, return NaN.
3. If x is -∞𝔽 and y is +∞𝔽, return NaN.
4. If x is +∞𝔽 or x is -∞𝔽, return x.
5. If y is +∞𝔽 or y is -∞𝔽, return y.
6. Assert: x and y are both finite.
7. If x is -0𝔽 and y is -0𝔽, return -0𝔽.
8. Return 𝔽(ℝ(x) + ℝ(y)).

NOTE Finite-precision addition is commutative, but not always associative.

6.1.6.1.8 Number::subtract ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::subtract takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It

performs subtraction, producing the difference of its operands; x is the minuend and y is the
subtrahend. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return Number::add(x, Number::unaryMinus(y)).

NOTE It is always the case that x - y produces the same result as x + (-y).

6.1.6.1.9 Number::leftShift ( x, y )

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The abstract operation Number::leftShift takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. Let lnum be ! ToInt32(x).

2. Let rnum be ! ToUint32(y).
3. Let shiftCount be ℝ(rnum) modulo 32.
4. Return the result of left shifting lnum by shiftCount bits. The mathematical value of the result is
exactly representable as a 32-bit two's complement bit string.

6.1.6.1.10 Number::signedRightShift ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::signedRightShift takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. Let lnum be ! ToInt32(x).

2. Let rnum be ! ToUint32(y).
3. Let shiftCount be ℝ(rnum) modulo 32.
4. Return the result of performing a sign-extending right shift of lnum by shiftCount bits. The
most significant bit is propagated. The mathematical value of the result is exactly representable
as a 32-bit two's complement bit string.

6.1.6.1.11 Number::unsignedRightShift ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::unsignedRightShift takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a

Number). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let lnum be ! ToUint32(x).

2. Let rnum be ! ToUint32(y).
3. Let shiftCount be ℝ(rnum) modulo 32.
4. Return the result of performing a zero-filling right shift of lnum by shiftCount bits. Vacated bits
are filled with zero. The mathematical value of the result is exactly representable as a 32-bit
unsigned bit string.

6.1.6.1.12 Number::lessThan ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::lessThan takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It

performs the following steps when called:

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1. If x is NaN, return undefined.

2. If y is NaN, return undefined.
3. If x and y are the same Number value, return false.
4. If x is +0𝔽 and y is -0𝔽, return false.
5. If x is -0𝔽 and y is +0𝔽, return false.
6. If x is +∞𝔽, return false.
7. If y is +∞𝔽, return true.
8. If y is -∞𝔽, return false.
9. If x is -∞𝔽, return true.
10. Assert: x and y are finite and non-zero.
11. If ℝ(x) < ℝ(y), return true. Otherwise, return false.

6.1.6.1.13 Number::equal ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::equal takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs
the following steps when called:

1. If x is NaN, return false.

2. If y is NaN, return false.
3. If x is the same Number value as y, return true.
4. If x is +0𝔽 and y is -0𝔽, return true.
5. If x is -0𝔽 and y is +0𝔽, return true.
6. Return false.

6.1.6.1.14 Number::sameValue ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::sameValue takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. If x is NaN and y is NaN, return true.

2. If x is +0𝔽 and y is -0𝔽, return false.
3. If x is -0𝔽 and y is +0𝔽, return false.
4. If x is the same Number value as y, return true.
5. Return false.

6.1.6.1.15 Number::sameValueZero ( x, y )

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The abstract operation Number::sameValueZero takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. If x is NaN and y is NaN, return true.

2. If x is +0𝔽 and y is -0𝔽, return true.
3. If x is -0𝔽 and y is +0𝔽, return true.
4. If x is the same Number value as y, return true.
5. Return false.

6.1.6.1.16 NumberBitwiseOp ( op, x, y )

The abstract operation NumberBitwiseOp takes arguments op (a sequence of Unicode code points),
x, and y. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: op is &, ^, or |.
2. Let lnum be ! ToInt32(x).
3. Let rnum be ! ToInt32(y).
4. Let lbits be the 32-bit two's complement bit string representing ℝ(lnum).
5. Let rbits be the 32-bit two's complement bit string representing ℝ(rnum).
6. If op is &, let result be the result of applying the bitwise AND operation to lbits and rbits.
7. Else if op is ^, let result be the result of applying the bitwise exclusive OR (XOR) operation to
lbits and rbits.
8. Else, op is |. Let result be the result of applying the bitwise inclusive OR operation to lbits and
rbits.
9. Return the Number value for the integer represented by the 32-bit two's complement bit string
result.

6.1.6.1.17 Number::bitwiseAND ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::bitwiseAND takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. Return NumberBitwiseOp(&, x, y).

6.1.6.1.18 Number::bitwiseXOR ( x, y )

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The abstract operation Number::bitwiseXOR takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. Return NumberBitwiseOp(^, x, y).

6.1.6.1.19 Number::bitwiseOR ( x, y )

The abstract operation Number::bitwiseOR takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. Return NumberBitwiseOp(|, x, y).

6.1.6.1.20 Number::toString ( x )

The abstract operation Number::toString takes argument x (a Number). It converts x to String format.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. If x is NaN, return the String "NaN".

2. If x is +0𝔽 or -0𝔽, return the String "0".
3. If x < +0𝔽, return the string-concatenation of "-" and ! Number::toString(-x).
4. If x is +∞𝔽, return the String "Infinity".
5. Otherwise, let n, k, and s be integers such that k ≥ 1, 10k - 1 ≤ s < 10k, s × 10n - k is ℝ(x), and k
is as small as possible. Note that k is the number of digits in the decimal representation of s,
that s is not divisible by 10, and that the least significant digit of s is not necessarily uniquely
determined by these criteria.
6. If k ≤ n ≤ 21, return the string-concatenation of:
the code units of the k digits of the decimal representation of s (in order, with no leading
zeroes)
n - k occurrences of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO)
7. If 0 < n ≤ 21, return the string-concatenation of:
the code units of the most significant n digits of the decimal representation of s
the code unit 0x002E (FULL STOP)
the code units of the remaining k - n digits of the decimal representation of s
8. If -6 < n ≤ 0, return the string-concatenation of:
the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO)
the code unit 0x002E (FULL STOP)
-n occurrences of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO)

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the code units of the k digits of the decimal representation of s

9. Otherwise, if k = 1, return the string-concatenation of:
the code unit of the single digit of s
the code unit 0x0065 (LATIN SMALL LETTER E)
the code unit 0x002B (PLUS SIGN) or the code unit 0x002D (HYPHEN-MINUS)
according to whether n - 1 is positive or negative
the code units of the decimal representation of the integer abs(n - 1) (with no leading
zeroes)
10. Return the string-concatenation of:
the code units of the most significant digit of the decimal representation of s
the code unit 0x002E (FULL STOP)
the code units of the remaining k - 1 digits of the decimal representation of s
the code unit 0x0065 (LATIN SMALL LETTER E)
the code unit 0x002B (PLUS SIGN) or the code unit 0x002D (HYPHEN-MINUS)
according to whether n - 1 is positive or negative
the code units of the decimal representation of the integer abs(n - 1) (with no leading
zeroes)

NOTE 1 The following observations may be useful as guidelines for implementations, but are
not part of the normative requirements of this Standard:

If x is any Number value other than -0𝔽, then ToNumber(ToString(x)) is

exactly the same Number value as x.
The least significant digit of s is not always uniquely determined by the
requirements listed in step 5.

NOTE 2 For implementations that provide more accurate conversions than required by the
rules above, it is recommended that the following alternative version of step 5 be
used as a guideline:

5. Otherwise, let n, k, and s be integers such that k ≥ 1, 10k - 1 ≤ s < 10k, s × 10n -
k is ℝ(x), and k is as small as possible. If there are multiple possibilities for s,

choose the value of s for which s × 10n - k is closest in value to ℝ(x). If there
are two such possible values of s, choose the one that is even. Note that k is the

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number of digits in the decimal representation of s and that s is not divisible by

10.

NOTE 3 Implementers of ECMAScript may find useful the paper and code written by David
M. Gay for binary-to-decimal conversion of floating-point numbers:

Gay, David M. Correctly Rounded Binary-Decimal and Decimal-Binary

Conversions. Numerical Analysis, Manuscript 90-10. AT&T Bell Laboratories
(Murray Hill, New Jersey). 30 November 1990. Available as
http://ampl.com/REFS/abstracts.html#rounding. Associated code available as
http://netlib.sandia.gov/fp/dtoa.c and as
http://netlib.sandia.gov/fp/g_fmt.c and may also be found at the various netlib
mirror sites.

6.1.6.2 The BigInt Type

The BigInt type represents an integer value. The value may be any size and is not limited to a
particular bit-width. Generally, where not otherwise noted, operations are designed to return exact
mathematically-based answers. For binary operations, BigInts act as two's complement binary
strings, with negative numbers treated as having bits set infinitely to the left.

The BigInt::unit value is 1ℤ.

6.1.6.2.1 BigInt::unaryMinus ( x )

The abstract operation BigInt::unaryMinus takes argument x (a BigInt). It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If x is 0ℤ, return 0ℤ.

2. Return the BigInt value that represents the negation of ℝ(x).

6.1.6.2.2 BigInt::bitwiseNOT ( x )

The abstract operation BigInt::bitwiseNOT takes argument x (a BigInt). It returns the one's
complement of x; that is, -x - 1ℤ.

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6.1.6.2.3 BigInt::exponentiate ( base, exponent )

The abstract operation BigInt::exponentiate takes arguments base (a BigInt) and exponent (a BigInt).
It performs the following steps when called:

1. If exponent < 0ℤ, throw a RangeError exception.

2. If base is 0ℤ and exponent is 0ℤ, return 1ℤ.
3. Return the BigInt value that represents ℝ(base) raised to the power ℝ(exponent).

6.1.6.2.4 BigInt::multiply ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::multiply takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It returns the
BigInt value that represents the result of multiplying x and y.

NOTE Even if the result has a much larger bit width than the input, the exact mathematical
answer is given.

6.1.6.2.5 BigInt::divide ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::divide takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. If y is 0ℤ, throw a RangeError exception.

2. Let quotient be ℝ(x) / ℝ(y).
3. Return the BigInt value that represents quotient rounded towards 0 to the next integer value.

6.1.6.2.6 BigInt::remainder ( n, d )

The abstract operation BigInt::remainder takes arguments n (a BigInt) and d (a BigInt). It performs
the following steps when called:

1. If d is 0ℤ, throw a RangeError exception.

2. If n is 0ℤ, return 0ℤ.
3. Let r be the BigInt defined by the mathematical relation r = n - (d × q) where q is a BigInt that
is negative only if n/d is negative and positive only if n/d is positive, and whose magnitude is
as large as possible without exceeding the magnitude of the true mathematical quotient of n and
d.
4. Return r.
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NOTE The sign of the result equals the sign of the dividend.

6.1.6.2.7 BigInt::add ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::add takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It returns the BigInt
value that represents the sum of x and y.

6.1.6.2.8 BigInt::subtract ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::subtract takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It returns the
BigInt value that represents the difference x minus y.

6.1.6.2.9 BigInt::leftShift ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::leftShift takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. If y < 0ℤ, then

a. Return the BigInt value that represents ℝ(x) / 2-y, rounding down to the nearest integer,
including for negative numbers.
2. Return the BigInt value that represents ℝ(x) × 2y.

NOTE Semantics here should be equivalent to a bitwise shift, treating the BigInt as an
infinite length string of binary two's complement digits.

6.1.6.2.10 BigInt::signedRightShift ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::signedRightShift takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. Return BigInt::leftShift(x, -y).

6.1.6.2.11 BigInt::unsignedRightShift ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::unsignedRightShift takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It

performs the following steps when called:

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1. Throw a TypeError exception.

6.1.6.2.12 BigInt::lessThan ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::lessThan takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It returns true
if ℝ(x) < ℝ(y) and false otherwise.

6.1.6.2.13 BigInt::equal ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::equal takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It returns true if
ℝ(x) = ℝ(y) and false otherwise.

6.1.6.2.14 BigInt::sameValue ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::sameValue takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Return BigInt::equal(x, y).

6.1.6.2.15 BigInt::sameValueZero ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::sameValueZero takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. Return BigInt::equal(x, y).

6.1.6.2.16 BinaryAnd ( x, y )

The abstract operation BinaryAnd takes arguments x and y. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: x is 0 or 1.
2. Assert: y is 0 or 1.
3. If x is 1 and y is 1, return 1.
4. Else, return 0.

6.1.6.2.17 BinaryOr ( x, y )

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The abstract operation BinaryOr takes arguments x and y. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: x is 0 or 1.
2. Assert: y is 0 or 1.
3. If x is 1 or y is 1, return 1.
4. Else, return 0.

6.1.6.2.18 BinaryXor ( x, y )

The abstract operation BinaryXor takes arguments x and y. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: x is 0 or 1.
2. Assert: y is 0 or 1.
3. If x is 1 and y is 0, return 1.
4. Else if x is 0 and y is 1, return 1.
5. Else, return 0.

6.1.6.2.19 BigIntBitwiseOp ( op, x, y )

The abstract operation BigIntBitwiseOp takes arguments op (a sequence of Unicode code points), x
(a BigInt), and y (a BigInt). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: op is &, ^, or |.
2. Set x to ℝ(x).
3. Set y to ℝ(y).
4. Let result be 0.
5. Let shift be 0.
6. Repeat, until (x = 0 or x = -1) and (y = 0 or y = -1),
a. Let xDigit be x modulo 2.
b. Let yDigit be y modulo 2.
c. If op is &, set result to result + 2shift × BinaryAnd(xDigit, yDigit).
d. Else if op is |, set result to result + 2shift × BinaryOr(xDigit, yDigit).
e. Else,
i. Assert: op is ^.
ii. Set result to result + 2shift × BinaryXor(xDigit, yDigit).
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f. Set shift to shift + 1.

g. Set x to (x - xDigit) / 2.
h. Set y to (y - yDigit) / 2.
7. If op is &, let tmp be BinaryAnd(x modulo 2, y modulo 2).
8. Else if op is |, let tmp be BinaryOr(x modulo 2, y modulo 2).
9. Else,
a. Assert: op is ^.
b. Let tmp be BinaryXor(x modulo 2, y modulo 2).
10. If tmp ≠ 0, then
a. Set result to result - 2shift.
b. NOTE: This extends the sign.
11. Return the BigInt value for result.

6.1.6.2.20 BigInt::bitwiseAND ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::bitwiseAND takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Return BigIntBitwiseOp(&, x, y).

6.1.6.2.21 BigInt::bitwiseXOR ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::bitwiseXOR takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Return BigIntBitwiseOp(^, x, y).

6.1.6.2.22 BigInt::bitwiseOR ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::bitwiseOR takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Return BigIntBitwiseOp(|, x, y).

6.1.6.2.23 BigInt::toString ( x )

The abstract operation BigInt::toString takes argument x (a BigInt). It converts x to String format. It
performs the following steps when called:
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1. If x < 0ℤ, return the string-concatenation of the String "-" and ! BigInt::toString(-x).
2. Return the String value consisting of the code units of the digits of the decimal representation
of x.

6.1.7 The Object Type

An Object is logically a collection of properties. Each property is either a data property, or an
accessor property:

A data property associates a key value with an ECMAScript language value and a set of
Boolean attributes.
An accessor property associates a key value with one or two accessor functions, and a set of
Boolean attributes. The accessor functions are used to store or retrieve an ECMAScript
language value that is associated with the property.

Properties are identified using key values. A property key value is either an ECMAScript String
value or a Symbol value. All String and Symbol values, including the empty String, are valid as
property keys. A property name is a property key that is a String value.

An integer index is a String-valued property key that is a canonical numeric String (see 7.1.21) and
whose numeric value is either +0𝔽 or a positive integral Number ≤ 𝔽(253 - 1). An array index is an
integer index whose numeric value i is in the range +0𝔽 ≤ i < 𝔽(232 - 1).

Property keys are used to access properties and their values. There are two kinds of access for
properties: get and set, corresponding to value retrieval and assignment, respectively. The properties
accessible via get and set access includes both own properties that are a direct part of an object and
inherited properties which are provided by another associated object via a property inheritance
relationship. Inherited properties may be either own or inherited properties of the associated object.
Each own property of an object must each have a key value that is distinct from the key values of the
other own properties of that object.

All objects are logically collections of properties, but there are multiple forms of objects that differ in
their semantics for accessing and manipulating their properties. Please see 6.1.7.2 for definitions of
the multiple forms of objects.

6.1.7.1 Property Attributes

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Attributes are used in this specification to define and explain the state of Object properties. A data
property associates a key value with the attributes listed in Table 3.

Table 3: Attributes of a Data Property

Attribute Value Description
Name Domain

[[Value]] Any The value retrieved by a get access of the property.

ECMAScript
language
type

[[Writable]] Boolean If false, attempts by ECMAScript code to change the property's

[[Value]] attribute using [[Set]] will not succeed.

[[Enumerable]] Boolean If true, the property will be enumerated by a for-in enumeration

(see 14.7.5). Otherwise, the property is said to be non-
enumerable.

[[Configurable]] Boolean If false, attempts to delete the property, change the property to
be an accessor property, or change its attributes (other than
[[Value]], or changing [[Writable]] to false) will fail.

An accessor property associates a key value with the attributes listed in Table 4.

Table 4: Attributes of an Accessor Property

Attribute Value Description
Name Domain

[[Get]] Object | If the value is an Object it must be a function object. The function's
Undefined [[Call]] internal method (Table 7) is called with an empty
arguments list to retrieve the property value each time a get access
of the property is performed.

[[Set]] Object | If the value is an Object it must be a function object. The function's
Undefined [[Call]] internal method (Table 7) is called with an arguments list
containing the assigned value as its sole argument each time a set
access of the property is performed. The effect of a property's
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p p y p p p y

[[Set]] internal method may, but is not required to, have an effect
on the value returned by subsequent calls to the property's [[Get]]
internal method.

[[Enumerable]] Boolean If true, the property is to be enumerated by a for-in enumeration

(see 14.7.5). Otherwise, the property is said to be non-enumerable.

[[Configurable]] Boolean If false, attempts to delete the property, change the property to be a
data property, or change its attributes will fail.

If the initial values of a property's attributes are not explicitly specified by this specification, the
default value defined in Table 5 is used.

Table 5: Default Attribute Values

Attribute Name Default Value

[[Value]] undefined

[[Get]] undefined

[[Set]] undefined

[[Writable]] false

[[Enumerable]] false

[[Configurable]] false

6.1.7.2 Object Internal Methods and Internal Slots

The actual semantics of objects, in ECMAScript, are specified via algorithms called internal
methods. Each object in an ECMAScript engine is associated with a set of internal methods that
defines its runtime behaviour. These internal methods are not part of the ECMAScript language.
They are defined by this specification purely for expository purposes. However, each object within
an implementation of ECMAScript must behave as specified by the internal methods associated with
it. The exact manner in which this is accomplished is determined by the implementation.

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Internal method names are polymorphic. This means that different object values may perform
different algorithms when a common internal method name is invoked upon them. That actual object
upon which an internal method is invoked is the “target” of the invocation. If, at runtime, the
implementation of an algorithm attempts to use an internal method of an object that the object does
not support, a TypeError exception is thrown.

Internal slots correspond to internal state that is associated with objects and used by various
ECMAScript specification algorithms. Internal slots are not object properties and they are not
inherited. Depending upon the specific internal slot specification, such state may consist of values of
any ECMAScript language type or of specific ECMAScript specification type values. Unless
explicitly specified otherwise, internal slots are allocated as part of the process of creating an object
and may not be dynamically added to an object. Unless specified otherwise, the initial value of an
internal slot is the value undefined. Various algorithms within this specification create objects that
have internal slots. However, the ECMAScript language provides no direct way to associate internal
slots with an object.

Internal methods and internal slots are identified within this specification using names enclosed in
double square brackets [[ ]].

Table 6 summarizes the essential internal methods used by this specification that are applicable to all
objects created or manipulated by ECMAScript code. Every object must have algorithms for all of
the essential internal methods. However, all objects do not necessarily use the same algorithms for
those methods.

An ordinary object is an object that satisfies all of the following criteria:

For the internal methods listed in Table 6, the object uses those defined in 10.1.
If the object has a [[Call]] internal method, it uses the one defined in 10.2.1.
If the object has a [[Construct]] internal method, it uses the one defined in 10.2.2.

An exotic object is an object that is not an ordinary object.

This specification recognizes different kinds of exotic objects by those objects' internal methods. An
object that is behaviourally equivalent to a particular kind of exotic object (such as an Array exotic
object or a bound function exotic object), but does not have the same collection of internal methods
specified for that kind, is not recognized as that kind of exotic object.

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The “Signature” column of Table 6 and other similar tables describes the invocation pattern for each
internal method. The invocation pattern always includes a parenthesized list of descriptive parameter
names. If a parameter name is the same as an ECMAScript type name then the name describes the
required type of the parameter value. If an internal method explicitly returns a value, its parameter
list is followed by the symbol “→” and the type name of the returned value. The type names used in
signatures refer to the types defined in clause 6 augmented by the following additional names. “any”
means the value may be any ECMAScript language type.

In addition to its parameters, an internal method always has access to the object that is the target of
the method invocation.

An internal method implicitly returns a Completion Record, either a normal completion that wraps a
value of the return type shown in its invocation pattern, or a throw completion.

Table 6: Essential Internal Methods

Internal Method Signature Description

[[GetPrototypeOf]] ( ) → Object | Null Determine the object that provides inherited

properties for this object. A null value indicates
that there are no inherited properties.

[[SetPrototypeOf]] (Object | Null) → Associate this object with another object that
Boolean provides inherited properties. Passing null
indicates that there are no inherited properties.
Returns true indicating that the operation was
completed successfully or false indicating that the
operation was not successful.

[[IsExtensible]] ( ) → Boolean Determine whether it is permitted to add

additional properties to this object.

[[PreventExtensions]] ( ) → Boolean Control whether new properties may be added to

this object. Returns true if the operation was
successful or false if the operation was
unsuccessful.

[[GetOwnProperty]] (propertyKey) → Return a Property Descriptor for the own property

Undefined | of this object whose key is propertyKey, or
Property Descriptor undefined if no such property exists.
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[[DefineOwnProperty]] (propertyKey, Create or alter the own property, whose key is

PropertyDescriptor) propertyKey, to have the state described by
→ Boolean PropertyDescriptor. Return true if that property
was successfully created/updated or false if the
property could not be created or updated.

[[HasProperty]] (propertyKey) → Return a Boolean value indicating whether this

Boolean object already has either an own or inherited
property whose key is propertyKey.

[[Get]] (propertyKey, Return the value of the property whose key is

Receiver) → any propertyKey from this object. If any ECMAScript
code must be executed to retrieve the property
value, Receiver is used as the this value when
evaluating the code.

[[Set]] (propertyKey, Set the value of the property whose key is

value, Receiver) → propertyKey to value. If any ECMAScript code
Boolean must be executed to set the property value,
Receiver is used as the this value when evaluating
the code. Returns true if the property value was
set or false if it could not be set.

[[Delete]] (propertyKey) → Remove the own property whose key is

Boolean propertyKey from this object. Return false if the
property was not deleted and is still present.
Return true if the property was deleted or is not
present.

[[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( ) → List of Return a List whose elements are all of the own
propertyKey property keys for the object.

Table 7 summarizes additional essential internal methods that are supported by objects that may be
called as functions. A function object is an object that supports the [[Call]] internal method. A
constructor is an object that supports the [[Construct]] internal method. Every object that supports

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[[Construct]] must support [[Call]]; that is, every constructor must be a function object. Therefore, a
constructor may also be referred to as a constructor function or constructor function object.

Table 7: Additional Essential Internal Methods of Function Objects

Internal Signature Description
Method

[[Call]] (any, a Executes code associated with this object. Invoked via a function call
List of expression. The arguments to the internal method are a this value and
any) → a List whose elements are the arguments passed to the function by a
any call expression. Objects that implement this internal method are
callable.

[[Construct]] (a List of Creates an object. Invoked via the new operator or a super call. The
any, first argument to the internal method is a List whose elements are the
Object) arguments of the constructor invocation or the super call. The
→ Object second argument is the object to which the new operator was initially
applied. Objects that implement this internal method are called
constructors. A function object is not necessarily a constructor and
such non-constructor function objects do not have a [[Construct]]
internal method.

The semantics of the essential internal methods for ordinary objects and standard exotic objects are
specified in clause 10. If any specified use of an internal method of an exotic object is not supported
by an implementation, that usage must throw a TypeError exception when attempted.

6.1.7.3 Invariants of the Essential Internal Methods

The Internal Methods of Objects of an ECMAScript engine must conform to the list of invariants
specified below. Ordinary ECMAScript Objects as well as all standard exotic objects in this
specification maintain these invariants. ECMAScript Proxy objects maintain these invariants by
means of runtime checks on the result of traps invoked on the [[ProxyHandler]] object.

Any implementation provided exotic objects must also maintain these invariants for those objects.
Violation of these invariants may cause ECMAScript code to have unpredictable behaviour and

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create security issues. However, violation of these invariants must never compromise the memory
safety of an implementation.

An implementation must not allow these invariants to be circumvented in any manner such as by
providing alternative interfaces that implement the functionality of the essential internal methods
without enforcing their invariants.

Definitions:

The target of an internal method is the object upon which the internal method is called.
A target is non-extensible if it has been observed to return false from its [[IsExtensible]]
internal method, or true from its [[PreventExtensions]] internal method.
A non-existent property is a property that does not exist as an own property on a non-extensible
target.
All references to SameValue are according to the definition of the SameValue algorithm.

Return value:

The value returned by any internal method must be a Completion Record with either:

[[Type]] = normal, [[Target]] = empty, and [[Value]] = a value of the "normal return type"
shown below for that internal method, or
[[Type]] = throw, [[Target]] = empty, and [[Value]] = any ECMAScript language value.

NOTE 1 An internal method must not return a completion with [[Type]] = continue, break,
or return.

[[GetPrototypeOf]] ( )

The normal return type is either Object or Null.

If target is non-extensible, and [[GetPrototypeOf]] returns a value V, then any future calls to
[[GetPrototypeOf]] should return the SameValue as V.

NOTE 2 An object's prototype chain should have finite length (that is, starting from any
object, recursively applying the [[GetPrototypeOf]] internal method to its result
should eventually lead to the value null). However, this requirement is not
enforceable as an object level invariant if the prototype chain includes any exotic
objects that do not use the ordinary object definition of [[GetPrototypeOf]]. Such a

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circular prototype chain may result in infinite loops when accessing object
properties.

[[SetPrototypeOf]] ( V )

The normal return type is Boolean.

If target is non-extensible, [[SetPrototypeOf]] must return false, unless V is the SameValue as
the target's observed [[GetPrototypeOf]] value.

[[IsExtensible]] ( )

The normal return type is Boolean.

If [[IsExtensible]] returns false, all future calls to [[IsExtensible]] on the target must return
false.

[[PreventExtensions]] ( )

The normal return type is Boolean.

If [[PreventExtensions]] returns true, all future calls to [[IsExtensible]] on the target must
return false and the target is now considered non-extensible.

[[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )

The normal return type is either Property Descriptor or Undefined.

If the Type of the return value is Property Descriptor, the return value must be a fully populated
Property Descriptor.
If P is described as a non-configurable, non-writable own data property, all future calls to
[[GetOwnProperty]] ( P ) must return Property Descriptor whose [[Value]] is SameValue as P's
[[Value]] attribute.
If P's attributes other than [[Writable]] may change over time or if the property might be
deleted, then P's [[Configurable]] attribute must be true.
If the [[Writable]] attribute may change from false to true, then the [[Configurable]] attribute
must be true.
If the target is non-extensible and P is non-existent, then all future calls to [[GetOwnProperty]]
(P) on the target must describe P as non-existent (i.e. [[GetOwnProperty]] (P) must return
undefined).

NOTE 3 As a consequence of the third invariant, if a property is described as a data property

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and it may return different values over time, then either or both of the [[Writable]]
and [[Configurable]] attributes must be true even if no mechanism to change the
value is exposed via the other essential internal methods.

[[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

The normal return type is Boolean.

[[DefineOwnProperty]] must return false if P has previously been observed as a non-
configurable own property of the target, unless either:
1. P is a writable data property. A non-configurable writable data property can be changed
into a non-configurable non-writable data property.
2. All attributes of Desc are the SameValue as P's attributes.
[[DefineOwnProperty]] (P, Desc) must return false if target is non-extensible and P is a non-
existent own property. That is, a non-extensible target object cannot be extended with new
properties.

[[HasProperty]] ( P )

The normal return type is Boolean.

If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own data or accessor property of the target,
[[HasProperty]] must return true.

[[Get]] ( P, Receiver )

The normal return type is any ECMAScript language type.

If P was previously observed as a non-configurable, non-writable own data property of the
target with value V, then [[Get]] must return the SameValue as V.
If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own accessor property of the target whose
[[Get]] attribute is undefined, the [[Get]] operation must return undefined.

[[Set]] ( P, V, Receiver )

The normal return type is Boolean.

If P was previously observed as a non-configurable, non-writable own data property of the
target, then [[Set]] must return false unless V is the SameValue as P's [[Value]] attribute.
If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own accessor property of the target whose
[[Set]] attribute is undefined, the [[Set]] operation must return false.

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[[Delete]] ( P )

The normal return type is Boolean.

If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own data or accessor property of the target,
[[Delete]] must return false.

[[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( )

The normal return type is List.

The returned List must not contain any duplicate entries.
The Type of each element of the returned List is either String or Symbol.
The returned List must contain at least the keys of all non-configurable own properties that
have previously been observed.
If the target is non-extensible, the returned List must contain only the keys of all own properties
of the target that are observable using [[GetOwnProperty]].

[[Call]] ( )

The normal return type is any ECMAScript language type.

[[Construct]] ( )

The normal return type is Object.

The target must also have a [[Call]] internal method.

6.1.7.4 Well-Known Intrinsic Objects

Well-known intrinsics are built-in objects that are explicitly referenced by the algorithms of this
specification and which usually have realm-specific identities. Unless otherwise specified each
intrinsic object actually corresponds to a set of similar objects, one per realm.

Within this specification a reference such as %name% means the intrinsic object, associated with the
current realm, corresponding to the name. A reference such as %name.a.b% means, as if the "b"
property of the "a" property of the intrinsic object %name% was accessed prior to any ECMAScript
code being evaluated. Determination of the current realm and its intrinsics is described in 9.3. The
well-known intrinsics are listed in Table 8.

Table 8: Well-Known Intrinsic Objects

Intrinsic Name Global Name ECMAScript Language
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Association

%AggregateError% AggregateError The AggregateError

constructor (20.5.7.1)

%Array% Array The Array constructor

(23.1.1)

%ArrayBuffer% ArrayBuffer The ArrayBuffer

constructor (25.1.3)

%ArrayIteratorPrototype% The prototype of Array

iterator objects (23.1.5)

%AsyncFromSyncIteratorPrototype% The prototype of async-

from-sync iterator objects
(27.1.4)

%AsyncFunction% The constructor of async

function objects (27.7.1)

%AsyncGeneratorFunction% The constructor of async

iterator objects (27.4.1)

%AsyncIteratorPrototype% An object that all standard

built-in async iterator
objects indirectly inherit
from

%Atomics% Atomics The Atomics object

(25.4)

%BigInt% BigInt The BigInt constructor

(21.2.1)

%BigInt64Array% BigInt64Array The BigInt64Array

constructor (23.2)

%BigUint64Array% BigUint64Array The BigUint64Array

constructor (23.2)

%Boolean% Boolean The Boolean constructor

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(20.3.1)

%DataView% DataView The DataView constructor

(25.3.2)

%Date% Date The Date constructor

(21.4.2)

%decodeURI% decodeURI The decodeURI function

(19.2.6.2)

%decodeURIComponent% decodeURIComponent The

decodeURIComponent
function (19.2.6.3)

%encodeURI% encodeURI The encodeURI function

(19.2.6.4)

%encodeURIComponent% encodeURIComponent The

encodeURIComponent
function (19.2.6.5)

%Error% Error The Error constructor

(20.5.1)

%eval% eval The eval function

(19.2.1)

%EvalError% EvalError The EvalError constructor

(20.5.5.1)

%FinalizationRegistry% FinalizationRegistry The FinalizationRegistry

constructor (26.2.1)

%Float32Array% Float32Array The Float32Array

constructor (23.2)

%Float64Array% Float64Array The Float64Array

constructor (23.2)

%ForInIteratorPrototype% The prototype of For-In

iterator objects (14 7 5 10)
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iterator objects (14.7.5.10)

%Function% Function The Function constructor

(20.2.1)

%GeneratorFunction% The constructor of

generator objects (27.3.1)

%Int8Array% Int8Array The Int8Array constructor

(23.2)

%Int16Array% Int16Array The Int16Array

constructor (23.2)

%Int32Array% Int32Array The Int32Array

constructor (23.2)

%isFinite% isFinite The isFinite function

(19.2.2)

%isNaN% isNaN The isNaN function

(19.2.3)

%IteratorPrototype% An object that all standard

built-in iterator objects
indirectly inherit from

%JSON% JSON The JSON object (25.5)

%Map% Map The Map constructor

(24.1.1)

%MapIteratorPrototype% The prototype of Map

iterator objects (24.1.5)

%Math% Math The Math object (21.3)

%Number% Number The Number constructor

(21.1.1)

%Object% Object The Object constructor

(20.1.1)
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%parseFloat% parseFloat The parseFloat

function (19.2.4)

%parseInt% parseInt The parseInt function

(19.2.5)

%Promise% Promise The Promise constructor

(27.2.3)

%Proxy% Proxy The Proxy constructor

(28.2.1)

%RangeError% RangeError The RangeError

constructor (20.5.5.2)

%ReferenceError% ReferenceError The ReferenceError

constructor (20.5.5.3)

%Reflect% Reflect The Reflect object

(28.1)

%RegExp% RegExp The RegExp constructor

(22.2.3)

%RegExpStringIteratorPrototype% The prototype of RegExp

String Iterator objects
(22.2.7)

%Set% Set The Set constructor

(24.2.1)

%SetIteratorPrototype% The prototype of Set

iterator objects (24.2.5)

%SharedArrayBuffer% SharedArrayBuffer The SharedArrayBuffer

constructor (25.2.2)

%String% String The String constructor

(22.1.1)

%StringIteratorPrototype% The prototype of String

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iterator objects (22.1.5)

%Symbol% The Symbol constructor

Symbol
(20.4.1)

%SyntaxError% SyntaxError The SyntaxError

constructor (20.5.5.4)

%ThrowTypeError% A function object that

unconditionally throws a
new instance of
%TypeError%

%TypedArray% The super class of all

typed Array constructors
(23.2.1)

%TypeError% TypeError The TypeError constructor

(20.5.5.5)

%Uint8Array% Uint8Array The Uint8Array

constructor (23.2)

%Uint8ClampedArray% Uint8ClampedArray The Uint8ClampedArray

constructor (23.2)

%Uint16Array% Uint16Array The Uint16Array

constructor (23.2)

%Uint32Array% Uint32Array The Uint32Array

constructor (23.2)

%URIError% URIError The URIError constructor

(20.5.5.6)

%WeakMap% WeakMap The WeakMap constructor

(24.3.1)

%WeakRef% WeakRef The WeakRef constructor

(26.1.1)

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%WeakSet% WeakSet The WeakSet constructor

(24.4.1)

NOTE Additional entries in Table 83.

6.2 ECMAScript Specification Types

A specification type corresponds to meta-values that are used within algorithms to describe the
semantics of ECMAScript language constructs and ECMAScript language types. The specification
types include Reference, List, Completion, Property Descriptor, Environment Record, Abstract
Closure, and Data Block. Specification type values are specification artefacts that do not necessarily
correspond to any specific entity within an ECMAScript implementation. Specification type values
may be used to describe intermediate results of ECMAScript expression evaluation but such values
cannot be stored as properties of objects or values of ECMAScript language variables.

6.2.1 The List and Record Specification Types

The List type is used to explain the evaluation of argument lists (see 13.3.8) in new expressions, in
function calls, and in other algorithms where a simple ordered list of values is needed. Values of the
List type are simply ordered sequences of list elements containing the individual values. These
sequences may be of any length. The elements of a list may be randomly accessed using 0-origin
indices. For notational convenience an array-like syntax can be used to access List elements. For
example, arguments[2] is shorthand for saying the 3rd element of the List arguments.

When an algorithm iterates over the elements of a List without specifying an order, the order used is
the order of the elements in the List.

For notational convenience within this specification, a literal syntax can be used to express a new
List value. For example, « 1, 2 » defines a List value that has two elements each of which is
initialized to a specific value. A new empty List can be expressed as « ».

The Record type is used to describe data aggregations within the algorithms of this specification. A
Record type value consists of one or more named fields. The value of each field is either an

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ECMAScript value or an abstract value represented by a name associated with the Record type. Field
names are always enclosed in double brackets, for example [[Value]].

For notational convenience within this specification, an object literal-like syntax can be used to
express a Record value. For example, { [[Field1]]: 42, [[Field2]]: false, [[Field3]]: empty } defines a
Record value that has three fields, each of which is initialized to a specific value. Field name order is
not significant. Any fields that are not explicitly listed are considered to be absent.

In specification text and algorithms, dot notation may be used to refer to a specific field of a Record
value. For example, if R is the record shown in the previous paragraph then R.[[Field2]] is shorthand
for “the field of R named [[Field2]]”.

Schema for commonly used Record field combinations may be named, and that name may be used
as a prefix to a literal Record value to identify the specific kind of aggregations that is being
described. For example: PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: 42, [[Writable]]: false, [[Configurable]]:
true }.

6.2.2 The Set and Relation Specification Types

The Set type is used to explain a collection of unordered elements for use in the memory model.
Values of the Set type are simple collections of elements, where no element appears more than once.
Elements may be added to and removed from Sets. Sets may be unioned, intersected, or subtracted
from each other.

The Relation type is used to explain constraints on Sets. Values of the Relation type are Sets of
ordered pairs of values from its value domain. For example, a Relation on events is a set of ordered
pairs of events. For a Relation R and two values a and b in the value domain of R, a R b is shorthand
for saying the ordered pair (a, b) is a member of R. A Relation is least with respect to some
conditions when it is the smallest Relation that satisfies those conditions.

A strict partial order is a Relation value R that satisfies the following.

For all a, b, and c in R's domain:

It is not the case that a R a, and

If a R b and b R c, then a R c.

NOTE 1 The two properties above are called irreflexivity and transitivity, respectively.
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A strict total order is a Relation value R that satisfies the following.

For all a, b, and c in R's domain:

a is identical to b or a R b or b R a, and
It is not the case that a R a, and
If a R b and b R c, then a R c.

NOTE 2 The three properties above are called totality, irreflexivity, and transitivity,
respectively.

6.2.3 The Completion Record Specification Type

The Completion type is a Record used to explain the runtime propagation of values and control flow
such as the behaviour of statements (break, continue, return and throw) that perform
nonlocal transfers of control.

Values of the Completion type are Record values whose fields are defined by Table 9. Such values
are referred to as Completion Records.

Table 9: Completion Record Fields

Field Value Meaning
Name

[[Type]] One of normal, break, continue, return, or The type of completion that occurred.
throw

[[Value]] any ECMAScript language value or empty The value that was produced.

[[Target]] any ECMAScript string or empty The target label for directed control
transfers.

The term “abrupt completion” refers to any completion with a [[Type]] value other than normal.

6.2.3.1 Await

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Algorithm steps that say

1. Let completion be Await(value).

mean the same thing as:

1. Let asyncContext be the running execution context.

2. Let promise be ? PromiseResolve(%Promise%, value).
3. Let stepsFulfilled be the algorithm steps defined in Await Fulfilled Functions.
4. Let lengthFulfilled be the number of non-optional parameters of the function definition in
Await Fulfilled Functions.
5. Let onFulfilled be ! CreateBuiltinFunction(stepsFulfilled, lengthFulfilled, "", «
[[AsyncContext]] »).
6. Set onFulfilled.[[AsyncContext]] to asyncContext.
7. Let stepsRejected be the algorithm steps defined in Await Rejected Functions.
8. Let lengthRejected be the number of non-optional parameters of the function definition in
Await Rejected Functions.
9. Let onRejected be ! CreateBuiltinFunction(stepsRejected, lengthRejected, "", «
[[AsyncContext]] »).
10. Set onRejected.[[AsyncContext]] to asyncContext.
11. Perform ! PerformPromiseThen(promise, onFulfilled, onRejected).
12. Remove asyncContext from the execution context stack and restore the execution context that
is at the top of the execution context stack as the running execution context.
13. Set the code evaluation state of asyncContext such that when evaluation is resumed with a
Completion completion, the following steps of the algorithm that invoked Await will be
performed, with completion available.
14. Return.
15. NOTE: This returns to the evaluation of the operation that had most previously resumed
evaluation of asyncContext.

where all aliases in the above steps, with the exception of completion, are ephemeral and visible only
in the steps pertaining to Await.

NOTE Await can be combined with the ? and ! prefixes, so that for example

1. Let result be ? Await(value).

means the same thing as:

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1. Let result be Await(value).

2. ReturnIfAbrupt(result).

6.2.3.1.1 Await Fulfilled Functions

An Await fulfilled function is an anonymous built-in function that is used as part of the Await
specification device to deliver the promise fulfillment value to the caller as a normal completion.
Each Await fulfilled function has an [[AsyncContext]] internal slot.

When an Await fulfilled function is called with argument value, the following steps are taken:

1. Let F be the active function object.

2. Let asyncContext be F.[[AsyncContext]].
3. Let prevContext be the running execution context.
4. Suspend prevContext.
5. Push asyncContext onto the execution context stack; asyncContext is now the running
execution context.
6. Resume the suspended evaluation of asyncContext using NormalCompletion(value) as the
result of the operation that suspended it.
7. Assert: When we reach this step, asyncContext has already been removed from the execution
context stack and prevContext is the currently running execution context.
8. Return undefined.

The "length" property of an Await fulfilled function is 1𝔽.

6.2.3.1.2 Await Rejected Functions

An Await rejected function is an anonymous built-in function that is used as part of the Await
specification device to deliver the promise rejection reason to the caller as an abrupt throw
completion. Each Await rejected function has an [[AsyncContext]] internal slot.

When an Await rejected function is called with argument reason, the following steps are taken:

1. Let F be the active function object.

2. Let asyncContext be F.[[AsyncContext]].
3. Let prevContext be the running execution context.
4. Suspend prevContext.
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5. Push asyncContext onto the execution context stack; asyncContext is now the running
execution context.
6. Resume the suspended evaluation of asyncContext using ThrowCompletion(reason) as the
result of the operation that suspended it.
7. Assert: When we reach this step, asyncContext has already been removed from the execution
context stack and prevContext is the currently running execution context.
8. Return undefined.

The "length" property of an Await rejected function is 1𝔽.

6.2.3.2 NormalCompletion

The abstract operation NormalCompletion with a single argument, such as:

1. Return NormalCompletion(argument).

Is a shorthand that is defined as follows:

1. Return Completion { [[Type]]: normal, [[Value]]: argument, [[Target]]: empty }.

6.2.3.3 ThrowCompletion

The abstract operation ThrowCompletion with a single argument, such as:

1. Return ThrowCompletion(argument).

Is a shorthand that is defined as follows:

1. Return Completion { [[Type]]: throw, [[Value]]: argument, [[Target]]: empty }.

6.2.3.4 UpdateEmpty ( completionRecord, value )

The abstract operation UpdateEmpty takes arguments completionRecord and value. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: If completionRecord.[[Type]] is either return or throw, then completionRecord.

[[Value]] is not empty.
2. If completionRecord.[[Value]] is not empty, return Completion(completionRecord).

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3. Return Completion { [[Type]]: completionRecord.[[Type]], [[Value]]: value, [[Target]]:

completionRecord.[[Target]] }.

6.2.4 The Reference Record Specification Type

The Reference Record type is used to explain the behaviour of such operators as delete, typeof,
the assignment operators, the super keyword and other language features. For example, the left-
hand operand of an assignment is expected to produce a Reference Record.

A Reference Record is a resolved name or property binding; its fields are defined by Table 10.

Table 10: Reference Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning

[[Base]] One of: The value or Environment Record which holds the
binding. A [[Base]] of unresolvable indicates that
any the binding could not be resolved.
ECMAScript
language
value except
undefined or
null,
an
Environment
Record, or
unresolvable.

[[ReferencedName]] String or Symbol The name of the binding. Always a String if [[Base]]
value is an Environment Record.

[[Strict]] Boolean true if the Reference Record originated in strict

mode code, false otherwise.

[[ThisValue]] any ECMAScript If not empty, the Reference Record represents a

language value or property binding that was expressed using the
empty super keyword; it is called a Super Reference
Record and its [[Base]] value will never be an
Environment Record. In that case, the [[ThisValue]]
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field holds the this value at the time the Reference

Record was created.

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate upon References:

6.2.4.1 IsPropertyReference ( V )

The abstract operation IsPropertyReference takes argument V. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: V is a Reference Record.

2. If V.[[Base]] is unresolvable, return false.
3. If Type(V.[[Base]]) is Boolean, String, Symbol, BigInt, Number, or Object, return true;
otherwise return false.

6.2.4.2 IsUnresolvableReference ( V )

The abstract operation IsUnresolvableReference takes argument V. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Assert: V is a Reference Record.

2. If V.[[Base]] is unresolvable, return true; otherwise return false.

6.2.4.3 IsSuperReference ( V )

The abstract operation IsSuperReference takes argument V. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: V is a Reference Record.

2. If V.[[ThisValue]] is not empty, return true; otherwise return false.

6.2.4.4 GetValue ( V )

The abstract operation GetValue takes argument V. It performs the following steps when called:

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1. ReturnIfAbrupt(V).
2. If V is not a Reference Record, return V.
3. If IsUnresolvableReference(V) is true, throw a ReferenceError exception.
4. If IsPropertyReference(V) is true, then
a. Let baseObj be ! ToObject(V.[[Base]]).
b. Return ? baseObj.[[Get]](V.[[ReferencedName]], GetThisValue(V)).
5. Else,
a. Let base be V.[[Base]].
b. Assert: base is an Environment Record.
c. Return ? base.GetBindingValue(V.[[ReferencedName]], V.[[Strict]]) (see 9.1).

NOTE The object that may be created in step 4.a is not accessible outside of the above
abstract operation and the ordinary object [[Get]] internal method. An
implementation might choose to avoid the actual creation of the object.

6.2.4.5 PutValue ( V, W )

The abstract operation PutValue takes arguments V and W. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. ReturnIfAbrupt(V).
2. ReturnIfAbrupt(W).
3. If V is not a Reference Record, throw a ReferenceError exception.
4. If IsUnresolvableReference(V) is true, then
a. If V.[[Strict]] is true, throw a ReferenceError exception.
b. Let globalObj be GetGlobalObject().
c. Return ? Set(globalObj, V.[[ReferencedName]], W, false).
5. If IsPropertyReference(V) is true, then
a. Let baseObj be ! ToObject(V.[[Base]]).
b. Let succeeded be ? baseObj.[[Set]](V.[[ReferencedName]], W, GetThisValue(V)).
c. If succeeded is false and V.[[Strict]] is true, throw a TypeError exception.
d. Return.
6. Else,
a. Let base be V.[[Base]].
b. Assert: base is an Environment Record.
c. Return ? base.SetMutableBinding(V.[[ReferencedName]], W, V.[[Strict]]) (see 9.1).
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NOTE The object that may be created in step 5.a is not accessible outside of the above
abstract operation and the ordinary object [[Set]] internal method. An
implementation might choose to avoid the actual creation of that object.

6.2.4.6 GetThisValue ( V )

The abstract operation GetThisValue takes argument V. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyReference(V) is true.

2. If IsSuperReference(V) is true, return V.[[ThisValue]]; otherwise return V.[[Base]].

6.2.4.7 InitializeReferencedBinding ( V, W )

The abstract operation InitializeReferencedBinding takes arguments V and W. It performs the

following steps when called:

1. ReturnIfAbrupt(V).
2. ReturnIfAbrupt(W).
3. Assert: V is a Reference Record.
4. Assert: IsUnresolvableReference(V) is false.
5. Let base be V.[[Base]].
6. Assert: base is an Environment Record.
7. Return base.InitializeBinding(V.[[ReferencedName]], W).

6.2.5 The Property Descriptor Specification Type

The Property Descriptor type is used to explain the manipulation and reification of Object property
attributes. Values of the Property Descriptor type are Records. Each field's name is an attribute name
and its value is a corresponding attribute value as specified in 6.1.7.1. In addition, any field may be
present or absent. The schema name used within this specification to tag literal descriptions of
Property Descriptor records is “PropertyDescriptor”.

Property Descriptor values may be further classified as data Property Descriptors and accessor
Property Descriptors based upon the existence or use of certain fields. A data Property Descriptor is
one that includes any fields named either [[Value]] or [[Writable]]. An accessor Property Descriptor
is one that includes any fields named either [[Get]] or [[Set]]. Any Property Descriptor may have

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fields named [[Enumerable]] and [[Configurable]]. A Property Descriptor value may not be both a
data Property Descriptor and an accessor Property Descriptor; however, it may be neither. A generic
Property Descriptor is a Property Descriptor value that is neither a data Property Descriptor nor an
accessor Property Descriptor. A fully populated Property Descriptor is one that is either an accessor
Property Descriptor or a data Property Descriptor and that has all of the fields that correspond to the
property attributes defined in either Table 3 or Table 4.

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate upon Property Descriptor
values:

6.2.5.1 IsAccessorDescriptor ( Desc )

The abstract operation IsAccessorDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor or

undefined). It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Desc is undefined, return false.

2. If both Desc.[[Get]] and Desc.[[Set]] are absent, return false.
3. Return true.

6.2.5.2 IsDataDescriptor ( Desc )

The abstract operation IsDataDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor or undefined).
It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Desc is undefined, return false.

2. If both Desc.[[Value]] and Desc.[[Writable]] are absent, return false.
3. Return true.

6.2.5.3 IsGenericDescriptor ( Desc )

The abstract operation IsGenericDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor or

undefined). It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Desc is undefined, return false.

2. If IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) and IsDataDescriptor(Desc) are both false, return true.
3. Return false.

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6.2.5.4 FromPropertyDescriptor ( Desc )

The abstract operation FromPropertyDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor or

undefined). It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Desc is undefined, return undefined.

2. Let obj be ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(%Object.prototype%).
3. Assert: obj is an extensible ordinary object with no own properties.
4. If Desc has a [[Value]] field, then
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "value", Desc.[[Value]]).
5. If Desc has a [[Writable]] field, then
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "writable", Desc.[[Writable]]).
6. If Desc has a [[Get]] field, then
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "get", Desc.[[Get]]).
7. If Desc has a [[Set]] field, then
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "set", Desc.[[Set]]).
8. If Desc has an [[Enumerable]] field, then
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "enumerable", Desc.[[Enumerable]]).
9. If Desc has a [[Configurable]] field, then
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "configurable", Desc.[[Configurable]]).
10. Return obj.

6.2.5.5 ToPropertyDescriptor ( Obj )

The abstract operation ToPropertyDescriptor takes argument Obj. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. If Type(Obj) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let desc be a new Property Descriptor that initially has no fields.
3. Let hasEnumerable be ? HasProperty(Obj, "enumerable").
4. If hasEnumerable is true, then
a. Let enumerable be ! ToBoolean(? Get(Obj, "enumerable")).
b. Set desc.[[Enumerable]] to enumerable.
5. Let hasConfigurable be ? HasProperty(Obj, "configurable").
6. If hasConfigurable is true, then
a. Let configurable be ! ToBoolean(? Get(Obj, "configurable")).
b. Set desc.[[Configurable]] to configurable.

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7. Let hasValue be ? HasProperty(Obj, "value").

8. If hasValue is true, then
a. Let value be ? Get(Obj, "value").
b. Set desc.[[Value]] to value.
9. Let hasWritable be ? HasProperty(Obj, "writable").
10. If hasWritable is true, then
a. Let writable be ! ToBoolean(? Get(Obj, "writable")).
b. Set desc.[[Writable]] to writable.
11. Let hasGet be ? HasProperty(Obj, "get").
12. If hasGet is true, then
a. Let getter be ? Get(Obj, "get").
b. If IsCallable(getter) is false and getter is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
c. Set desc.[[Get]] to getter.
13. Let hasSet be ? HasProperty(Obj, "set").
14. If hasSet is true, then
a. Let setter be ? Get(Obj, "set").
b. If IsCallable(setter) is false and setter is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
c. Set desc.[[Set]] to setter.
15. If desc.[[Get]] is present or desc.[[Set]] is present, then
a. If desc.[[Value]] is present or desc.[[Writable]] is present, throw a TypeError exception.
16. Return desc.

6.2.5.6 CompletePropertyDescriptor ( Desc )

The abstract operation CompletePropertyDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Desc is a Property Descriptor.

2. Let like be the Record { [[Value]]: undefined, [[Writable]]: false, [[Get]]: undefined, [[Set]]:
undefined, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: false }.
3. If IsGenericDescriptor(Desc) is true or IsDataDescriptor(Desc) is true, then
a. If Desc does not have a [[Value]] field, set Desc.[[Value]] to like.[[Value]].
b. If Desc does not have a [[Writable]] field, set Desc.[[Writable]] to like.[[Writable]].
4. Else,
a. If Desc does not have a [[Get]] field, set Desc.[[Get]] to like.[[Get]].
b. If Desc does not have a [[Set]] field, set Desc.[[Set]] to like.[[Set]].

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5. If Desc does not have an [[Enumerable]] field, set Desc.[[Enumerable]] to like.[[Enumerable]].

6. If Desc does not have a [[Configurable]] field, set Desc.[[Configurable]] to like.
[[Configurable]].
7. Return Desc.

6.2.6 The Environment Record Specification Type

The Environment Record type is used to explain the behaviour of name resolution in nested
functions and blocks. This type and the operations upon it are defined in 9.1.

6.2.7 The Abstract Closure Specification Type

The Abstract Closure specification type is used to refer to algorithm steps together with a collection
of values. Abstract Closures are meta-values and are invoked using function application style such as
closure(arg1, arg2). Like abstract operations, invocations perform the algorithm steps described by
the Abstract Closure.

In algorithm steps that create an Abstract Closure, values are captured with the verb "capture"
followed by a list of aliases. When an Abstract Closure is created, it captures the value that is
associated with each alias at that time. In steps that specify the algorithm to be performed when an
Abstract Closure is called, each captured value is referred to by the alias that was used to capture the
value.

If an Abstract Closure returns a Completion Record, that Completion Record's [[Type]] must be
either normal or throw.

Abstract Closures are created inline as part of other algorithms, shown in the following example.

1. Let addend be 41.

2. Let closure be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (x) that captures addend and performs
the following steps when called:
a. Return x + addend.
3. Let val be closure(1).
4. Assert: val is 42.

6.2.8 Data Blocks

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The Data Block specification type is used to describe a distinct and mutable sequence of byte-sized
(8 bit) numeric values. A byte value is an integer value in the range 0 through 255, inclusive. A Data
Block value is created with a fixed number of bytes that each have the initial value 0.

For notational convenience within this specification, an array-like syntax can be used to access the
individual bytes of a Data Block value. This notation presents a Data Block value as a 0-origined
integer-indexed sequence of bytes. For example, if db is a 5 byte Data Block value then db[2] can be
used to access its 3rd byte.

A data block that resides in memory that can be referenced from multiple agents concurrently is
designated a Shared Data Block. A Shared Data Block has an identity (for the purposes of equality
testing Shared Data Block values) that is address-free: it is tied not to the virtual addresses the block
is mapped to in any process, but to the set of locations in memory that the block represents. Two data
blocks are equal only if the sets of the locations they contain are equal; otherwise, they are not equal
and the intersection of the sets of locations they contain is empty. Finally, Shared Data Blocks can be
distinguished from Data Blocks.

The semantics of Shared Data Blocks is defined using Shared Data Block events by the memory
model. Abstract operations below introduce Shared Data Block events and act as the interface
between evaluation semantics and the event semantics of the memory model. The events form a
candidate execution, on which the memory model acts as a filter. Please consult the memory model
for full semantics.

Shared Data Block events are modeled by Records, defined in the memory model.

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate upon Data Block values:

6.2.8.1 CreateByteDataBlock ( size )

The abstract operation CreateByteDataBlock takes argument size (an integer). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: size ≥ 0.
2. Let db be a new Data Block value consisting of size bytes. If it is impossible to create such a
Data Block, throw a RangeError exception.
3. Set all of the bytes of db to 0.
4. Return db.

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6.2.8.2 CreateSharedByteDataBlock ( size )

The abstract operation CreateSharedByteDataBlock takes argument size (a non-negative integer). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: size ≥ 0.
2. Let db be a new Shared Data Block value consisting of size bytes. If it is impossible to create
such a Shared Data Block, throw a RangeError exception.
3. Let execution be the [[CandidateExecution]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
4. Let eventList be the [[EventList]] field of the element in execution.[[EventsRecords]] whose
[[AgentSignifier]] is AgentSignifier().
5. Let zero be « 0 ».
6. For each index i of db, do
a. Append WriteSharedMemory { [[Order]]: Init, [[NoTear]]: true, [[Block]]: db,
[[ByteIndex]]: i, [[ElementSize]]: 1, [[Payload]]: zero } to eventList.
7. Return db.

6.2.8.3 CopyDataBlockBytes ( toBlock, toIndex, fromBlock, fromIndex, count )

The abstract operation CopyDataBlockBytes takes arguments toBlock, toIndex (a non-negative

integer), fromBlock, fromIndex (a non-negative integer), and count (a non-negative integer). It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: fromBlock and toBlock are distinct Data Block or Shared Data Block values.
2. Let fromSize be the number of bytes in fromBlock.
3. Assert: fromIndex + count ≤ fromSize.
4. Let toSize be the number of bytes in toBlock.
5. Assert: toIndex + count ≤ toSize.
6. Repeat, while count > 0,
a. If fromBlock is a Shared Data Block, then
i. Let execution be the [[CandidateExecution]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent
Record.
ii. Let eventList be the [[EventList]] field of the element in execution.
[[EventsRecords]] whose [[AgentSignifier]] is AgentSignifier().
iii. Let bytes be a List whose sole element is a nondeterministically chosen byte value.
iv. NOTE: In implementations, bytes is the result of a non-atomic read instruction on
the underlying hardware. The nondeterminism is a semantic prescription of the

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memory model to describe observable behaviour of hardware with weak

consistency.
v. Let readEvent be ReadSharedMemory { [[Order]]: Unordered, [[NoTear]]: true,
[[Block]]: fromBlock, [[ByteIndex]]: fromIndex, [[ElementSize]]: 1 }.
vi. Append readEvent to eventList.
vii. Append Chosen Value Record { [[Event]]: readEvent, [[ChosenValue]]: bytes } to
execution.[[ChosenValues]].
viii. If toBlock is a Shared Data Block, then
1. Append WriteSharedMemory { [[Order]]: Unordered, [[NoTear]]: true,
[[Block]]: toBlock, [[ByteIndex]]: toIndex, [[ElementSize]]: 1, [[Payload]]:
bytes } to eventList.
ix. Else,
1. Set toBlock[toIndex] to bytes[0].
b. Else,
i. Assert: toBlock is not a Shared Data Block.
ii. Set toBlock[toIndex] to fromBlock[fromIndex].
c. Set toIndex to toIndex + 1.
d. Set fromIndex to fromIndex + 1.
e. Set count to count - 1.
7. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

7 Abstract Operations
These operations are not a part of the ECMAScript language; they are defined here solely to aid the
specification of the semantics of the ECMAScript language. Other, more specialized abstract
operations are defined throughout this specification.

7.1 Type Conversion

The ECMAScript language implicitly performs automatic type conversion as needed. To clarify the
semantics of certain constructs it is useful to define a set of conversion abstract operations. The
conversion abstract operations are polymorphic; they can accept a value of any ECMAScript
language type. But no other specification types are used with these operations.

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The BigInt type has no implicit conversions in the ECMAScript language; programmers must call
BigInt explicitly to convert values from other types.

7.1.1 ToPrimitive ( input [ , preferredType ] )

The abstract operation ToPrimitive takes argument input and optional argument preferredType. It
converts its input argument to a non-Object type. If an object is capable of converting to more than
one primitive type, it may use the optional hint preferredType to favour that type. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: input is an ECMAScript language value.

2. If Type(input) is Object, then
a. Let exoticToPrim be ? GetMethod(input, @@toPrimitive).
b. If exoticToPrim is not undefined, then
i. If preferredType is not present, let hint be "default".
ii. Else if preferredType is string, let hint be "string".
iii. Else,
1. Assert: preferredType is number.
2. Let hint be "number".
iv. Let result be ? Call(exoticToPrim, input, « hint »).
v. If Type(result) is not Object, return result.
vi. Throw a TypeError exception.
c. If preferredType is not present, let preferredType be number.
d. Return ? OrdinaryToPrimitive(input, preferredType).
3. Return input.

NOTE When ToPrimitive is called with no hint, then it generally behaves as if the hint
were number. However, objects may over-ride this behaviour by defining a
@@toPrimitive method. Of the objects defined in this specification only Date
objects (see 21.4.4.45) and Symbol objects (see 20.4.3.5) over-ride the default
ToPrimitive behaviour. Date objects treat no hint as if the hint were string.

7.1.1.1 OrdinaryToPrimitive ( O, hint )

The abstract operation OrdinaryToPrimitive takes arguments O and hint. It performs the following
steps when called:
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1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Assert: hint is either string or number.
3. If hint is string, then
a. Let methodNames be « "toString", "valueOf" ».
4. Else,
a. Let methodNames be « "valueOf", "toString" ».
5. For each element name of methodNames, do
a. Let method be ? Get(O, name).
b. If IsCallable(method) is true, then
i. Let result be ? Call(method, O).
ii. If Type(result) is not Object, return result.
6. Throw a TypeError exception.

7.1.2 ToBoolean ( argument )

The abstract operation ToBoolean takes argument argument. It converts argument to a value of type
Boolean according to Table 11:

Table 11: ToBoolean Conversions

Argument Result
Type

Undefined Return false.

Null Return false.

Boolean Return argument.

Number If argument is +0𝔽, -0𝔽, or NaN, return false; otherwise return true.

String If argument is the empty String (its length is 0), return false; otherwise return true.

Symbol Return true.

BigInt If argument is 0ℤ, return false; otherwise return true.

Object Return true.

NOTE An alternate algorithm related to the [[IsHTMLDDA]] internal slot

is mandated in section B 3 7 1
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is mandated in section B.3.7.1.

7.1.3 ToNumeric ( value )

The abstract operation ToNumeric takes argument value. It returns value converted to a Number or a
BigInt. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let primValue be ? ToPrimitive(value, number).

2. If Type(primValue) is BigInt, return primValue.
3. Return ? ToNumber(primValue).

7.1.4 ToNumber ( argument )

The abstract operation ToNumber takes argument argument. It converts argument to a value of type
Number according to Table 12:

Table 12: ToNumber Conversions

Argument Type Result

Undefined Return NaN.

Null Return +0𝔽.

Boolean If argument is true, return 1𝔽. If argument is false, return +0𝔽.

Number Return argument (no conversion).

String See grammar and conversion algorithm below.

Symbol Throw a TypeError exception.

BigInt Throw a TypeError exception.

Object Apply the following steps:

1. Let primValue be ? ToPrimitive(argument, number).

2. Return ? ToNumber(primValue).

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7.1.4.1 ToNumber Applied to the String Type

ToNumber applied to Strings applies the following grammar to the input String interpreted as a
sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points (6.1.4). If the grammar cannot interpret the String as an
expansion of StringNumericLiteral, then the result of ToNumber is NaN.

NOTE 1 The terminal symbols of this grammar are all composed of characters in the
Unicode Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP). Therefore, the result of ToNumber will
be NaN if the string contains any leading surrogate or trailing surrogate code units,
whether paired or unpaired.

Syntax

StringNumericLiteral :::
StrWhiteSpaceopt
StrWhiteSpaceopt StrNumericLiteral StrWhiteSpaceopt

StrWhiteSpace :::
StrWhiteSpaceChar StrWhiteSpaceopt

StrWhiteSpaceChar :::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator

StrNumericLiteral :::
StrDecimalLiteral
NonDecimalIntegerLiteral[~Sep]

StrDecimalLiteral :::
StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral
+ StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral
- StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral

StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral :::
Infinity
DecimalDigits[~Sep] . DecimalDigits[~Sep] opt ExponentPart[~Sep] opt

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. DecimalDigits[~Sep] ExponentPart[~Sep] opt

DecimalDigits[~Sep] ExponentPart[~Sep] opt

All grammar symbols not explicitly defined above have the definitions used in the Lexical Grammar
for numeric literals (12.8.3)

NOTE 2 Some differences should be noted between the syntax of a StringNumericLiteral and
a NumericLiteral:

A StringNumericLiteral may include leading and/or trailing white space and/or

line terminators.
A StringNumericLiteral that is decimal may have any number of leading 0
digits.
A StringNumericLiteral that is decimal may include a + or - to indicate its
sign.
A StringNumericLiteral that is empty or contains only white space is
converted to +0𝔽.
Infinity and -Infinity are recognized as a StringNumericLiteral but
not as a NumericLiteral.
A StringNumericLiteral cannot include a BigIntLiteralSuffix.

7.1.4.1.1 Runtime Semantics: MV

The conversion of a String to a Number value is similar overall to the determination of the Number
value for a numeric literal (see 12.8.3), but some of the details are different, so the process for
converting a String numeric literal to a value of Number type is given here. This value is determined
in two steps: first, a mathematical value (MV) is derived from the String numeric literal; second, this
mathematical value is rounded as described below. The MV on any grammar symbol, not provided
below, is the MV for that symbol defined in 12.8.3.1.

The MV of StringNumericLiteral ::: [empty] is 0.

The MV of StringNumericLiteral ::: StrWhiteSpace is 0.
The MV of StringNumericLiteral ::: StrWhiteSpaceopt StrNumericLiteral
StrWhiteSpaceopt is the MV of StrNumericLiteral, no matter whether white space is present
or not.

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The MV of StrDecimalLiteral ::: - StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral is the negative of the MV

of StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral. (Note that if the MV of StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral is 0, the
negative of this MV is also 0. The rounding rule described below handles the conversion of this
signless mathematical zero to a floating-point +0𝔽 or -0𝔽 as appropriate.)
The MV of StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral ::: Infinity is 1010000 (a value so large that it
will round to +∞𝔽).
The MV of StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral ::: DecimalDigits . DecimalDigits is the MV of
the first DecimalDigits plus (the MV of the second DecimalDigits times 10-n), where n is the
number of code points in the second DecimalDigits.
The MV of StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral ::: DecimalDigits . ExponentPart is the MV of
DecimalDigits times 10e, where e is the MV of ExponentPart.
The MV of StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral ::: DecimalDigits . DecimalDigits ExponentPart
is (the MV of the first DecimalDigits plus (the MV of the second DecimalDigits times 10-n))
times 10e, where n is the number of code points in the second DecimalDigits and e is the MV
of ExponentPart.
The MV of StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral ::: . DecimalDigits is the MV of DecimalDigits
times 10-n, where n is the number of code points in DecimalDigits.
The MV of StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral ::: . DecimalDigits ExponentPart is the MV of
DecimalDigits times 10e - n, where n is the number of code points in DecimalDigits and e is the
MV of ExponentPart.
The MV of StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral ::: DecimalDigits ExponentPart is the MV of
DecimalDigits times 10e, where e is the MV of ExponentPart.

Once the exact MV for a String numeric literal has been determined, it is then rounded to a value of
the Number type. If the MV is 0, then the rounded value is +0𝔽 unless the first non white space code
point in the String numeric literal is -, in which case the rounded value is -0𝔽. Otherwise, the
rounded value must be the Number value for the MV (in the sense defined in 6.1.6.1), unless the
literal includes a StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral and the literal has more than 20 significant digits, in
which case the Number value may be either the Number value for the MV of a literal produced by
replacing each significant digit after the 20th with a 0 digit or the Number value for the MV of a
literal produced by replacing each significant digit after the 20th with a 0 digit and then incrementing
the literal at the 20th digit position. A digit is significant if it is not part of an ExponentPart and

it is not 0; or

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there is a non-zero digit to its left and there is a non-zero digit, not in the ExponentPart, to its
right.

7.1.5 ToIntegerOrInfinity ( argument )

The abstract operation ToIntegerOrInfinity takes argument argument. It converts argument to an
integer, +∞, or -∞. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is NaN, +0𝔽, or -0𝔽, return 0.
3. If number is +∞𝔽, return +∞.
4. If number is -∞𝔽, return -∞.
5. Let integer be floor(abs(ℝ(number))).
6. If number < +0𝔽, set integer to -integer.
7. Return integer.

7.1.6 ToInt32 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToInt32 takes argument argument. It converts argument to one of 232 integral
Number values in the range 𝔽(-231) through 𝔽(231 - 1), inclusive. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is NaN, +0𝔽, -0𝔽, +∞𝔽, or -∞𝔽, return +0𝔽.
3. Let int be the mathematical value whose sign is the sign of number and whose magnitude is
floor(abs(ℝ(number))).
4. Let int32bit be int modulo 232.
5. If int32bit ≥ 231, return 𝔽(int32bit - 232); otherwise return 𝔽(int32bit).

NOTE Given the above definition of ToInt32:

The ToInt32 abstract operation is idempotent: if applied to a result that it

produced, the second application leaves that value unchanged.
ToInt32(ToUint32(x)) is the same value as ToInt32(x) for all values of x. (It is
to preserve this latter property that +∞𝔽 and -∞𝔽 are mapped to +0𝔽.)
ToInt32 maps -0𝔽 to +0𝔽.
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7.1.7 ToUint32 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToUint32 takes argument argument. It converts argument to one of 232
integral Number values in the range +0𝔽 through 𝔽(232 - 1), inclusive. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is NaN, +0𝔽, -0𝔽, +∞𝔽, or -∞𝔽, return +0𝔽.
3. Let int be the mathematical value whose sign is the sign of number and whose magnitude is
floor(abs(ℝ(number))).
4. Let int32bit be int modulo 232.
5. Return 𝔽(int32bit).

NOTE Given the above definition of ToUint32:

Step 5 is the only difference between ToUint32 and ToInt32.

The ToUint32 abstract operation is idempotent: if applied to a result that it
produced, the second application leaves that value unchanged.
ToUint32(ToInt32(x)) is the same value as ToUint32(x) for all values of x. (It
is to preserve this latter property that +∞𝔽 and -∞𝔽 are mapped to +0𝔽.)
ToUint32 maps -0𝔽 to +0𝔽.

7.1.8 ToInt16 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToInt16 takes argument argument. It converts argument to one of 216 integral
Number values in the range 𝔽(-215) through 𝔽(215 - 1), inclusive. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is NaN, +0𝔽, -0𝔽, +∞𝔽, or -∞𝔽, return +0𝔽.
3. Let int be the mathematical value whose sign is the sign of number and whose magnitude is
floor(abs(ℝ(number))).

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4. Let int16bit be int modulo 216.

5. If int16bit ≥ 215, return 𝔽(int16bit - 216); otherwise return 𝔽(int16bit).

7.1.9 ToUint16 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToUint16 takes argument argument. It converts argument to one of 216
integral Number values in the range +0𝔽 through 𝔽(216 - 1), inclusive. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is NaN, +0𝔽, -0𝔽, +∞𝔽, or -∞𝔽, return +0𝔽.
3. Let int be the mathematical value whose sign is the sign of number and whose magnitude is
floor(abs(ℝ(number))).
4. Let int16bit be int modulo 216.
5. Return 𝔽(int16bit).

NOTE Given the above definition of ToUint16:

The substitution of 216 for 232 in step 4 is the only difference between
ToUint32 and ToUint16.
ToUint16 maps -0𝔽 to +0𝔽.

7.1.10 ToInt8 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToInt8 takes argument argument. It converts argument to one of 28 integral
Number values in the range -128𝔽 through 127𝔽, inclusive. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is NaN, +0𝔽, -0𝔽, +∞𝔽, or -∞𝔽, return +0𝔽.
3. Let int be the mathematical value whose sign is the sign of number and whose magnitude is
floor(abs(ℝ(number))).
4. Let int8bit be int modulo 28.
5. If int8bit ≥ 27, return 𝔽(int8bit - 28); otherwise return 𝔽(int8bit).
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7.1.11 ToUint8 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToUint8 takes argument argument. It converts argument to one of 28 integral
Number values in the range +0𝔽 through 255𝔽, inclusive. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is NaN, +0𝔽, -0𝔽, +∞𝔽, or -∞𝔽, return +0𝔽.
3. Let int be the mathematical value whose sign is the sign of number and whose magnitude is
floor(abs(ℝ(number))).
4. Let int8bit be int modulo 28.
5. Return 𝔽(int8bit).

7.1.12 ToUint8Clamp ( argument )

The abstract operation ToUint8Clamp takes argument argument. It converts argument to one of 28
integral Number values in the range +0𝔽 through 255𝔽, inclusive. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).

2. If number is NaN, return +0𝔽.
3. If ℝ(number) ≤ 0, return +0𝔽.
4. If ℝ(number) ≥ 255, return 255𝔽.
5. Let f be floor(ℝ(number)).
6. If f + 0.5 < ℝ(number), return 𝔽(f + 1).
7. If ℝ(number) < f + 0.5, return 𝔽(f).
8. If f is odd, return 𝔽(f + 1).
9. Return 𝔽(f).

NOTE Unlike the other ECMAScript integer conversion abstract operation, ToUint8Clamp
rounds rather than truncates non-integral values and does not convert +∞𝔽 to +0𝔽.
ToUint8Clamp does “round half to even” tie-breaking. This differs from
Math.round which does “round half up” tie-breaking.

7.1.13 ToBigInt ( argument )

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The abstract operation ToBigInt takes argument argument. It converts argument to a BigInt value, or
throws if an implicit conversion from Number would be required. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let prim be ? ToPrimitive(argument, number).

2. Return the value that prim corresponds to in Table 13.

Table 13: BigInt Conversions

Argument Type Result

Undefined Throw a TypeError exception.

Null Throw a TypeError exception.

Boolean Return 1n if prim is true and 0n if prim is false.

BigInt Return prim.

Number Throw a TypeError exception.

String 1. Let n be ! StringToBigInt(prim).

2. If n is NaN, throw a SyntaxError exception.
3. Return n.

Symbol Throw a TypeError exception.

7.1.14 StringToBigInt ( argument )

Apply the algorithm in 7.1.4.1 with the following changes:

Replace the StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral production with DecimalDigits to not allow Infinity,

decimal points, or exponents.
If the MV is NaN, return NaN, otherwise return the BigInt which exactly corresponds to the
MV, rather than rounding to a Number.

7.1.15 ToBigInt64 ( argument )

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The abstract operation ToBigInt64 takes argument argument. It converts argument to one of 264
BigInt values in the range ℤ(-263) through ℤ(263-1), inclusive. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Let n be ? ToBigInt(argument).
2. Let int64bit be ℝ(n) modulo 264.
3. If int64bit ≥ 263, return ℤ(int64bit - 264); otherwise return ℤ(int64bit).

7.1.16 ToBigUint64 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToBigUint64 takes argument argument. It converts argument to one of 264
BigInt values in the range 0ℤ through the BigInt value for ℤ(264-1), inclusive. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let n be ? ToBigInt(argument).
2. Let int64bit be ℝ(n) modulo 264.
3. Return ℤ(int64bit).

7.1.17 ToString ( argument )

The abstract operation ToString takes argument argument. It converts argument to a value of type
String according to Table 14:

Table 14: ToString Conversions

Argument Type Result

Undefined Return "undefined".

Null Return "null".

Boolean If argument is true, return "true".

If argument is false, return "false".

Number Return ! Number::toString(argument).

String Return argument.

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g g

Symbol Throw a TypeError exception.

BigInt Return ! BigInt::toString(argument).

Object Apply the following steps:

1. Let primValue be ? ToPrimitive(argument, string).

2. Return ? ToString(primValue).

7.1.18 ToObject ( argument )

The abstract operation ToObject takes argument argument. It converts argument to a value of type
Object according to Table 15:

Table 15: ToObject Conversions

Argument Result
Type

Undefined Throw a TypeError exception.

Null Throw a TypeError exception.

Boolean Return a new Boolean object whose [[BooleanData]] internal slot is set to argument.
See 20.3 for a description of Boolean objects.

Number Return a new Number object whose [[NumberData]] internal slot is set to argument.
See 21.1 for a description of Number objects.

String Return a new String object whose [[StringData]] internal slot is set to argument. See
22.1 for a description of String objects.

Symbol Return a new Symbol object whose [[SymbolData]] internal slot is set to argument.
See 20.4 for a description of Symbol objects.

BigInt Return a new BigInt object whose [[BigIntData]] internal slot is set to argument. See
21.2 for a description of BigInt objects.

Object Return argument.

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7.1.19 ToPropertyKey ( argument )

The abstract operation ToPropertyKey takes argument argument. It converts argument to a value that
can be used as a property key. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let key be ? ToPrimitive(argument, string).

2. If Type(key) is Symbol, then
a. Return key.
3. Return ! ToString(key).

7.1.20 ToLength ( argument )

The abstract operation ToLength takes argument argument. It converts argument to an integral
Number suitable for use as the length of an array-like object. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Let len be ? ToIntegerOrInfinity(argument).

2. If len ≤ 0, return +0𝔽.
3. Return 𝔽(min(len, 253 - 1)).

7.1.21 CanonicalNumericIndexString ( argument )

The abstract operation CanonicalNumericIndexString takes argument argument. It returns argument
converted to a Number value if it is a String representation of a Number that would be produced by
ToString, or the string "-0". Otherwise, it returns undefined. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: Type(argument) is String.

2. If argument is "-0", return -0𝔽.
3. Let n be ! ToNumber(argument).
4. If SameValue(! ToString(n), argument) is false, return undefined.
5. Return n.

A canonical numeric string is any String value for which the CanonicalNumericIndexString abstract
operation does not return undefined.
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7.1.22 ToIndex ( value )

The abstract operation ToIndex takes argument value. It returns value argument converted to a non-
negative integer if it is a valid integer index value. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If value is undefined, then

a. Return 0.
2. Else,
a. Let integerIndex be 𝔽(? ToIntegerOrInfinity(value)).
b. If integerIndex < +0𝔽, throw a RangeError exception.
c. Let index be ! ToLength(integerIndex).
d. If ! SameValue(integerIndex, index) is false, throw a RangeError exception.
e. Return ℝ(index).

7.2 Testing and Comparison Operations

7.2.1 RequireObjectCoercible ( argument )

The abstract operation RequireObjectCoercible takes argument argument. It throws an error if
argument is a value that cannot be converted to an Object using ToObject. It is defined by Table 16:

Table 16: RequireObjectCoercible Results

Argument Type Result

Undefined Throw a TypeError exception.

Null Throw a TypeError exception.

Boolean Return argument.

Number Return argument.

String Return argument.

Symbol Return argument.

BigInt Return argument.

Object Return argument.

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7.2.2 IsArray ( argument )

The abstract operation IsArray takes argument argument. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. If Type(argument) is not Object, return false.

2. If argument is an Array exotic object, return true.
3. If argument is a Proxy exotic object, then
a. If argument.[[ProxyHandler]] is null, throw a TypeError exception.
b. Let target be argument.[[ProxyTarget]].
c. Return ? IsArray(target).
4. Return false.

7.2.3 IsCallable ( argument )

The abstract operation IsCallable takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value). It
determines if argument is a callable function with a [[Call]] internal method. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. If Type(argument) is not Object, return false.

2. If argument has a [[Call]] internal method, return true.
3. Return false.

7.2.4 IsConstructor ( argument )

The abstract operation IsConstructor takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value). It
determines if argument is a function object with a [[Construct]] internal method. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. If Type(argument) is not Object, return false.

2. If argument has a [[Construct]] internal method, return true.
3. Return false.

7.2.5 IsExtensible ( O )
The abstract operation IsExtensible takes argument O (an Object) and returns a completion record
which, if its [[Type]] is normal, has a [[Value]] which is a Boolean. It is used to determine whether
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additional properties can be added to O. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Return ? O.[[IsExtensible]]().

7.2.6 IsIntegralNumber ( argument )

The abstract operation IsIntegralNumber takes argument argument. It determines if argument is a
finite integral Number value. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Type(argument) is not Number, return false.

2. If argument is NaN, +∞𝔽, or -∞𝔽, return false.
3. If floor(abs(ℝ(argument))) ≠ abs(ℝ(argument)), return false.
4. Return true.

7.2.7 IsPropertyKey ( argument )

The abstract operation IsPropertyKey takes argument argument (an ECMAScript language value). It
determines if argument is a value that may be used as a property key. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. If Type(argument) is String, return true.

2. If Type(argument) is Symbol, return true.
3. Return false.

7.2.8 IsRegExp ( argument )

The abstract operation IsRegExp takes argument argument. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. If Type(argument) is not Object, return false.

2. Let matcher be ? Get(argument, @@match).
3. If matcher is not undefined, return ! ToBoolean(matcher).
4. If argument has a [[RegExpMatcher]] internal slot, return true.
5. Return false.

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7.2.9 IsStringPrefix ( p, q )
The abstract operation IsStringPrefix takes arguments p (a String) and q (a String). It determines if p
is a prefix of q. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(p) is String.

2. Assert: Type(q) is String.
3. If q can be the string-concatenation of p and some other String r, return true. Otherwise, return
false.

NOTE Any String is a prefix of itself, because r may be the empty String.

7.2.10 SameValue ( x, y )
The abstract operation SameValue takes arguments x (an ECMAScript language value) and y (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns a completion record whose [[Type]] is normal and whose
[[Value]] is a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Type(x) is different from Type(y), return false.

2. If Type(x) is Number or BigInt, then
a. Return ! Type(x)::sameValue(x, y).
3. Return ! SameValueNonNumeric(x, y).

NOTE This algorithm differs from the Strict Equality Comparison Algorithm in its
treatment of signed zeroes and NaNs.

7.2.11 SameValueZero ( x, y )
The abstract operation SameValueZero takes arguments x (an ECMAScript language value) and y (an
ECMAScript language value) and returns a completion record whose [[Type]] is normal and whose
[[Value]] is a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Type(x) is different from Type(y), return false.

2. If Type(x) is Number or BigInt, then
a. Return ! Type(x)::sameValueZero(x, y).
3. Return ! SameValueNonNumeric(x, y).

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NOTE SameValueZero differs from SameValue only in its treatment of +0𝔽 and -0𝔽.

7.2.12 SameValueNonNumeric ( x, y )
The abstract operation SameValueNonNumeric takes arguments x (an ECMAScript language value)
and y (an ECMAScript language value) and returns a completion record whose [[Type]] is normal
and whose [[Value]] is a Boolean. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(x) is not Number or BigInt.

2. Assert: Type(x) is the same as Type(y).
3. If Type(x) is Undefined, return true.
4. If Type(x) is Null, return true.
5. If Type(x) is String, then
a. If x and y are exactly the same sequence of code units (same length and same code units
at corresponding indices), return true; otherwise, return false.
6. If Type(x) is Boolean, then
a. If x and y are both true or both false, return true; otherwise, return false.
7. If Type(x) is Symbol, then
a. If x and y are both the same Symbol value, return true; otherwise, return false.
8. If x and y are the same Object value, return true. Otherwise, return false.

7.2.13 Abstract Relational Comparison

The comparison x < y, where x and y are values, produces true, false, or undefined (which indicates
that at least one operand is NaN). In addition to x and y the algorithm takes a Boolean flag named
LeftFirst as a parameter. The flag is used to control the order in which operations with potentially
visible side-effects are performed upon x and y. It is necessary because ECMAScript specifies left to
right evaluation of expressions. The default value of LeftFirst is true and indicates that the x
parameter corresponds to an expression that occurs to the left of the y parameter's corresponding
expression. If LeftFirst is false, the reverse is the case and operations must be performed upon y
before x. Such a comparison is performed as follows:

1. If the LeftFirst flag is true, then

a. Let px be ? ToPrimitive(x, number).
b. Let py be ? ToPrimitive(y, number).

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2. Else,
a. NOTE: The order of evaluation needs to be reversed to preserve left to right evaluation.
b. Let py be ? ToPrimitive(y, number).
c. Let px be ? ToPrimitive(x, number).
3. If Type(px) is String and Type(py) is String, then
a. If IsStringPrefix(py, px) is true, return false.
b. If IsStringPrefix(px, py) is true, return true.
c. Let k be the smallest non-negative integer such that the code unit at index k within px is
different from the code unit at index k within py. (There must be such a k, for neither
String is a prefix of the other.)
d. Let m be the integer that is the numeric value of the code unit at index k within px.
e. Let n be the integer that is the numeric value of the code unit at index k within py.
f. If m < n, return true. Otherwise, return false.
4. Else,
a. If Type(px) is BigInt and Type(py) is String, then
i. Let ny be ! StringToBigInt(py).
ii. If ny is NaN, return undefined.
iii. Return BigInt::lessThan(px, ny).
b. If Type(px) is String and Type(py) is BigInt, then
i. Let nx be ! StringToBigInt(px).
ii. If nx is NaN, return undefined.
iii. Return BigInt::lessThan(nx, py).
c. NOTE: Because px and py are primitive values, evaluation order is not important.
d. Let nx be ! ToNumeric(px).
e. Let ny be ! ToNumeric(py).
f. If Type(nx) is the same as Type(ny), return Type(nx)::lessThan(nx, ny).
g. Assert: Type(nx) is BigInt and Type(ny) is Number, or Type(nx) is Number and Type(ny)
is BigInt.
h. If nx or ny is NaN, return undefined.
i. If nx is -∞𝔽 or ny is +∞𝔽, return true.
j. If nx is +∞𝔽 or ny is -∞𝔽, return false.
k. If ℝ(nx) < ℝ(ny), return true; otherwise return false.

NOTE 1 Step 3 differs from step 2.c in the algorithm that handles the addition operator +
(13.15.3) by using the logical-and operation instead of the logical-or operation.

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NOTE 2 The comparison of Strings uses a simple lexicographic ordering on sequences of

code unit values. There is no attempt to use the more complex, semantically
oriented definitions of character or string equality and collating order defined in the
Unicode specification. Therefore String values that are canonically equal according
to the Unicode standard could test as unequal. In effect this algorithm assumes that
both Strings are already in normalized form. Also, note that for strings containing
supplementary characters, lexicographic ordering on sequences of UTF-16 code unit
values differs from that on sequences of code point values.

7.2.14 Abstract Equality Comparison

The comparison x == y, where x and y are values, produces true or false. Such a comparison is
performed as follows:

1. If Type(x) is the same as Type(y), then

a. Return the result of performing Strict Equality Comparison x === y.
2. If x is null and y is undefined, return true.
3. If x is undefined and y is null, return true.
4. NOTE: This step is replaced in section B.3.7.2.
5. If Type(x) is Number and Type(y) is String, return the result of the comparison x ==
! ToNumber(y).
6. If Type(x) is String and Type(y) is Number, return the result of the comparison ! ToNumber(x)
== y.
7. If Type(x) is BigInt and Type(y) is String, then
a. Let n be ! StringToBigInt(y).
b. If n is NaN, return false.
c. Return the result of the comparison x == n.
8. If Type(x) is String and Type(y) is BigInt, return the result of the comparison y == x.
9. If Type(x) is Boolean, return the result of the comparison ! ToNumber(x) == y.
10. If Type(y) is Boolean, return the result of the comparison x == ! ToNumber(y).
11. If Type(x) is either String, Number, BigInt, or Symbol and Type(y) is Object, return the result
of the comparison x == ? ToPrimitive(y).
12. If Type(x) is Object and Type(y) is either String, Number, BigInt, or Symbol, return the result
of the comparison ? ToPrimitive(x) == y.
13. If Type(x) is BigInt and Type(y) is Number, or if Type(x) is Number and Type(y) is BigInt, then

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a. If x or y are any of NaN, +∞𝔽, or -∞𝔽, return false.

b. If ℝ(x) = ℝ(y), return true; otherwise return false.
14. Return false.

7.2.15 Strict Equality Comparison

The comparison x === y, where x and y are values, produces true or false. Such a comparison is
performed as follows:

1. If Type(x) is different from Type(y), return false.

2. If Type(x) is Number or BigInt, then
a. Return ! Type(x)::equal(x, y).
3. Return ! SameValueNonNumeric(x, y).

NOTE This algorithm differs from the SameValue Algorithm in its treatment of signed
zeroes and NaNs.

7.3 Operations on Objects

7.3.1 MakeBasicObject ( internalSlotsList )

The abstract operation MakeBasicObject takes argument internalSlotsList. It is the source of all
ECMAScript objects that are created algorithmically, including both ordinary objects and exotic
objects. It factors out common steps used in creating all objects, and centralizes object creation. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: internalSlotsList is a List of internal slot names.

2. Let obj be a newly created object with an internal slot for each name in internalSlotsList.
3. Set obj's essential internal methods to the default ordinary object definitions specified in 10.1.
4. Assert: If the caller will not be overriding both obj's [[GetPrototypeOf]] and [[SetPrototypeOf]]
essential internal methods, then internalSlotsList contains [[Prototype]].
5. Assert: If the caller will not be overriding all of obj's [[SetPrototypeOf]], [[IsExtensible]], and
[[PreventExtensions]] essential internal methods, then internalSlotsList contains [[Extensible]].
6. If internalSlotsList contains [[Extensible]], set obj.[[Extensible]] to true.
7. Return obj.
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NOTE Within this specification, exotic objects are created in abstract operations such as
ArrayCreate and BoundFunctionCreate by first calling MakeBasicObject to obtain a
basic, foundational object, and then overriding some or all of that object's internal
methods. In order to encapsulate exotic object creation, the object's essential internal
methods are never modified outside those operations.

7.3.2 Get ( O, P )
The abstract operation Get takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a property key). It is used to
retrieve the value of a specific property of an object. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
3. Return ? O.[[Get]](P, O).

7.3.3 GetV ( V, P )
The abstract operation GetV takes arguments V (an ECMAScript language value) and P (a property
key). It is used to retrieve the value of a specific property of an ECMAScript language value. If the
value is not an object, the property lookup is performed using a wrapper object appropriate for the
type of the value. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Let O be ? ToObject(V).
3. Return ? O.[[Get]](P, V).

7.3.4 Set ( O, P, V, Throw )

The abstract operation Set takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key), V (an ECMAScript
language value), and Throw (a Boolean). It is used to set the value of a specific property of an object.
V is the new value for the property. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
3. Assert: Type(Throw) is Boolean.
4. Let success be ? O.[[Set]](P, V, O).
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5. If success is false and Throw is true, throw a TypeError exception.

6. Return success.

7.3.5 CreateDataProperty ( O, P, V )
The abstract operation CreateDataProperty takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key), and V
(an ECMAScript language value). It is used to create a new own property of an object. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
3. Let newDesc be the PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: V, [[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]: true,
[[Configurable]]: true }.
4. Return ? O.[[DefineOwnProperty]](P, newDesc).

NOTE This abstract operation creates a property whose attributes are set to the same
defaults used for properties created by the ECMAScript language assignment
operator. Normally, the property will not already exist. If it does exist and is not
configurable or if O is not extensible, [[DefineOwnProperty]] will return false.

7.3.6 CreateMethodProperty ( O, P, V )
The abstract operation CreateMethodProperty takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key), and
V (an ECMAScript language value). It is used to create a new own property of an object. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
3. Let newDesc be the PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: V, [[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]:
false, [[Configurable]]: true }.
4. Return ? O.[[DefineOwnProperty]](P, newDesc).

NOTE This abstract operation creates a property whose attributes are set to the same
defaults used for built-in methods and methods defined using class declaration
syntax. Normally, the property will not already exist. If it does exist and is not
configurable or if O is not extensible, [[DefineOwnProperty]] will return false.
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7.3.7 CreateDataPropertyOrThrow ( O, P, V )
The abstract operation CreateDataPropertyOrThrow takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property
key), and V (an ECMAScript language value). It is used to create a new own property of an object. It
throws a TypeError exception if the requested property update cannot be performed. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
3. Let success be ? CreateDataProperty(O, P, V).
4. If success is false, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Return success.

NOTE This abstract operation creates a property whose attributes are set to the same
defaults used for properties created by the ECMAScript language assignment
operator. Normally, the property will not already exist. If it does exist and is not
configurable or if O is not extensible, [[DefineOwnProperty]] will return false
causing this operation to throw a TypeError exception.

7.3.8 DefinePropertyOrThrow ( O, P, desc )

The abstract operation DefinePropertyOrThrow takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key),
and desc (a Property Descriptor). It is used to call the [[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of an
object in a manner that will throw a TypeError exception if the requested property update cannot be
performed. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
3. Let success be ? O.[[DefineOwnProperty]](P, desc).
4. If success is false, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Return success.

7.3.9 DeletePropertyOrThrow ( O, P )

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The abstract operation DeletePropertyOrThrow takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a property
key). It is used to remove a specific own property of an object. It throws an exception if the property
is not configurable. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
3. Let success be ? O.[[Delete]](P).
4. If success is false, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Return success.

7.3.10 GetMethod ( V, P )
The abstract operation GetMethod takes arguments V (an ECMAScript language value) and P (a
property key). It is used to get the value of a specific property of an ECMAScript language value
when the value of the property is expected to be a function. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Let func be ? GetV(V, P).
3. If func is either undefined or null, return undefined.
4. If IsCallable(func) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Return func.

7.3.11 HasProperty ( O, P )
The abstract operation HasProperty takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a property key) and
returns a completion record which, if its [[Type]] is normal, has a [[Value]] which is a Boolean. It is
used to determine whether an object has a property with the specified property key. The property
may be either an own or inherited. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
3. Return ? O.[[HasProperty]](P).

7.3.12 HasOwnProperty ( O, P )

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The abstract operation HasOwnProperty takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a property key) and
returns a completion record which, if its [[Type]] is normal, has a [[Value]] which is a Boolean. It is
used to determine whether an object has an own property with the specified property key. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
3. Let desc be ? O.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
4. If desc is undefined, return false.
5. Return true.

7.3.13 Call ( F, V [ , argumentsList ] )

The abstract operation Call takes arguments F (an ECMAScript language value) and V (an
ECMAScript language value) and optional argument argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language
values). It is used to call the [[Call]] internal method of a function object. F is the function object, V
is an ECMAScript language value that is the this value of the [[Call]], and argumentsList is the value
passed to the corresponding argument of the internal method. If argumentsList is not present, a new
empty List is used as its value. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If argumentsList is not present, set argumentsList to a new empty List.

2. If IsCallable(F) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return ? F.[[Call]](V, argumentsList).

7.3.14 Construct ( F [ , argumentsList [ , newTarget ] ] )

The abstract operation Construct takes argument F (a function object) and optional arguments
argumentsList and newTarget. It is used to call the [[Construct]] internal method of a function object.
argumentsList and newTarget are the values to be passed as the corresponding arguments of the
internal method. If argumentsList is not present, a new empty List is used as its value. If newTarget
is not present, F is used as its value. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If newTarget is not present, set newTarget to F.

2. If argumentsList is not present, set argumentsList to a new empty List.
3. Assert: IsConstructor(F) is true.
4. Assert: IsConstructor(newTarget) is true.
5. Return ? F.[[Construct]](argumentsList, newTarget).
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NOTE If newTarget is not present, this operation is equivalent to:

new F(...argumentsList)

7.3.15 SetIntegrityLevel ( O, level )

The abstract operation SetIntegrityLevel takes arguments O and level. It is used to fix the set of own
properties of an object. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Assert: level is either sealed or frozen.
3. Let status be ? O.[[PreventExtensions]]().
4. If status is false, return false.
5. Let keys be ? O.[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
6. If level is sealed, then
a. For each element k of keys, do
i. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(O, k, PropertyDescriptor { [[Configurable]]:
false }).
7. Else,
a. Assert: level is frozen.
b. For each element k of keys, do
i. Let currentDesc be ? O.[[GetOwnProperty]](k).
ii. If currentDesc is not undefined, then
1. If IsAccessorDescriptor(currentDesc) is true, then
a. Let desc be the PropertyDescriptor { [[Configurable]]: false }.
2. Else,
a. Let desc be the PropertyDescriptor { [[Configurable]]: false,
[[Writable]]: false }.
3. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(O, k, desc).
8. Return true.

7.3.16 TestIntegrityLevel ( O, level )

The abstract operation TestIntegrityLevel takes arguments O and level. It is used to determine if the
set of own properties of an object are fixed. It performs the following steps when called:

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1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Assert: level is either sealed or frozen.
3. Let extensible be ? IsExtensible(O).
4. If extensible is true, return false.
5. NOTE: If the object is extensible, none of its properties are examined.
6. Let keys be ? O.[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
7. For each element k of keys, do
a. Let currentDesc be ? O.[[GetOwnProperty]](k).
b. If currentDesc is not undefined, then
i. If currentDesc.[[Configurable]] is true, return false.
ii. If level is frozen and IsDataDescriptor(currentDesc) is true, then
1. If currentDesc.[[Writable]] is true, return false.
8. Return true.

7.3.17 CreateArrayFromList ( elements )

The abstract operation CreateArrayFromList takes argument elements (a List). It is used to create an
Array object whose elements are provided by elements. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: elements is a List whose elements are all ECMAScript language values.
2. Let array be ! ArrayCreate(0).
3. Let n be 0.
4. For each element e of elements, do
a. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(array, ! ToString(𝔽(n)), e).
b. Set n to n + 1.
5. Return array.

7.3.18 LengthOfArrayLike ( obj )

The abstract operation LengthOfArrayLike takes argument obj. It returns the value of the "length"
property of an array-like object (as a non-negative integer). It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: Type(obj) is Object.

2. Return ℝ(? ToLength(? Get(obj, "length"))).

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An array-like object is any object for which this operation returns an integer rather than an abrupt
completion.

NOTE 1 Typically, an array-like object would also have some properties with integer index
names. However, that is not a requirement of this definition.

NOTE 2 Array objects and String objects are examples of array-like objects.

7.3.19 CreateListFromArrayLike ( obj [ , elementTypes ] )

The abstract operation CreateListFromArrayLike takes argument obj and optional argument
elementTypes (a List of names of ECMAScript Language Types). It is used to create a List value
whose elements are provided by the indexed properties of obj. elementTypes contains the names of
ECMAScript Language Types that are allowed for element values of the List that is created. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. If elementTypes is not present, set elementTypes to « Undefined, Null, Boolean, String, Symbol,
Number, BigInt, Object ».
2. If Type(obj) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(obj).
4. Let list be a new empty List.
5. Let index be 0.
6. Repeat, while index < len,
a. Let indexName be ! ToString(𝔽(index)).
b. Let next be ? Get(obj, indexName).
c. If Type(next) is not an element of elementTypes, throw a TypeError exception.
d. Append next as the last element of list.
e. Set index to index + 1.
7. Return list.

7.3.20 Invoke ( V, P [ , argumentsList ] )

The abstract operation Invoke takes arguments V (an ECMAScript language value) and P (a property
key) and optional argument argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values). It is used to call
a method property of an ECMAScript language value. V serves as both the lookup point for the

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property and the this value of the call. argumentsList is the list of arguments values passed to the
method. If argumentsList is not present, a new empty List is used as its value. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. If argumentsList is not present, set argumentsList to a new empty List.
3. Let func be ? GetV(V, P).
4. Return ? Call(func, V, argumentsList).

7.3.21 OrdinaryHasInstance ( C, O )
The abstract operation OrdinaryHasInstance takes arguments C (an ECMAScript language value)
and O. It implements the default algorithm for determining if O inherits from the instance object
inheritance path provided by C. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If IsCallable(C) is false, return false.

2. If C has a [[BoundTargetFunction]] internal slot, then
a. Let BC be C.[[BoundTargetFunction]].
b. Return ? InstanceofOperator(O, BC).
3. If Type(O) is not Object, return false.
4. Let P be ? Get(C, "prototype").
5. If Type(P) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Repeat,
a. Set O to ? O.[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
b. If O is null, return false.
c. If SameValue(P, O) is true, return true.

7.3.22 SpeciesConstructor ( O, defaultConstructor )

The abstract operation SpeciesConstructor takes arguments O (an Object) and defaultConstructor (a
constructor). It is used to retrieve the constructor that should be used to create new objects that are
derived from O. defaultConstructor is the constructor to use if a constructor @@species property
cannot be found starting from O. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Let C be ? Get(O, "constructor").
3. If C is undefined, return defaultConstructor.
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4. If Type(C) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.

5. Let S be ? Get(C, @@species).
6. If S is either undefined or null, return defaultConstructor.
7. If IsConstructor(S) is true, return S.
8. Throw a TypeError exception.

7.3.23 EnumerableOwnPropertyNames ( O, kind )

The abstract operation EnumerableOwnPropertyNames takes arguments O (an Object) and kind (one
of key, value, or key+value). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Let ownKeys be ? O.[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
3. Let properties be a new empty List.
4. For each element key of ownKeys, do
a. If Type(key) is String, then
i. Let desc be ? O.[[GetOwnProperty]](key).
ii. If desc is not undefined and desc.[[Enumerable]] is true, then
1. If kind is key, append key to properties.
2. Else,
a. Let value be ? Get(O, key).
b. If kind is value, append value to properties.
c. Else,
i. Assert: kind is key+value.
ii. Let entry be ! CreateArrayFromList(« key, value »).
iii. Append entry to properties.
5. Return properties.

7.3.24 GetFunctionRealm ( obj )

The abstract operation GetFunctionRealm takes argument obj. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: ! IsCallable(obj) is true.

2. If obj has a [[Realm]] internal slot, then
a. Return obj.[[Realm]].

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3. If obj is a bound function exotic object, then

a. Let target be obj.[[BoundTargetFunction]].
b. Return ? GetFunctionRealm(target).
4. If obj is a Proxy exotic object, then
a. If obj.[[ProxyHandler]] is null, throw a TypeError exception.
b. Let proxyTarget be obj.[[ProxyTarget]].
c. Return ? GetFunctionRealm(proxyTarget).
5. Return the current Realm Record.

NOTE Step 5 will only be reached if obj is a non-standard function exotic object that does
not have a [[Realm]] internal slot.

7.3.25 CopyDataProperties ( target, source, excludedItems )

The abstract operation CopyDataProperties takes arguments target, source, and excludedItems. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(target) is Object.

2. Assert: excludedItems is a List of property keys.
3. If source is undefined or null, return target.
4. Let from be ! ToObject(source).
5. Let keys be ? from.[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
6. For each element nextKey of keys, do
a. Let excluded be false.
b. For each element e of excludedItems, do
i. If SameValue(e, nextKey) is true, then
1. Set excluded to true.
c. If excluded is false, then
i. Let desc be ? from.[[GetOwnProperty]](nextKey).
ii. If desc is not undefined and desc.[[Enumerable]] is true, then
1. Let propValue be ? Get(from, nextKey).
2. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(target, nextKey, propValue).
7. Return target.

NOTE The target passed in here is always a newly created object which is not directly
accessible in case of an error being thrown.
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7.4 Operations on Iterator Objects

See Common Iteration Interfaces (27.1).

7.4.1 GetIterator ( obj [ , hint [ , method ] ] )

The abstract operation GetIterator takes argument obj and optional arguments hint and method. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. If hint is not present, set hint to sync.

2. Assert: hint is either sync or async.
3. If method is not present, then
a. If hint is async, then
i. Set method to ? GetMethod(obj, @@asyncIterator).
ii. If method is undefined, then
1. Let syncMethod be ? GetMethod(obj, @@iterator).
2. Let syncIteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(obj, sync, syncMethod).
3. Return ! CreateAsyncFromSyncIterator(syncIteratorRecord).
b. Otherwise, set method to ? GetMethod(obj, @@iterator).
4. Let iterator be ? Call(method, obj).
5. If Type(iterator) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Let nextMethod be ? GetV(iterator, "next").
7. Let iteratorRecord be the Record { [[Iterator]]: iterator, [[NextMethod]]: nextMethod,
[[Done]]: false }.
8. Return iteratorRecord.

7.4.2 IteratorNext ( iteratorRecord [ , value ] )

The abstract operation IteratorNext takes argument iteratorRecord and optional argument value. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. If value is not present, then

a. Let result be ? Call(iteratorRecord.[[NextMethod]], iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]]).
2. Else,

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a. Let result be ? Call(iteratorRecord.[[NextMethod]], iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]], « value

»).
3. If Type(result) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Return result.

7.4.3 IteratorComplete ( iterResult )

The abstract operation IteratorComplete takes argument iterResult. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Assert: Type(iterResult) is Object.

2. Return ! ToBoolean(? Get(iterResult, "done")).

7.4.4 IteratorValue ( iterResult )

The abstract operation IteratorValue takes argument iterResult. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: Type(iterResult) is Object.

2. Return ? Get(iterResult, "value").

7.4.5 IteratorStep ( iteratorRecord )

The abstract operation IteratorStep takes argument iteratorRecord. It requests the next value from
iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]] by calling iteratorRecord.[[NextMethod]] and returns either false
indicating that the iterator has reached its end or the IteratorResult object if a next value is available.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let result be ? IteratorNext(iteratorRecord).

2. Let done be ? IteratorComplete(result).
3. If done is true, return false.
4. Return result.

7.4.6 IteratorClose ( iteratorRecord, completion )

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The abstract operation IteratorClose takes arguments iteratorRecord and completion. It is used to
notify an iterator that it should perform any actions it would normally perform when it has reached
its completed state. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]]) is Object.

2. Assert: completion is a Completion Record.
3. Let iterator be iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]].
4. Let innerResult be GetMethod(iterator, "return").
5. If innerResult.[[Type]] is normal, then
a. Let return be innerResult.[[Value]].
b. If return is undefined, return Completion(completion).
c. Set innerResult to Call(return, iterator).
6. If completion.[[Type]] is throw, return Completion(completion).
7. If innerResult.[[Type]] is throw, return Completion(innerResult).
8. If Type(innerResult.[[Value]]) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
9. Return Completion(completion).

7.4.7 AsyncIteratorClose ( iteratorRecord, completion )

The abstract operation AsyncIteratorClose takes arguments iteratorRecord and completion. It is used
to notify an async iterator that it should perform any actions it would normally perform when it has
reached its completed state. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]]) is Object.

2. Assert: completion is a Completion Record.
3. Let iterator be iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]].
4. Let innerResult be GetMethod(iterator, "return").
5. If innerResult.[[Type]] is normal, then
a. Let return be innerResult.[[Value]].
b. If return is undefined, return Completion(completion).
c. Set innerResult to Call(return, iterator).
d. If innerResult.[[Type]] is normal, set innerResult to Await(innerResult.[[Value]]).
6. If completion.[[Type]] is throw, return Completion(completion).
7. If innerResult.[[Type]] is throw, return Completion(innerResult).
8. If Type(innerResult.[[Value]]) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
9. Return Completion(completion).

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7.4.8 CreateIterResultObject ( value, done )

The abstract operation CreateIterResultObject takes arguments value and done. It creates an object
that supports the IteratorResult interface. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(done) is Boolean.

2. Let obj be ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(%Object.prototype%).
3. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "value", value).
4. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "done", done).
5. Return obj.

7.4.9 CreateListIteratorRecord ( list )

The abstract operation CreateListIteratorRecord takes argument list. It creates an Iterator (27.1.1.2)
object record whose next method returns the successive elements of list. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let closure be a new Abstract Closure with no parameters that captures list and performs the
following steps when called:
a. For each element E of list, do
i. Perform ? Yield(E).
b. Return undefined.
2. Let iterator be ! CreateIteratorFromClosure(closure, empty, %IteratorPrototype%).
3. Return Record { [[Iterator]]: iterator, [[NextMethod]]:
%GeneratorFunction.prototype.prototype.next%, [[Done]]: false }.

NOTE The list iterator object is never directly accessible to ECMAScript code.

7.4.10 IterableToList ( items [ , method ] )

The abstract operation IterableToList takes argument items and optional argument method. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. If method is present, then

a. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(items, sync, method).
2. Else,
a. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(items, sync).
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3. Let values be a new empty List.

4. Let next be true.
5. Repeat, while next is not false,
a. Set next to ? IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is not false, then
i. Let nextValue be ? IteratorValue(next).
ii. Append nextValue to the end of the List values.
6. Return values.

8 Syntax-Directed Operations
In addition to those defined in this section, specialized syntax-directed operations are defined
throughout this specification.

8.1 Scope Analysis

8.1.1 Static Semantics: BoundNames

NOTE "*default*" is used within this specification as a synthetic name for hoistable
anonymous functions that are defined using export declarations.

BindingIdentifier : Identifier

1. Return a List whose sole element is the StringValue of Identifier.

BindingIdentifier : yield

1. Return a List whose sole element is "yield".

BindingIdentifier : await

1. Return a List whose sole element is "await".

LexicalDeclaration : LetOrConst BindingList ;

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1. Return the BoundNames of BindingList.

BindingList : BindingList , LexicalBinding

1. Let names be the BoundNames of BindingList.

2. Append to names the elements of the BoundNames of LexicalBinding.
3. Return names.

LexicalBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializeropt

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

LexicalBinding : BindingPattern Initializer

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingPattern.

VariableDeclarationList : VariableDeclarationList , VariableDeclaration

1. Let names be BoundNames of VariableDeclarationList.

2. Append to names the elements of BoundNames of VariableDeclaration.
3. Return names.

VariableDeclaration : BindingIdentifier Initializeropt

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

VariableDeclaration : BindingPattern Initializer

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingPattern.

ObjectBindingPattern : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

ObjectBindingPattern : { BindingPropertyList , BindingRestProperty }

1. Let names be BoundNames of BindingPropertyList.

2. Append to names the elements of BoundNames of BindingRestProperty.
3. Return names.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ Elisionopt ]

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1. Return a new empty List.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ Elisionopt BindingRestElement ]

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingRestElement.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ BindingElementList , Elisionopt ]

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingElementList.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ BindingElementList , Elisionopt BindingRestElement ]

1. Let names be BoundNames of BindingElementList.

2. Append to names the elements of BoundNames of BindingRestElement.
3. Return names.

BindingPropertyList : BindingPropertyList , BindingProperty

1. Let names be BoundNames of BindingPropertyList.

2. Append to names the elements of BoundNames of BindingProperty.
3. Return names.

BindingElementList : BindingElementList , BindingElisionElement

1. Let names be BoundNames of BindingElementList.

2. Append to names the elements of BoundNames of BindingElisionElement.
3. Return names.

BindingElisionElement : Elisionopt BindingElement

1. Return BoundNames of BindingElement.

BindingProperty : PropertyName : BindingElement

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingElement.

SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializeropt

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

BindingElement : BindingPattern Initializeropt

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1. Return the BoundNames of BindingPattern.

ForDeclaration : LetOrConst ForBinding

1. Return the BoundNames of ForBinding.

FunctionDeclaration : function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody

}

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

FunctionDeclaration : function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return « "*default*" ».

FormalParameters : [empty]

1. Return a new empty List.

FormalParameters : FormalParameterList , FunctionRestParameter

1. Let names be BoundNames of FormalParameterList.

2. Append to names the BoundNames of FunctionRestParameter.
3. Return names.

FormalParameterList : FormalParameterList , FormalParameter

1. Let names be BoundNames of FormalParameterList.

2. Append to names the BoundNames of FormalParameter.
3. Return names.

ArrowParameters : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let formals be the ArrowFormalParameters that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return the BoundNames of formals.

GeneratorDeclaration : function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) {

GeneratorBody }

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

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GeneratorDeclaration : function * ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Return « "*default*" ».

AsyncGeneratorDeclaration : async function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters )

{ AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

AsyncGeneratorDeclaration : async function * ( FormalParameters ) {

AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Return « "*default*" ».

ClassDeclaration : class BindingIdentifier ClassTail

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

ClassDeclaration : class ClassTail

1. Return « "*default*" ».

AsyncFunctionDeclaration : async function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) {

AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return the BoundNames of BindingIdentifier.

AsyncFunctionDeclaration : async function ( FormalParameters ) {

AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return « "*default*" ».

CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead : MemberExpression Arguments

1. Let head be the AsyncArrowHead that is covered by

CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead.
2. Return the BoundNames of head.

ImportDeclaration : import ImportClause FromClause ;

1. Return the BoundNames of ImportClause.

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ImportDeclaration : import ModuleSpecifier ;

1. Return a new empty List.

ImportClause : ImportedDefaultBinding , NameSpaceImport

1. Let names be the BoundNames of ImportedDefaultBinding.

2. Append to names the elements of the BoundNames of NameSpaceImport.
3. Return names.

ImportClause : ImportedDefaultBinding , NamedImports

1. Let names be the BoundNames of ImportedDefaultBinding.

2. Append to names the elements of the BoundNames of NamedImports.
3. Return names.

NamedImports : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

ImportsList : ImportsList , ImportSpecifier

1. Let names be the BoundNames of ImportsList.

2. Append to names the elements of the BoundNames of ImportSpecifier.
3. Return names.

ImportSpecifier : IdentifierName as ImportedBinding

1. Return the BoundNames of ImportedBinding.

ExportDeclaration :
export ExportFromClause FromClause ;
export NamedExports ;

1. Return a new empty List.

ExportDeclaration : export VariableStatement

1. Return the BoundNames of VariableStatement.

ExportDeclaration : export Declaration

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1. Return the BoundNames of Declaration.

ExportDeclaration : export default HoistableDeclaration

1. Let declarationNames be the BoundNames of HoistableDeclaration.

2. If declarationNames does not include the element "*default*", append "*default*" to
declarationNames.
3. Return declarationNames.

ExportDeclaration : export default ClassDeclaration

1. Let declarationNames be the BoundNames of ClassDeclaration.

2. If declarationNames does not include the element "*default*", append "*default*" to
declarationNames.
3. Return declarationNames.

ExportDeclaration : export default AssignmentExpression ;

1. Return « "*default*" ».

8.1.2 Static Semantics: DeclarationPart

HoistableDeclaration : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return FunctionDeclaration.

HoistableDeclaration : GeneratorDeclaration

1. Return GeneratorDeclaration.

HoistableDeclaration : AsyncFunctionDeclaration

1. Return AsyncFunctionDeclaration.

HoistableDeclaration : AsyncGeneratorDeclaration

1. Return AsyncGeneratorDeclaration.

Declaration : ClassDeclaration

1. Return ClassDeclaration.

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Declaration : LexicalDeclaration

1. Return LexicalDeclaration.

8.1.3 Static Semantics: IsConstantDeclaration

LexicalDeclaration : LetOrConst BindingList ;

1. Return IsConstantDeclaration of LetOrConst.

LetOrConst : let

1. Return false.

LetOrConst : const

1. Return true.

FunctionDeclaration :
function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
GeneratorDeclaration :
function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
function * ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration :
async function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) {
AsyncGeneratorBody }
async function * ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncFunctionDeclaration :
async function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
async function ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return false.

ClassDeclaration :
class BindingIdentifier ClassTail
class ClassTail

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1. Return false.

ExportDeclaration :
export ExportFromClause FromClause ;
export NamedExports ;
export default AssignmentExpression ;

1. Return false.

NOTE It is not necessary to treat export default AssignmentExpression as a constant

declaration because there is no syntax that permits assignment to the internal bound
name used to reference a module's default object.

8.1.4 Static Semantics: LexicallyDeclaredNames

Block : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let names be LexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList.

2. Append to names the elements of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementListItem.
3. Return names.

StatementListItem : Statement

1. If Statement is Statement : LabelledStatement , return LexicallyDeclaredNames of

LabelledStatement.
2. Return a new empty List.

StatementListItem : Declaration

1. Return the BoundNames of Declaration.

CaseBlock : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

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CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. If the first CaseClauses is present, let names be the LexicallyDeclaredNames of the first
CaseClauses.
2. Else, let names be a new empty List.
3. Append to names the elements of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of DefaultClause.
4. If the second CaseClauses is not present, return names.
5. Return the result of appending to names the elements of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of the
second CaseClauses.

CaseClauses : CaseClauses CaseClause

1. Let names be LexicallyDeclaredNames of CaseClauses.

2. Append to names the elements of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of CaseClause.
3. Return names.

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return the LexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList.

2. Return a new empty List.

DefaultClause : default : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return the LexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList.

2. Return a new empty List.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Return the LexicallyDeclaredNames of LabelledItem.

LabelledItem : Statement

1. Return a new empty List.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return BoundNames of FunctionDeclaration.

FunctionStatementList : [empty]

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1. Return a new empty List.

FunctionStatementList : StatementList

1. Return TopLevelLexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList.

ConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Return a new empty List.

AsyncConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Return a new empty List.

ScriptBody : StatementList

1. Return TopLevelLexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList.

NOTE 1 At the top level of a Script, function declarations are treated like var declarations
rather than like lexical declarations.

NOTE 2 The LexicallyDeclaredNames of a Module includes the names of all of its imported
bindings.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let names be LexicallyDeclaredNames of ModuleItemList.

2. Append to names the elements of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of ModuleItem.
3. Return names.

ModuleItem : ImportDeclaration

1. Return the BoundNames of ImportDeclaration.

ModuleItem : ExportDeclaration

1. If ExportDeclaration is export VariableStatement, return a new empty List.

2. Return the BoundNames of ExportDeclaration.

ModuleItem : StatementListItem
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1. Return LexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementListItem.

NOTE 3 At the top level of a Module, function declarations are treated like lexical
declarations rather than like var declarations.

8.1.5 Static Semantics: LexicallyScopedDeclarations

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let declarations be LexicallyScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

2. Append to declarations the elements of the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of StatementListItem.
3. Return declarations.

StatementListItem : Statement

1. If Statement is Statement : LabelledStatement , return LexicallyScopedDeclarations of

LabelledStatement.
2. Return a new empty List.

StatementListItem : Declaration

1. Return a List whose sole element is DeclarationPart of Declaration.

CaseBlock : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. If the first CaseClauses is present, let declarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of the

first CaseClauses.
2. Else, let declarations be a new empty List.
3. Append to declarations the elements of the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of DefaultClause.
4. If the second CaseClauses is not present, return declarations.
5. Return the result of appending to declarations the elements of the LexicallyScopedDeclarations
of the second CaseClauses.

CaseClauses : CaseClauses CaseClause

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1. Let declarations be LexicallyScopedDeclarations of CaseClauses.

2. Append to declarations the elements of the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of CaseClause.
3. Return declarations.

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

2. Return a new empty List.

DefaultClause : default : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

2. Return a new empty List.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Return the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of LabelledItem.

LabelledItem : Statement

1. Return a new empty List.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return a List whose sole element is FunctionDeclaration.

FunctionStatementList : [empty]

1. Return a new empty List.

FunctionStatementList : StatementList

1. Return the TopLevelLexicallyScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

ConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Return a new empty List.

AsyncConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Return a new empty List.

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ScriptBody : StatementList

1. Return TopLevelLexicallyScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

Module : [empty]

1. Return a new empty List.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let declarations be LexicallyScopedDeclarations of ModuleItemList.

2. Append to declarations the elements of the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of ModuleItem.
3. Return declarations.

ModuleItem : ImportDeclaration

1. Return a new empty List.

ExportDeclaration :
export ExportFromClause FromClause ;
export NamedExports ;
export VariableStatement

1. Return a new empty List.

ExportDeclaration : export Declaration

1. Return a List whose sole element is DeclarationPart of Declaration.

ExportDeclaration : export default HoistableDeclaration

1. Return a List whose sole element is DeclarationPart of HoistableDeclaration.

ExportDeclaration : export default ClassDeclaration

1. Return a List whose sole element is ClassDeclaration.

ExportDeclaration : export default AssignmentExpression ;

1. Return a List whose sole element is this ExportDeclaration.

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8.1.6 Static Semantics: VarDeclaredNames

Statement :
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement
ContinueStatement
BreakStatement
ReturnStatement
ThrowStatement
DebuggerStatement

1. Return a new empty List.

Block : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let names be VarDeclaredNames of StatementList.

2. Append to names the elements of the VarDeclaredNames of StatementListItem.
3. Return names.

StatementListItem : Declaration

1. Return a new empty List.

VariableStatement : var VariableDeclarationList ;

1. Return BoundNames of VariableDeclarationList.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

1. Let names be VarDeclaredNames of the first Statement.

2. Append to names the elements of the VarDeclaredNames of the second Statement.
3. Return names.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

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DoWhileStatement : do Statement while ( Expression ) ;

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

WhileStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

ForStatement : for ( Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

ForStatement : for ( var VariableDeclarationList ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt )

Statement

1. Let names be BoundNames of VariableDeclarationList.

2. Append to names the elements of the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.
3. Return names.

ForStatement : for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

ForInOfStatement :
for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration in Expression ) Statement
for ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

ForInOfStatement :
for ( var ForBinding in Expression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

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1. Let names be the BoundNames of ForBinding.

2. Append to names the elements of the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.
3. Return names.

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.6.

WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of CaseBlock.

CaseBlock : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. If the first CaseClauses is present, let names be the VarDeclaredNames of the first CaseClauses
.
2. Else, let names be a new empty List.
3. Append to names the elements of the VarDeclaredNames of DefaultClause.
4. If the second CaseClauses is not present, return names.
5. Return the result of appending to names the elements of the VarDeclaredNames of the second
CaseClauses.

CaseClauses : CaseClauses CaseClause

1. Let names be VarDeclaredNames of CaseClauses.

2. Append to names the elements of the VarDeclaredNames of CaseClause.
3. Return names.

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return the VarDeclaredNames of StatementList.

2. Return a new empty List.

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DefaultClause : default : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return the VarDeclaredNames of StatementList.

2. Return a new empty List.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of LabelledItem.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return a new empty List.

TryStatement : try Block Catch

1. Let names be VarDeclaredNames of Block.

2. Append to names the elements of the VarDeclaredNames of Catch.
3. Return names.

TryStatement : try Block Finally

1. Let names be VarDeclaredNames of Block.

2. Append to names the elements of the VarDeclaredNames of Finally.
3. Return names.

TryStatement : try Block Catch Finally

1. Let names be VarDeclaredNames of Block.

2. Append to names the elements of the VarDeclaredNames of Catch.
3. Append to names the elements of the VarDeclaredNames of Finally.
4. Return names.

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

1. Return the VarDeclaredNames of Block.

FunctionStatementList : [empty]

1. Return a new empty List.

FunctionStatementList : StatementList
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1. Return TopLevelVarDeclaredNames of StatementList.

ConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Return a new empty List.

AsyncConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Return a new empty List.

ScriptBody : StatementList

1. Return TopLevelVarDeclaredNames of StatementList.

Module : [empty]

1. Return a new empty List.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let names be VarDeclaredNames of ModuleItemList.

2. Append to names the elements of the VarDeclaredNames of ModuleItem.
3. Return names.

ModuleItem : ImportDeclaration

1. Return a new empty List.

ModuleItem : ExportDeclaration

1. If ExportDeclaration is export VariableStatement, return BoundNames of ExportDeclaration

.
2. Return a new empty List.

8.1.7 Static Semantics: VarScopedDeclarations

Statement :
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement
ContinueStatement
BreakStatement
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ReturnStatement
ThrowStatement
DebuggerStatement

1. Return a new empty List.

Block : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let declarations be VarScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

2. Append to declarations the elements of the VarScopedDeclarations of StatementListItem.
3. Return declarations.

StatementListItem : Declaration

1. Return a new empty List.

VariableDeclarationList : VariableDeclaration

1. Return a List whose sole element is VariableDeclaration.

VariableDeclarationList : VariableDeclarationList , VariableDeclaration

1. Let declarations be VarScopedDeclarations of VariableDeclarationList.

2. Append VariableDeclaration to declarations.
3. Return declarations.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

1. Let declarations be VarScopedDeclarations of the first Statement.

2. Append to declarations the elements of the VarScopedDeclarations of the second Statement.
3. Return declarations.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

DoWhileStatement : do Statement while ( Expression ) ;

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1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

WhileStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

ForStatement : for ( Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

ForStatement : for ( var VariableDeclarationList ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt )

Statement

1. Let declarations be VarScopedDeclarations of VariableDeclarationList.

2. Append to declarations the elements of the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.
3. Return declarations.

ForStatement : for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

ForInOfStatement :
for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration in Expression ) Statement
for ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

ForInOfStatement :
for ( var ForBinding in Expression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Let declarations be a List whose sole element is ForBinding.

2. Append to declarations the elements of the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.
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3. Return declarations.

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.6.

WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of CaseBlock.

CaseBlock : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. If the first CaseClauses is present, let declarations be the VarScopedDeclarations of the first
CaseClauses.
2. Else, let declarations be a new empty List.
3. Append to declarations the elements of the VarScopedDeclarations of DefaultClause.
4. If the second CaseClauses is not present, return declarations.
5. Return the result of appending to declarations the elements of the VarScopedDeclarations of
the second CaseClauses.

CaseClauses : CaseClauses CaseClause

1. Let declarations be VarScopedDeclarations of CaseClauses.

2. Append to declarations the elements of the VarScopedDeclarations of CaseClause.
3. Return declarations.

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return the VarScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

2. Return a new empty List.

DefaultClause : default : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return the VarScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

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2. Return a new empty List.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of LabelledItem.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return a new empty List.

TryStatement : try Block Catch

1. Let declarations be VarScopedDeclarations of Block.

2. Append to declarations the elements of the VarScopedDeclarations of Catch.
3. Return declarations.

TryStatement : try Block Finally

1. Let declarations be VarScopedDeclarations of Block.

2. Append to declarations the elements of the VarScopedDeclarations of Finally.
3. Return declarations.

TryStatement : try Block Catch Finally

1. Let declarations be VarScopedDeclarations of Block.

2. Append to declarations the elements of the VarScopedDeclarations of Catch.
3. Append to declarations the elements of the VarScopedDeclarations of Finally.
4. Return declarations.

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

1. Return the VarScopedDeclarations of Block.

FunctionStatementList : [empty]

1. Return a new empty List.

FunctionStatementList : StatementList

1. Return the TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

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ConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Return a new empty List.

AsyncConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Return a new empty List.

ScriptBody : StatementList

1. Return TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

Module : [empty]

1. Return a new empty List.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let declarations be VarScopedDeclarations of ModuleItemList.

2. Append to declarations the elements of the VarScopedDeclarations of ModuleItem.
3. Return declarations.

ModuleItem : ImportDeclaration

1. Return a new empty List.

ModuleItem : ExportDeclaration

1. If ExportDeclaration is export VariableStatement, return VarScopedDeclarations of

VariableStatement.
2. Return a new empty List.

8.1.8 Static Semantics: TopLevelLexicallyDeclaredNames

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let names be TopLevelLexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList.

2. Append to names the elements of the TopLevelLexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementListItem.
3. Return names.

StatementListItem : Statement

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1. Return a new empty List.

StatementListItem : Declaration

1. If Declaration is Declaration : HoistableDeclaration , then

a. Return « ».
2. Return the BoundNames of Declaration.

NOTE At the top level of a function, or script, function declarations are treated like var
declarations rather than like lexical declarations.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Return a new empty List.

8.1.9 Static Semantics: TopLevelLexicallyScopedDeclarations

Block : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let declarations be TopLevelLexicallyScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

2. Append to declarations the elements of the TopLevelLexicallyScopedDeclarations of
StatementListItem.
3. Return declarations.

StatementListItem : Statement

1. Return a new empty List.

StatementListItem : Declaration

1. If Declaration is Declaration : HoistableDeclaration , then

a. Return « ».
2. Return a List whose sole element is Declaration.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

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1. Return a new empty List.

8.1.10 Static Semantics: TopLevelVarDeclaredNames

Block : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let names be TopLevelVarDeclaredNames of StatementList.

2. Append to names the elements of the TopLevelVarDeclaredNames of StatementListItem.
3. Return names.

StatementListItem : Declaration

1. If Declaration is Declaration : HoistableDeclaration , then

a. Return the BoundNames of HoistableDeclaration.
2. Return a new empty List.

StatementListItem : Statement

1. If Statement is Statement : LabelledStatement , return TopLevelVarDeclaredNames of

Statement.
2. Return VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

NOTE At the top level of a function or script, inner function declarations are treated like
var declarations.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Return the TopLevelVarDeclaredNames of LabelledItem.

LabelledItem : Statement

1. If Statement is Statement : LabelledStatement , return TopLevelVarDeclaredNames of

Statement.
2. Return VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration
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1. Return BoundNames of FunctionDeclaration.

8.1.11 Static Semantics: TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations

Block : { }

1. Return a new empty List.

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let declarations be TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of StatementList.

2. Append to declarations the elements of the TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of
StatementListItem.
3. Return declarations.

StatementListItem : Statement

1. If Statement is Statement : LabelledStatement , return TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of

Statement.
2. Return VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

StatementListItem : Declaration

1. If Declaration is Declaration : HoistableDeclaration , then

a. Let declaration be DeclarationPart of HoistableDeclaration.
b. Return « declaration ».
2. Return a new empty List.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Return the TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of LabelledItem.

LabelledItem : Statement

1. If Statement is Statement : LabelledStatement , return TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of

Statement.
2. Return VarScopedDeclarations of Statement.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return a List whose sole element is FunctionDeclaration.

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8.2 Labels

8.2.1 Static Semantics: ContainsDuplicateLabels

With parameter labelSet.

Statement :
VariableStatement
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement
ContinueStatement
BreakStatement
ReturnStatement
ThrowStatement
DebuggerStatement
Block : { }
StatementListItem : Declaration

1. Return false.

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let hasDuplicates be ContainsDuplicateLabels of StatementList with argument labelSet.

2. If hasDuplicates is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of StatementListItem with argument labelSet.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

1. Let hasDuplicate be ContainsDuplicateLabels of the first Statement with argument labelSet.

2. If hasDuplicate is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of the second Statement with argument labelSet.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Statement with argument labelSet.

DoWhileStatement : do Statement while ( Expression ) ;

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1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Statement with argument labelSet.

WhileStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Statement with argument labelSet.

ForStatement :
for ( Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( var VariableDeclarationList ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Statement with argument labelSet.

ForInOfStatement :
for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding in Expression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration in Expression ) Statement
for ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Statement with argument labelSet.

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.6.

WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Statement with argument labelSet.

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of CaseBlock with argument labelSet.

CaseBlock : { }
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1. Return false.

CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. If the first CaseClauses is present, then

a. If ContainsDuplicateLabels of the first CaseClauses with argument labelSet is true,
return true.
2. If ContainsDuplicateLabels of DefaultClause with argument labelSet is true, return true.
3. If the second CaseClauses is not present, return false.
4. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of the second CaseClauses with argument labelSet.

CaseClauses : CaseClauses CaseClause

1. Let hasDuplicates be ContainsDuplicateLabels of CaseClauses with argument labelSet.

2. If hasDuplicates is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of CaseClause with argument labelSet.

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return ContainsDuplicateLabels of StatementList with argument

labelSet.
2. Return false.

DefaultClause : default : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return ContainsDuplicateLabels of StatementList with argument

labelSet.
2. Return false.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Let label be the StringValue of LabelIdentifier.

2. If label is an element of labelSet, return true.
3. Let newLabelSet be a copy of labelSet with label appended.
4. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of LabelledItem with argument newLabelSet.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return false.

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TryStatement : try Block Catch

1. Let hasDuplicates be ContainsDuplicateLabels of Block with argument labelSet.

2. If hasDuplicates is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Catch with argument labelSet.

TryStatement : try Block Finally

1. Let hasDuplicates be ContainsDuplicateLabels of Block with argument labelSet.

2. If hasDuplicates is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Finally with argument labelSet.

TryStatement : try Block Catch Finally

1. If ContainsDuplicateLabels of Block with argument labelSet is true, return true.

2. If ContainsDuplicateLabels of Catch with argument labelSet is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Finally with argument labelSet.

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

1. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of Block with argument labelSet.

FunctionStatementList : [empty]

1. Return false.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let hasDuplicates be ContainsDuplicateLabels of ModuleItemList with argument labelSet.

2. If hasDuplicates is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsDuplicateLabels of ModuleItem with argument labelSet.

ModuleItem :
ImportDeclaration
ExportDeclaration

1. Return false.

8.2.2 Static Semantics: ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget

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With parameter labelSet.

Statement :
VariableStatement
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement
ContinueStatement
ReturnStatement
ThrowStatement
DebuggerStatement
Block : { }
StatementListItem : Declaration

1. Return false.

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of StatementList with argument

labelSet.
2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of StatementListItem with argument labelSet.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of the first Statement with

argument labelSet.
2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of the second Statement with argument labelSet.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Statement with argument labelSet.

DoWhileStatement : do Statement while ( Expression ) ;

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Statement with argument labelSet.

WhileStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement

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1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Statement with argument labelSet.

ForStatement :
for ( Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( var VariableDeclarationList ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Statement with argument labelSet.

ForInOfStatement :
for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding in Expression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration in Expression ) Statement
for ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Statement with argument labelSet.

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.6.

BreakStatement : break ;

1. Return false.

BreakStatement : break LabelIdentifier ;

1. If the StringValue of LabelIdentifier is not an element of labelSet, return true.

2. Return false.

WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Statement with argument labelSet.

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SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of CaseBlock with argument labelSet.

CaseBlock : { }

1. Return false.

CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. If the first CaseClauses is present, then

a. If ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of the first CaseClauses with argument labelSet is
true, return true.
2. If ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of DefaultClause with argument labelSet is true, return true.
3. If the second CaseClauses is not present, return false.
4. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of the second CaseClauses with argument labelSet.

CaseClauses : CaseClauses CaseClause

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of CaseClauses with argument

labelSet.
2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of CaseClause with argument labelSet.

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of StatementList with

argument labelSet.
2. Return false.

DefaultClause : default : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of StatementList with

argument labelSet.
2. Return false.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Let label be the StringValue of LabelIdentifier.

2. Let newLabelSet be a copy of labelSet with label appended.
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3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of LabelledItem with argument newLabelSet.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return false.

TryStatement : try Block Catch

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Block with argument labelSet.

2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Catch with argument labelSet.

TryStatement : try Block Finally

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Block with argument labelSet.

2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Finally with argument labelSet.

TryStatement : try Block Catch Finally

1. If ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Block with argument labelSet is true, return true.

2. If ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Catch with argument labelSet is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Finally with argument labelSet.

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

1. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of Block with argument labelSet.

FunctionStatementList : [empty]

1. Return false.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of ModuleItemList with argument

labelSet.
2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of ModuleItem with argument labelSet.

ModuleItem :
ImportDeclaration
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ExportDeclaration

1. Return false.

8.2.3 Static Semantics: ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget

With parameters iterationSet and labelSet.

Statement :
VariableStatement
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement
BreakStatement
ReturnStatement
ThrowStatement
DebuggerStatement
Block : { }
StatementListItem : Declaration

1. Return false.

BreakableStatement : IterationStatement

1. Let newIterationSet be a copy of iterationSet with all the elements of labelSet appended.
2. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of IterationStatement with arguments
newIterationSet and « ».

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of StatementList with

arguments iterationSet and « ».
2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of StatementListItem with arguments iterationSet
and « ».

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

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1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of the first Statement with

arguments iterationSet and « ».
2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of the second Statement with arguments iterationSet
and « ».

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Statement with arguments iterationSet and « ».

DoWhileStatement : do Statement while ( Expression ) ;

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Statement with arguments iterationSet and « ».

WhileStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Statement with arguments iterationSet and « ».

ForStatement :
for ( Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( var VariableDeclarationList ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Statement with arguments iterationSet and « ».

ForInOfStatement :
for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding in Expression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration in Expression ) Statement
for ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Statement with arguments iterationSet and « ».

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NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.6.

ContinueStatement : continue ;

1. Return false.

ContinueStatement : continue LabelIdentifier ;

1. If the StringValue of LabelIdentifier is not an element of iterationSet, return true.

2. Return false.

WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Statement with arguments iterationSet and « ».

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of CaseBlock with arguments iterationSet and « ».

CaseBlock : { }

1. Return false.

CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. If the first CaseClauses is present, then

a. If ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of the first CaseClauses with arguments iterationSet
and « » is true, return true.
2. If ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of DefaultClause with arguments iterationSet and « » is
true, return true.
3. If the second CaseClauses is not present, return false.
4. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of the second CaseClauses with arguments
iterationSet and « ».

CaseClauses : CaseClauses CaseClause

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of CaseClauses with arguments

iterationSet and « ».
2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.

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3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of CaseClause with arguments iterationSet and « ».

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of StatementList with

arguments iterationSet and « ».
2. Return false.

DefaultClause : default : StatementListopt

1. If the StatementList is present, return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of StatementList with

arguments iterationSet and « ».
2. Return false.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Let label be the StringValue of LabelIdentifier.

2. Let newLabelSet be a copy of labelSet with label appended.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of LabelledItem with arguments iterationSet and
newLabelSet.

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return false.

TryStatement : try Block Catch

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Block with arguments

iterationSet and « ».
2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Catch with arguments iterationSet and « ».

TryStatement : try Block Finally

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Block with arguments

iterationSet and « ».
2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Finally with arguments iterationSet and « ».

TryStatement : try Block Catch Finally

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1. If ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Block with arguments iterationSet and « » is true,

return true.
2. If ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Catch with arguments iterationSet and « » is true,
return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Finally with arguments iterationSet and « ».

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

1. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of Block with arguments iterationSet and « ».

FunctionStatementList : [empty]

1. Return false.

ModuleItemList : ModuleItemList ModuleItem

1. Let hasUndefinedLabels be ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of ModuleItemList with

arguments iterationSet and « ».
2. If hasUndefinedLabels is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of ModuleItem with arguments iterationSet and « ».

ModuleItem :
ImportDeclaration
ExportDeclaration

1. Return false.

8.3 Function Name Inference

8.3.1 Static Semantics: HasName

PrimaryExpression : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let expr be the ParenthesizedExpression that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. If IsFunctionDefinition of expr is false, return false.
3. Return HasName of expr.

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FunctionExpression :
function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
GeneratorExpression :
function * ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorExpression :
async function * ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncFunctionExpression :
async function ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
ArrowFunction :
ArrowParameters => ConciseBody
AsyncArrowFunction :
async AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier => AsyncConciseBody
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead => AsyncConciseBody
ClassExpression : class ClassTail

1. Return false.

FunctionExpression :
function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
GeneratorExpression :
function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorExpression :
async function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) {
AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncFunctionExpression :
async function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
ClassExpression : class BindingIdentifier ClassTail

1. Return true.

8.3.2 Static Semantics: IsFunctionDefinition

PrimaryExpression : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let expr be the ParenthesizedExpression that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
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2. Return IsFunctionDefinition of expr.

PrimaryExpression :
this
IdentifierReference
Literal
ArrayLiteral
ObjectLiteral
RegularExpressionLiteral
TemplateLiteral
MemberExpression :
MemberExpression [ Expression ]
MemberExpression . IdentifierName
MemberExpression TemplateLiteral
SuperProperty
MetaProperty
new MemberExpression Arguments
NewExpression :
new NewExpression
LeftHandSideExpression :
CallExpression
OptionalExpression
UpdateExpression :
LeftHandSideExpression ++
LeftHandSideExpression --
++ UnaryExpression
-- UnaryExpression
UnaryExpression :
delete UnaryExpression
void UnaryExpression
typeof UnaryExpression
+ UnaryExpression
- UnaryExpression
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~ UnaryExpression
! UnaryExpression
AwaitExpression
ExponentiationExpression :
UpdateExpression ** ExponentiationExpression
MultiplicativeExpression :
MultiplicativeExpression MultiplicativeOperator ExponentiationExpression
AdditiveExpression :
AdditiveExpression + MultiplicativeExpression
AdditiveExpression - MultiplicativeExpression
ShiftExpression :
ShiftExpression << AdditiveExpression
ShiftExpression >> AdditiveExpression
ShiftExpression >>> AdditiveExpression
RelationalExpression :
RelationalExpression < ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression > ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression <= ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression >= ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression instanceof ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression in ShiftExpression
EqualityExpression :
EqualityExpression == RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression != RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression === RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression !== RelationalExpression
BitwiseANDExpression :
BitwiseANDExpression & EqualityExpression
BitwiseXORExpression :
BitwiseXORExpression ^ BitwiseANDExpression
BitwiseORExpression :
BitwiseORExpression | BitwiseXORExpression

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LogicalANDExpression :
LogicalANDExpression && BitwiseORExpression
LogicalORExpression :
LogicalORExpression || LogicalANDExpression
CoalesceExpression :
CoalesceExpressionHead ?? BitwiseORExpression
ConditionalExpression :
ShortCircuitExpression ? AssignmentExpression : AssignmentExpression
AssignmentExpression :
YieldExpression
LeftHandSideExpression = AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression AssignmentOperator AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression &&= AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression ||= AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression ??= AssignmentExpression
Expression :
Expression , AssignmentExpression

1. Return false.

AssignmentExpression :
ArrowFunction
AsyncArrowFunction
FunctionExpression :
function BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
GeneratorExpression :
function * BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorExpression :
async function * BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) {
AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncFunctionExpression :
async function BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) {
AsyncFunctionBody }

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ClassExpression : class BindingIdentifieropt ClassTail

1. Return true.

8.3.3 Static Semantics: IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition ( expr )

The abstract operation IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition takes argument expr (a Parse Node for
AssignmentExpression or a Parse Node for Initializer). It determines if its argument is a function
definition that does not bind a name. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If IsFunctionDefinition of expr is false, return false.

2. Let hasName be HasName of expr.
3. If hasName is true, return false.
4. Return true.

8.3.4 Static Semantics: IsIdentifierRef

PrimaryExpression : IdentifierReference

1. Return true.

PrimaryExpression :
this
Literal
ArrayLiteral
ObjectLiteral
FunctionExpression
ClassExpression
GeneratorExpression
AsyncFunctionExpression
AsyncGeneratorExpression
RegularExpressionLiteral
TemplateLiteral
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList
MemberExpression :
MemberExpression [ Expression ]
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MemberExpression . IdentifierName
MemberExpression TemplateLiteral
SuperProperty
MetaProperty
new MemberExpression Arguments
NewExpression :
new NewExpression
LeftHandSideExpression :
CallExpression
OptionalExpression

1. Return false.

8.3.5 Runtime Semantics: NamedEvaluation

With parameter name.

PrimaryExpression : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let expr be the ParenthesizedExpression that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return the result of performing NamedEvaluation for expr with argument name.

ParenthesizedExpression : ( Expression )

1. Assert: IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Expression) is true.

2. Return the result of performing NamedEvaluation for Expression with argument name.

FunctionExpression : function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return InstantiateOrdinaryFunctionExpression of FunctionExpression with argument name.

GeneratorExpression : function * ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Return InstantiateGeneratorFunctionExpression of GeneratorExpression with argument name.

AsyncGeneratorExpression : async function * ( FormalParameters ) {

AsyncGeneratorBody }
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1. Return InstantiateAsyncGeneratorFunctionExpression of AsyncGeneratorExpression with

argument name.

AsyncFunctionExpression : async function ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody

}

1. Return InstantiateAsyncFunctionExpression of AsyncFunctionExpression with argument name.

ArrowFunction : ArrowParameters => ConciseBody

1. Return InstantiateArrowFunctionExpression of ArrowFunction with argument name.

AsyncArrowFunction :
async AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier => AsyncConciseBody
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead => AsyncConciseBody

1. Return InstantiateAsyncArrowFunctionExpression of AsyncArrowFunction with argument

name.

ClassExpression : class ClassTail

1. Let value be the result of ClassDefinitionEvaluation of ClassTail with arguments undefined

and name.
2. ReturnIfAbrupt(value).
3. Set value.[[SourceText]] to the source text matched by ClassExpression.
4. Return value.

8.4 Contains

8.4.1 Static Semantics: Contains

With parameter symbol.

Every grammar production alternative in this specification which is not listed below implicitly has
the following default definition of Contains:

1. For each child node child of this Parse Node, do

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a. If child is an instance of symbol, return true.

b. If child is an instance of a nonterminal, then
i. Let contained be the result of child Contains symbol.
ii. If contained is true, return true.
2. Return false.

FunctionDeclaration :
function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
FunctionExpression :
function BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
GeneratorDeclaration :
function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
function * ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
GeneratorExpression :
function * BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration :
async function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) {
AsyncGeneratorBody }
async function * ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncGeneratorExpression :
async function * BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) {
AsyncGeneratorBody }
AsyncFunctionDeclaration :
async function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
async function ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
AsyncFunctionExpression :
async function BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) {
AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return false.

NOTE 1 Static semantic rules that depend upon substructure generally do not look into
function definitions.

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ClassTail : ClassHeritageopt { ClassBody }

1. If symbol is ClassBody, return true.

2. If symbol is ClassHeritage, then
a. If ClassHeritage is present, return true; otherwise return false.
3. If ClassHeritage is present, then
a. If ClassHeritage Contains symbol is true, return true.
4. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains for ClassBody with argument symbol.

NOTE 2 Static semantic rules that depend upon substructure generally do not look into class
bodies except for PropertyNames.

ArrowFunction : ArrowParameters => ConciseBody

1. If symbol is not one of NewTarget, SuperProperty, SuperCall, super or this, return false.
2. If ArrowParameters Contains symbol is true, return true.
3. Return ConciseBody Contains symbol.

ArrowParameters : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let formals be the ArrowFormalParameters that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return formals Contains symbol.

AsyncArrowFunction : async AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier => AsyncConciseBody

1. If symbol is not one of NewTarget, SuperProperty, SuperCall, super, or this, return false.
2. Return AsyncConciseBody Contains symbol.

AsyncArrowFunction : CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead => AsyncConciseBody

1. If symbol is not one of NewTarget, SuperProperty, SuperCall, super, or this, return false.
2. Let head be the AsyncArrowHead that is covered by
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead.
3. If head Contains symbol is true, return true.
4. Return AsyncConciseBody Contains symbol.

NOTE 3 Contains is used to detect new.target, this, and super usage within an
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ArrowFunction or AsyncArrowFunction.

PropertyDefinition : MethodDefinition

1. If symbol is MethodDefinition, return true.

2. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains for MethodDefinition with argument symbol.

LiteralPropertyName : IdentifierName

1. Return false.

MemberExpression : MemberExpression . IdentifierName

1. If MemberExpression Contains symbol is true, return true.

2. Return false.

SuperProperty : super . IdentifierName

1. If symbol is the ReservedWord super, return true.

2. Return false.

CallExpression : CallExpression . IdentifierName

1. If CallExpression Contains symbol is true, return true.

2. Return false.

OptionalChain : ?. IdentifierName

1. Return false.

OptionalChain : OptionalChain . IdentifierName

1. If OptionalChain Contains symbol is true, return true.

2. Return false.

8.4.2 Static Semantics: ComputedPropertyContains

With parameter symbol.

PropertyName : LiteralPropertyName
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1. Return false.

PropertyName : ComputedPropertyName

1. Return the result of ComputedPropertyName Contains symbol.

MethodDefinition :
PropertyName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
get PropertyName ( ) { FunctionBody }
set PropertyName ( PropertySetParameterList ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains for PropertyName with argument symbol.

GeneratorMethod : * PropertyName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains for PropertyName with argument symbol.

AsyncGeneratorMethod : async * PropertyName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) {

AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains for PropertyName with argument symbol.

ClassElementList : ClassElementList ClassElement

1. Let inList be ComputedPropertyContains of ClassElementList with argument symbol.

2. If inList is true, return true.
3. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains for ClassElement with argument symbol.

ClassElement : ;

1. Return false.

AsyncMethod : async PropertyName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return the result of ComputedPropertyContains for PropertyName with argument symbol.

8.5 Miscellaneous
These operations are used in multiple places throughout the specification.

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8.5.1 Runtime Semantics: InstantiateFunctionObject

With parameter scope.

FunctionDeclaration :
function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return ? InstantiateOrdinaryFunctionObject of FunctionDeclaration with argument scope.

GeneratorDeclaration :
function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }
function * ( FormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Return ? InstantiateGeneratorFunctionObject of GeneratorDeclaration with argument scope.

AsyncGeneratorDeclaration :
async function * BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) {
AsyncGeneratorBody }
async function * ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Return ? InstantiateAsyncGeneratorFunctionObject of AsyncGeneratorDeclaration with

argument scope.

AsyncFunctionDeclaration :
async function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }
async function ( FormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return ? InstantiateAsyncFunctionObject of AsyncFunctionDeclaration with argument scope.

8.5.2 Runtime Semantics: BindingInitialization

With parameters value and environment.

NOTE undefined is passed for environment to indicate that a PutValue operation should be
used to assign the initialization value. This is the case for var statements and
formal parameter lists of some non-strict functions (See 10.2.10). In those cases a
lexical binding is hoisted and preinitialized prior to evaluation of its initializer.
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BindingIdentifier : Identifier

1. Let name be StringValue of Identifier.

2. Return ? InitializeBoundName(name, value, environment).

BindingIdentifier : yield

1. Return ? InitializeBoundName("yield", value, environment).

BindingIdentifier : await

1. Return ? InitializeBoundName("await", value, environment).

BindingPattern : ObjectBindingPattern

1. Perform ? RequireObjectCoercible(value).
2. Return the result of performing BindingInitialization for ObjectBindingPattern using value and
environment as arguments.

BindingPattern : ArrayBindingPattern

1. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(value).

2. Let result be IteratorBindingInitialization of ArrayBindingPattern with arguments
iteratorRecord and environment.
3. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false, return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, result).
4. Return result.

ObjectBindingPattern : { }

1. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

ObjectBindingPattern :
{ BindingPropertyList }
{ BindingPropertyList , }

1. Perform ? PropertyBindingInitialization for BindingPropertyList using value and environment

as the arguments.
2. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

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ObjectBindingPattern : { BindingRestProperty }

1. Let excludedNames be a new empty List.

2. Return the result of performing RestBindingInitialization of BindingRestProperty with value,
environment, and excludedNames as the arguments.

ObjectBindingPattern : { BindingPropertyList , BindingRestProperty }

1. Let excludedNames be ? PropertyBindingInitialization of BindingPropertyList with arguments

value and environment.
2. Return the result of performing RestBindingInitialization of BindingRestProperty with
arguments value, environment, and excludedNames.

8.5.2.1 InitializeBoundName ( name, value, environment )

The abstract operation InitializeBoundName takes arguments name, value, and environment. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(name) is String.

2. If environment is not undefined, then
a. Perform environment.InitializeBinding(name, value).
b. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
3. Else,
a. Let lhs be ResolveBinding(name).
b. Return ? PutValue(lhs, value).

8.5.3 Runtime Semantics: IteratorBindingInitialization

With parameters iteratorRecord and environment.

NOTE When undefined is passed for environment it indicates that a PutValue operation
should be used to assign the initialization value. This is the case for formal
parameter lists of non-strict functions. In that case the formal parameter bindings are
preinitialized in order to deal with the possibility of multiple parameters with the
same name.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ ]
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1. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

ArrayBindingPattern : [ Elision ]

1. Return the result of performing IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with

iteratorRecord as the argument.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ Elisionopt BindingRestElement ]

1. If Elision is present, then

a. Perform ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with iteratorRecord as
the argument.
2. Return the result of performing IteratorBindingInitialization for BindingRestElement with
iteratorRecord and environment as arguments.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ BindingElementList , Elision ]

1. Perform ? IteratorBindingInitialization for BindingElementList with iteratorRecord and

environment as arguments.
2. Return the result of performing IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with
iteratorRecord as the argument.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ BindingElementList , Elisionopt BindingRestElement ]

1. Perform ? IteratorBindingInitialization for BindingElementList with iteratorRecord and

environment as arguments.
2. If Elision is present, then
a. Perform ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with iteratorRecord as
the argument.
3. Return the result of performing IteratorBindingInitialization for BindingRestElement with
iteratorRecord and environment as arguments.

BindingElementList : BindingElementList , BindingElisionElement

1. Perform ? IteratorBindingInitialization for BindingElementList with iteratorRecord and

environment as arguments.
2. Return the result of performing IteratorBindingInitialization for BindingElisionElement using
iteratorRecord and environment as arguments.

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BindingElisionElement : Elision BindingElement

1. Perform ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with iteratorRecord as the

argument.
2. Return the result of performing IteratorBindingInitialization of BindingElement with
iteratorRecord and environment as the arguments.

SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializeropt

1. Let bindingId be StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Let lhs be ? ResolveBinding(bindingId, environment).
3. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false, then
a. Let next be IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
c. ReturnIfAbrupt(next).
d. If next is false, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
e. Else,
i. Let v be IteratorValue(next).
ii. If v is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
iii. ReturnIfAbrupt(v).
4. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is true, let v be undefined.
5. If Initializer is present and v is undefined, then
a. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Initializer) is true, then
i. Set v to the result of performing NamedEvaluation for Initializer with argument
bindingId.
b. Else,
i. Let defaultValue be the result of evaluating Initializer.
ii. Set v to ? GetValue(defaultValue).
6. If environment is undefined, return ? PutValue(lhs, v).
7. Return InitializeReferencedBinding(lhs, v).

BindingElement : BindingPattern Initializeropt

1. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false, then

a. Let next be IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
c. ReturnIfAbrupt(next).

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d. If next is false, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.

e. Else,
i. Let v be IteratorValue(next).
ii. If v is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
iii. ReturnIfAbrupt(v).
2. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is true, let v be undefined.
3. If Initializer is present and v is undefined, then
a. Let defaultValue be the result of evaluating Initializer.
b. Set v to ? GetValue(defaultValue).
4. Return the result of performing BindingInitialization of BindingPattern with v and environment
as the arguments.

BindingRestElement : ... BindingIdentifier

1. Let lhs be ? ResolveBinding(StringValue of BindingIdentifier, environment).

2. Let A be ! ArrayCreate(0).
3. Let n be 0.
4. Repeat,
a. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false, then
i. Let next be IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
ii. If next is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
iii. ReturnIfAbrupt(next).
iv. If next is false, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
b. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is true, then
i. If environment is undefined, return ? PutValue(lhs, A).
ii. Return InitializeReferencedBinding(lhs, A).
c. Let nextValue be IteratorValue(next).
d. If nextValue is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
e. ReturnIfAbrupt(nextValue).
f. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(n)), nextValue).
g. Set n to n + 1.

BindingRestElement : ... BindingPattern

1. Let A be ! ArrayCreate(0).
2. Let n be 0.
3. Repeat,

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a. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false, then

i. Let next be IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
ii. If next is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
iii. ReturnIfAbrupt(next).
iv. If next is false, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
b. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is true, then
i. Return the result of performing BindingInitialization of BindingPattern with A and
environment as the arguments.
c. Let nextValue be IteratorValue(next).
d. If nextValue is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
e. ReturnIfAbrupt(nextValue).
f. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(n)), nextValue).
g. Set n to n + 1.

FormalParameters : [empty]

1. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

FormalParameters : FormalParameterList , FunctionRestParameter

1. Perform ? IteratorBindingInitialization for FormalParameterList using iteratorRecord and

environment as the arguments.
2. Return the result of performing IteratorBindingInitialization for FunctionRestParameter using
iteratorRecord and environment as the arguments.

FormalParameterList : FormalParameterList , FormalParameter

1. Perform ? IteratorBindingInitialization for FormalParameterList using iteratorRecord and

environment as the arguments.
2. Return the result of performing IteratorBindingInitialization for FormalParameter using
iteratorRecord and environment as the arguments.

ArrowParameters : BindingIdentifier

1. Assert: iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false.

2. Let next be IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
3. If next is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
4. ReturnIfAbrupt(next).

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5. If next is false, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.

6. Else,
a. Let v be IteratorValue(next).
b. If v is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
c. ReturnIfAbrupt(v).
7. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is true, let v be undefined.
8. Return the result of performing BindingInitialization for BindingIdentifier using v and
environment as the arguments.

ArrowParameters : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let formals be the ArrowFormalParameters that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return IteratorBindingInitialization of formals with arguments iteratorRecord and
environment.

AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier : BindingIdentifier

1. Assert: iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false.

2. Let next be IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
3. If next is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
4. ReturnIfAbrupt(next).
5. If next is false, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
6. Else,
a. Let v be IteratorValue(next).
b. If v is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
c. ReturnIfAbrupt(v).
7. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is true, let v be undefined.
8. Return the result of performing BindingInitialization for BindingIdentifier using v and
environment as the arguments.

8.5.4 Static Semantics: AssignmentTargetType

IdentifierReference : Identifier

1. If this IdentifierReference is contained in strict mode code and StringValue of Identifier is

"eval" or "arguments", return invalid.
2. Return simple.
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IdentifierReference :
yield
await
CallExpression :
CallExpression [ Expression ]
CallExpression . IdentifierName
MemberExpression :
MemberExpression [ Expression ]
MemberExpression . IdentifierName
SuperProperty

1. Return simple.

PrimaryExpression :
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let expr be the ParenthesizedExpression that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return AssignmentTargetType of expr.

PrimaryExpression :
this
Literal
ArrayLiteral
ObjectLiteral
FunctionExpression
ClassExpression
GeneratorExpression
AsyncFunctionExpression
AsyncGeneratorExpression
RegularExpressionLiteral
TemplateLiteral
CallExpression :
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead

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SuperCall
ImportCall
CallExpression Arguments
CallExpression TemplateLiteral
NewExpression :
new NewExpression
MemberExpression :
MemberExpression TemplateLiteral
new MemberExpression Arguments
NewTarget :
new . target
ImportMeta :
import . meta
LeftHandSideExpression :
OptionalExpression
UpdateExpression :
LeftHandSideExpression ++
LeftHandSideExpression --
++ UnaryExpression
-- UnaryExpression
UnaryExpression :
delete UnaryExpression
void UnaryExpression
typeof UnaryExpression
+ UnaryExpression
- UnaryExpression
~ UnaryExpression
! UnaryExpression
AwaitExpression
ExponentiationExpression :
UpdateExpression ** ExponentiationExpression
MultiplicativeExpression :

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MultiplicativeExpression MultiplicativeOperator ExponentiationExpression

AdditiveExpression :
AdditiveExpression + MultiplicativeExpression
AdditiveExpression - MultiplicativeExpression
ShiftExpression :
ShiftExpression << AdditiveExpression
ShiftExpression >> AdditiveExpression
ShiftExpression >>> AdditiveExpression
RelationalExpression :
RelationalExpression < ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression > ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression <= ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression >= ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression instanceof ShiftExpression
RelationalExpression in ShiftExpression
EqualityExpression :
EqualityExpression == RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression != RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression === RelationalExpression
EqualityExpression !== RelationalExpression
BitwiseANDExpression :
BitwiseANDExpression & EqualityExpression
BitwiseXORExpression :
BitwiseXORExpression ^ BitwiseANDExpression
BitwiseORExpression :
BitwiseORExpression | BitwiseXORExpression
LogicalANDExpression :
LogicalANDExpression && BitwiseORExpression
LogicalORExpression :
LogicalORExpression || LogicalANDExpression
CoalesceExpression :
CoalesceExpressionHead ?? BitwiseORExpression

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ConditionalExpression :
ShortCircuitExpression ? AssignmentExpression : AssignmentExpression
AssignmentExpression :
YieldExpression
ArrowFunction
AsyncArrowFunction
LeftHandSideExpression = AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression AssignmentOperator AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression &&= AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression ||= AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression ??= AssignmentExpression
Expression :
Expression , AssignmentExpression

1. Return invalid.

8.5.5 Static Semantics: PropName

PropertyDefinition : IdentifierReference

1. Return StringValue of IdentifierReference.

PropertyDefinition : ... AssignmentExpression

1. Return empty.

PropertyDefinition : PropertyName : AssignmentExpression

1. Return PropName of PropertyName.

LiteralPropertyName : IdentifierName

1. Return StringValue of IdentifierName.

LiteralPropertyName : StringLiteral

1. Return the SV of StringLiteral.

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LiteralPropertyName : NumericLiteral

1. Let nbr be the NumericValue of NumericLiteral.

2. Return ! ToString(nbr).

ComputedPropertyName : [ AssignmentExpression ]

1. Return empty.

MethodDefinition :
PropertyName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
get PropertyName ( ) { FunctionBody }
set PropertyName ( PropertySetParameterList ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return PropName of PropertyName.

GeneratorMethod : * PropertyName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Return PropName of PropertyName.

AsyncGeneratorMethod : async * PropertyName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) {

AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Return PropName of PropertyName.

ClassElement : ;

1. Return empty.

AsyncMethod : async PropertyName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return PropName of PropertyName.

9 Executable Code and Execution Contexts

9.1 Environment Records

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Environment Record is a specification type used to define the association of Identifiers to specific
variables and functions, based upon the lexical nesting structure of ECMAScript code. Usually an
Environment Record is associated with some specific syntactic structure of ECMAScript code such
as a FunctionDeclaration, a BlockStatement, or a Catch clause of a TryStatement. Each time such
code is evaluated, a new Environment Record is created to record the identifier bindings that are
created by that code.

Every Environment Record has an [[OuterEnv]] field, which is either null or a reference to an outer
Environment Record. This is used to model the logical nesting of Environment Record values. The
outer reference of an (inner) Environment Record is a reference to the Environment Record that
logically surrounds the inner Environment Record. An outer Environment Record may, of course,
have its own outer Environment Record. An Environment Record may serve as the outer
environment for multiple inner Environment Records. For example, if a FunctionDeclaration
contains two nested FunctionDeclarations then the Environment Records of each of the nested
functions will have as their outer Environment Record the Environment Record of the current
evaluation of the surrounding function.

Environment Records are purely specification mechanisms and need not correspond to any specific
artefact of an ECMAScript implementation. It is impossible for an ECMAScript program to directly
access or manipulate such values.

9.1.1 The Environment Record Type Hierarchy

Environment Records can be thought of as existing in a simple object-oriented hierarchy where
Environment Record is an abstract class with three concrete subclasses: declarative Environment
Record, object Environment Record, and global Environment Record. Function Environment
Records and module Environment Records are subclasses of declarative Environment Record.

Environment Record (abstract)

A declarative Environment Record is used to define the effect of ECMAScript language

syntactic elements such as FunctionDeclarations, VariableDeclarations, and Catch
clauses that directly associate identifier bindings with ECMAScript language values.

A function Environment Record corresponds to the invocation of an ECMAScript

function object, and contains bindings for the top-level declarations within that

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function. It may establish a new this binding. It also captures the state necessary
to support super method invocations.

A module Environment Record contains the bindings for the top-level declarations
of a Module. It also contains the bindings that are explicitly imported by the Module
. Its [[OuterEnv]] is a global Environment Record.

An object Environment Record is used to define the effect of ECMAScript elements such
as WithStatement that associate identifier bindings with the properties of some object.

A global Environment Record is used for Script global declarations. It does not have an
outer environment; its [[OuterEnv]] is null. It may be prepopulated with identifier
bindings and it includes an associated global object whose properties provide some of the
global environment's identifier bindings. As ECMAScript code is executed, additional
properties may be added to the global object and the initial properties may be modified.

The Environment Record abstract class includes the abstract specification methods defined in Table
17. These abstract methods have distinct concrete algorithms for each of the concrete subclasses.

Table 17: Abstract Methods of Environment Records

Method Purpose

HasBinding(N) Determine if an Environment Record has a binding for the String

value N. Return true if it does and false if it does not.

CreateMutableBinding(N, Create a new but uninitialized mutable binding in an Environment

D) Record. The String value N is the text of the bound name. If the
Boolean argument D is true the binding may be subsequently
deleted.

CreateImmutableBinding(N, Create a new but uninitialized immutable binding in an

S) Environment Record. The String value N is the text of the bound
name. If S is true then attempts to set it after it has been initialized
will always throw an exception, regardless of the strict mode setting
of operations that reference that binding.

InitializeBinding(N, V) Set the value of an already existing but uninitialized binding in an

Environment Record. The String value N is the text of the bound
name. V is the value for the binding and is a value of any
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ECMAScript language type.

SetMutableBinding(N, V, S) Set the value of an already existing mutable binding in an

Environment Record. The String value N is the text of the bound
name. V is the value for the binding and may be a value of any
ECMAScript language type. S is a Boolean flag. If S is true and the
binding cannot be set throw a TypeError exception.

GetBindingValue(N, S) Returns the value of an already existing binding from an

Environment Record. The String value N is the text of the bound
name. S is used to identify references originating in strict mode
code or that otherwise require strict mode reference semantics. If S
is true and the binding does not exist throw a ReferenceError
exception. If the binding exists but is uninitialized a
ReferenceError is thrown, regardless of the value of S.

DeleteBinding(N) Delete a binding from an Environment Record. The String value N

is the text of the bound name. If a binding for N exists, remove the
binding and return true. If the binding exists but cannot be removed
return false. If the binding does not exist return true.

HasThisBinding() Determine if an Environment Record establishes a this binding.

Return true if it does and false if it does not.

HasSuperBinding() Determine if an Environment Record establishes a super method

binding. Return true if it does and false if it does not.

WithBaseObject() If this Environment Record is associated with a with statement,

return the with object. Otherwise, return undefined.

9.1.1.1 Declarative Environment Records

Each declarative Environment Record is associated with an ECMAScript program scope containing
variable, constant, let, class, module, import, and/or function declarations. A declarative
Environment Record binds the set of identifiers defined by the declarations contained within its
scope.

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The behaviour of the concrete specification methods for declarative Environment Records is defined
by the following algorithms.

9.1.1.1.1 HasBinding ( N )

The HasBinding concrete method of a declarative Environment Record envRec takes argument N (a
String). It determines if the argument identifier is one of the identifiers bound by the record. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. If envRec has a binding for the name that is the value of N, return true.
2. Return false.

9.1.1.1.2 CreateMutableBinding ( N, D )

The CreateMutableBinding concrete method of a declarative Environment Record envRec takes

arguments N (a String) and D (a Boolean). It creates a new mutable binding for the name N that is
uninitialized. A binding must not already exist in this Environment Record for N. If D has the value
true, the new binding is marked as being subject to deletion. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: envRec does not already have a binding for N.

2. Create a mutable binding in envRec for N and record that it is uninitialized. If D is true, record
that the newly created binding may be deleted by a subsequent DeleteBinding call.
3. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

9.1.1.1.3 CreateImmutableBinding ( N, S )

The CreateImmutableBinding concrete method of a declarative Environment Record envRec takes

arguments N (a String) and S (a Boolean). It creates a new immutable binding for the name N that is
uninitialized. A binding must not already exist in this Environment Record for N. If S has the value
true, the new binding is marked as a strict binding. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: envRec does not already have a binding for N.

2. Create an immutable binding in envRec for N and record that it is uninitialized. If S is true,
record that the newly created binding is a strict binding.
3. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

9.1.1.1.4 InitializeBinding ( N, V )
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The InitializeBinding concrete method of a declarative Environment Record envRec takes arguments
N (a String) and V (an ECMAScript language value). It is used to set the bound value of the current
binding of the identifier whose name is the value of the argument N to the value of argument V. An
uninitialized binding for N must already exist. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: envRec must have an uninitialized binding for N.

2. Set the bound value for N in envRec to V.
3. Record that the binding for N in envRec has been initialized.
4. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

9.1.1.1.5 SetMutableBinding ( N, V, S )

The SetMutableBinding concrete method of a declarative Environment Record envRec takes

arguments N (a String), V (an ECMAScript language value), and S (a Boolean). It attempts to change
the bound value of the current binding of the identifier whose name is the value of the argument N to
the value of argument V. A binding for N normally already exists, but in rare cases it may not. If the
binding is an immutable binding, a TypeError is thrown if S is true. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. If envRec does not have a binding for N, then

a. If S is true, throw a ReferenceError exception.
b. Perform envRec.CreateMutableBinding(N, true).
c. Perform envRec.InitializeBinding(N, V).
d. Return NormalCompletion(empty).
2. If the binding for N in envRec is a strict binding, set S to true.
3. If the binding for N in envRec has not yet been initialized, throw a ReferenceError exception.
4. Else if the binding for N in envRec is a mutable binding, change its bound value to V.
5. Else,
a. Assert: This is an attempt to change the value of an immutable binding.
b. If S is true, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

NOTE An example of ECMAScript code that results in a missing binding at step 1 is:

function f() { eval("var x; x = (delete x, 0);"); }

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9.1.1.1.6 GetBindingValue ( N, S )

The GetBindingValue concrete method of a declarative Environment Record envRec takes arguments
N (a String) and S (a Boolean). It returns the value of its bound identifier whose name is the value of
the argument N. If the binding exists but is uninitialized a ReferenceError is thrown, regardless of
the value of S. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: envRec has a binding for N.

2. If the binding for N in envRec is an uninitialized binding, throw a ReferenceError exception.
3. Return the value currently bound to N in envRec.

9.1.1.1.7 DeleteBinding ( N )

The DeleteBinding concrete method of a declarative Environment Record envRec takes argument N
(a String). It can only delete bindings that have been explicitly designated as being subject to
deletion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: envRec has a binding for the name that is the value of N.
2. If the binding for N in envRec cannot be deleted, return false.
3. Remove the binding for N from envRec.
4. Return true.

9.1.1.1.8 HasThisBinding ( )

The HasThisBinding concrete method of a declarative Environment Record envRec takes no

arguments. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return false.

NOTE A regular declarative Environment Record (i.e., one that is neither a function
Environment Record nor a module Environment Record) does not provide a this
binding.

9.1.1.1.9 HasSuperBinding ( )

The HasSuperBinding concrete method of a declarative Environment Record envRec takes no

arguments. It performs the following steps when called:

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1. Return false.

NOTE A regular declarative Environment Record (i.e., one that is neither a function
Environment Record nor a module Environment Record) does not provide a super
binding.

9.1.1.1.10 WithBaseObject ( )

The WithBaseObject concrete method of a declarative Environment Record envRec takes no

arguments. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return undefined.

9.1.1.2 Object Environment Records

Each object Environment Record is associated with an object called its binding object. An object
Environment Record binds the set of string identifier names that directly correspond to the property
names of its binding object. Property keys that are not strings in the form of an IdentifierName are
not included in the set of bound identifiers. Both own and inherited properties are included in the set
regardless of the setting of their [[Enumerable]] attribute. Because properties can be dynamically
added and deleted from objects, the set of identifiers bound by an object Environment Record may
potentially change as a side-effect of any operation that adds or deletes properties. Any bindings that
are created as a result of such a side-effect are considered to be a mutable binding even if the
Writable attribute of the corresponding property has the value false. Immutable bindings do not exist
for object Environment Records.

Object Environment Records created for with statements (14.11) can provide their binding object
as an implicit this value for use in function calls. The capability is controlled by a Boolean
[[IsWithEnvironment]] field.

Object Environment Records have the additional state fields listed in Table 18.

Table 18: Additional Fields of Object Environment Records

Field Name Value Meaning

[[BindingObject]] Object The binding object of this Environment Record.

[[IsWithEnvironment]] Boolean Indicates whether this Environment Record is created for a

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with statement.

The behaviour of the concrete specification methods for object Environment Records is defined by
the following algorithms.

9.1.1.2.1 HasBinding ( N )

The HasBinding concrete method of an object Environment Record envRec takes argument N (a
String). It determines if its associated binding object has a property whose name is the value of the
argument N. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let bindingObject be envRec.[[BindingObject]].

2. Let foundBinding be ? HasProperty(bindingObject, N).
3. If foundBinding is false, return false.
4. If envRec.[[IsWithEnvironment]] is false, return true.
5. Let unscopables be ? Get(bindingObject, @@unscopables).
6. If Type(unscopables) is Object, then
a. Let blocked be ! ToBoolean(? Get(unscopables, N)).
b. If blocked is true, return false.
7. Return true.

9.1.1.2.2 CreateMutableBinding ( N, D )

The CreateMutableBinding concrete method of an object Environment Record envRec takes

arguments N (a String) and D (a Boolean). It creates in an Environment Record's associated binding
object a property whose name is the String value and initializes it to the value undefined. If D has
the value true, the new property's [[Configurable]] attribute is set to true; otherwise it is set to false.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let bindingObject be envRec.[[BindingObject]].

2. Return ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(bindingObject, N, PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]:
undefined, [[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]: true, [[Configurable]]: D }).

NOTE Normally envRec will not have a binding for N but if it does, the semantics of
DefinePropertyOrThrow may result in an existing binding being replaced or
shadowed or cause an abrupt completion to be returned.
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9.1.1.2.3 CreateImmutableBinding ( N, S )

The CreateImmutableBinding concrete method of an object Environment Record is never used

within this specification.

9.1.1.2.4 InitializeBinding ( N, V )

The InitializeBinding concrete method of an object Environment Record envRec takes arguments N
(a String) and V (an ECMAScript language value). It is used to set the bound value of the current
binding of the identifier whose name is the value of the argument N to the value of argument V. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? envRec.SetMutableBinding(N, V, false).

NOTE In this specification, all uses of CreateMutableBinding for object Environment

Records are immediately followed by a call to InitializeBinding for the same name.
Hence, this specification does not explicitly track the initialization state of bindings
in object Environment Records.

9.1.1.2.5 SetMutableBinding ( N, V, S )

The SetMutableBinding concrete method of an object Environment Record envRec takes arguments
N (a String), V (an ECMAScript language value), and S (a Boolean). It attempts to set the value of
the Environment Record's associated binding object's property whose name is the value of the
argument N to the value of argument V. A property named N normally already exists but if it does
not or is not currently writable, error handling is determined by S. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let bindingObject be envRec.[[BindingObject]].

2. Let stillExists be ? HasProperty(bindingObject, N).
3. If stillExists is false and S is true, throw a ReferenceError exception.
4. Return ? Set(bindingObject, N, V, S).

9.1.1.2.6 GetBindingValue ( N, S )

The GetBindingValue concrete method of an object Environment Record envRec takes arguments N
(a String) and S (a Boolean). It returns the value of its associated binding object's property whose

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name is the String value of the argument identifier N. The property should already exist but if it does
not the result depends upon S. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let bindingObject be envRec.[[BindingObject]].

2. Let value be ? HasProperty(bindingObject, N).
3. If value is false, then
a. If S is false, return the value undefined; otherwise throw a ReferenceError exception.
4. Return ? Get(bindingObject, N).

9.1.1.2.7 DeleteBinding ( N )

The DeleteBinding concrete method of an object Environment Record envRec takes argument N (a
String). It can only delete bindings that correspond to properties of the environment object whose
[[Configurable]] attribute have the value true. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let bindingObject be envRec.[[BindingObject]].

2. Return ? bindingObject.[[Delete]](N).

9.1.1.2.8 HasThisBinding ( )

The HasThisBinding concrete method of an object Environment Record envRec takes no arguments.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return false.

NOTE Object Environment Records do not provide a this binding.

9.1.1.2.9 HasSuperBinding ( )

The HasSuperBinding concrete method of an object Environment Record envRec takes no

arguments. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return false.

NOTE Object Environment Records do not provide a super binding.

9.1.1.2.10 WithBaseObject ( )

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The WithBaseObject concrete method of an object Environment Record envRec takes no arguments.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. If envRec.[[IsWithEnvironment]] is true, return envRec.[[BindingObject]].

2. Otherwise, return undefined.

9.1.1.3 Function Environment Records

A function Environment Record is a declarative Environment Record that is used to represent the
top-level scope of a function and, if the function is not an ArrowFunction, provides a this binding.
If a function is not an ArrowFunction function and references super, its function Environment
Record also contains the state that is used to perform super method invocations from within the
function.

Function Environment Records have the additional state fields listed in Table 19.

Table 19: Additional Fields of Function Environment Records

Field Name Value Meaning

[[ThisValue]] Any This is the this value used for this invocation of the
function.

[[ThisBindingStatus]] lexical | If the value is lexical, this is an ArrowFunction and does

initialized | not have a local this value.
uninitialized

[[FunctionObject]] Object The function object whose invocation caused this

Environment Record to be created.

[[NewTarget]] Object | If this Environment Record was created by the

undefined [[Construct]] internal method, [[NewTarget]] is the value
of the [[Construct]] newTarget parameter. Otherwise, its
value is undefined.

Function Environment Records support all of the declarative Environment Record methods listed in
Table 17 and share the same specifications for all of those methods except for HasThisBinding and

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HasSuperBinding. In addition, function Environment Records support the methods listed in Table
20:

Table 20: Additional Methods of Function Environment Records

Method Purpose

BindThisValue(V) Set the [[ThisValue]] and record that it has been initialized.

GetThisBinding() Return the value of this Environment Record's this binding. Throws a
ReferenceError if the this binding has not been initialized.

GetSuperBase() Return the object that is the base for super property accesses bound in this
Environment Record. The value undefined indicates that super property
accesses will produce runtime errors.

The behaviour of the additional concrete specification methods for function Environment Records is
defined by the following algorithms:

9.1.1.3.1 BindThisValue ( V )

The BindThisValue concrete method of a function Environment Record envRec takes argument V (an
ECMAScript language value). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] is not lexical.

2. If envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] is initialized, throw a ReferenceError exception.
3. Set envRec.[[ThisValue]] to V.
4. Set envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] to initialized.
5. Return V.

9.1.1.3.2 HasThisBinding ( )

The HasThisBinding concrete method of a function Environment Record envRec takes no arguments.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. If envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] is lexical, return false; otherwise, return true.

9.1.1.3.3 HasSuperBinding ( )
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The HasSuperBinding concrete method of a function Environment Record envRec takes no

arguments. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] is lexical, return false.

2. If envRec.[[FunctionObject]].[[HomeObject]] has the value undefined, return false; otherwise,
return true.

9.1.1.3.4 GetThisBinding ( )

The GetThisBinding concrete method of a function Environment Record envRec takes no arguments.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] is not lexical.

2. If envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] is uninitialized, throw a ReferenceError exception.
3. Return envRec.[[ThisValue]].

9.1.1.3.5 GetSuperBase ( )

The GetSuperBase concrete method of a function Environment Record envRec takes no arguments.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let home be envRec.[[FunctionObject]].[[HomeObject]].

2. If home has the value undefined, return undefined.
3. Assert: Type(home) is Object.
4. Return ? home.[[GetPrototypeOf]]().

9.1.1.4 Global Environment Records

A global Environment Record is used to represent the outer most scope that is shared by all of the
ECMAScript Script elements that are processed in a common realm. A global Environment Record
provides the bindings for built-in globals (clause 19), properties of the global object, and for all top-
level declarations (8.1.9, 8.1.11) that occur within a Script.

A global Environment Record is logically a single record but it is specified as a composite

encapsulating an object Environment Record and a declarative Environment Record. The object
Environment Record has as its base object the global object of the associated Realm Record. This
global object is the value returned by the global Environment Record's GetThisBinding concrete
method. The object Environment Record component of a global Environment Record contains the
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bindings for all built-in globals (clause 19) and all bindings introduced by a FunctionDeclaration,
GeneratorDeclaration, AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, or
VariableStatement contained in global code. The bindings for all other ECMAScript declarations in
global code are contained in the declarative Environment Record component of the global
Environment Record.

Properties may be created directly on a global object. Hence, the object Environment Record
component of a global Environment Record may contain both bindings created explicitly by
FunctionDeclaration, GeneratorDeclaration, AsyncFunctionDeclaration,
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, or VariableDeclaration declarations and bindings created implicitly as
properties of the global object. In order to identify which bindings were explicitly created using
declarations, a global Environment Record maintains a list of the names bound using its
CreateGlobalVarBinding and CreateGlobalFunctionBinding concrete methods.

Global Environment Records have the additional fields listed in Table 21 and the additional methods
listed in Table 22.

Table 21: Additional Fields of Global Environment Records

Field Name Value Meaning

[[ObjectRecord]] Object Binding object is the global object. It contains global built-
Environment in bindings as well as FunctionDeclaration,
Record GeneratorDeclaration, AsyncFunctionDeclaration,
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, and VariableDeclaration
bindings in global code for the associated realm.

[[GlobalThisValue]] Object The value returned by this in global scope. Hosts may
provide any ECMAScript Object value.

[[DeclarativeRecord]] Declarative Contains bindings for all declarations in global code for the
Environment associated realm code except for FunctionDeclaration,
Record GeneratorDeclaration, AsyncFunctionDeclaration,
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, and VariableDeclaration
bindings.

[[VarNames]] List of The string names bound by FunctionDeclaration,

String GeneratorDeclaration, AsyncFunctionDeclaration,
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, and VariableDeclaration
declarations in global code for the associated realm.
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g

Table 22: Additional Methods of Global Environment Records

Method Purpose

GetThisBinding() Return the value of this Environment Record's this binding.

HasVarDeclaration (N) Determines if the argument identifier has a binding in this

Environment Record that was created using a
VariableDeclaration, FunctionDeclaration,
GeneratorDeclaration, AsyncFunctionDeclaration, or
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration.

HasLexicalDeclaration (N) Determines if the argument identifier has a binding in this

Environment Record that was created using a lexical
declaration such as a LexicalDeclaration or a
ClassDeclaration.

HasRestrictedGlobalProperty (N) Determines if the argument is the name of a global object

property that may not be shadowed by a global lexical binding.

CanDeclareGlobalVar (N) Determines if a corresponding CreateGlobalVarBinding call

would succeed if called for the same argument N.

CanDeclareGlobalFunction (N) Determines if a corresponding CreateGlobalFunctionBinding

call would succeed if called for the same argument N.

CreateGlobalVarBinding(N, D) Used to create and initialize to undefined a global var

binding in the [[ObjectRecord]] component of a global
Environment Record. The binding will be a mutable binding.
The corresponding global object property will have attribute
values appropriate for a var. The String value N is the bound
name. If D is true the binding may be deleted. Logically
equivalent to CreateMutableBinding followed by a
SetMutableBinding but it allows var declarations to receive
special treatment.

CreateGlobalFunctionBinding(N, Create and initialize a global function binding in the

V, D) [[ObjectRecord]] component of a global Environment Record.
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The binding will be a mutable binding. The corresponding

global object property will have attribute values appropriate
for a function. The String value N is the bound name. V is
the initialization value. If the Boolean argument D is true the
binding may be deleted. Logically equivalent to
CreateMutableBinding followed by a SetMutableBinding but it
allows function declarations to receive special treatment.

The behaviour of the concrete specification methods for global Environment Records is defined by
the following algorithms.

9.1.1.4.1 HasBinding ( N )

The HasBinding concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes argument N (a
String). It determines if the argument identifier is one of the identifiers bound by the record. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. If DclRec.HasBinding(N) is true, return true.
3. Let ObjRec be envRec.[[ObjectRecord]].
4. Return ? ObjRec.HasBinding(N).

9.1.1.4.2 CreateMutableBinding ( N, D )

The CreateMutableBinding concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes

arguments N (a String) and D (a Boolean). It creates a new mutable binding for the name N that is
uninitialized. The binding is created in the associated DeclarativeRecord. A binding for N must not
already exist in the DeclarativeRecord. If D has the value true, the new binding is marked as being
subject to deletion. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. If DclRec.HasBinding(N) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return DclRec.CreateMutableBinding(N, D).

9.1.1.4.3 CreateImmutableBinding ( N, S )
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The CreateImmutableBinding concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes

arguments N (a String) and S (a Boolean). It creates a new immutable binding for the name N that is
uninitialized. A binding must not already exist in this Environment Record for N. If S has the value
true, the new binding is marked as a strict binding. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. If DclRec.HasBinding(N) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Return DclRec.CreateImmutableBinding(N, S).

9.1.1.4.4 InitializeBinding ( N, V )

The InitializeBinding concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a
String) and V (an ECMAScript language value). It is used to set the bound value of the current
binding of the identifier whose name is the value of the argument N to the value of argument V. An
uninitialized binding for N must already exist. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. If DclRec.HasBinding(N) is true, then
a. Return DclRec.InitializeBinding(N, V).
3. Assert: If the binding exists, it must be in the object Environment Record.
4. Let ObjRec be envRec.[[ObjectRecord]].
5. Return ? ObjRec.InitializeBinding(N, V).

9.1.1.4.5 SetMutableBinding ( N, V, S )

The SetMutableBinding concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes arguments N
(a String), V (an ECMAScript language value), and S (a Boolean). It attempts to change the bound
value of the current binding of the identifier whose name is the value of the argument N to the value
of argument V. If the binding is an immutable binding, a TypeError is thrown if S is true. A
property named N normally already exists but if it does not or is not currently writable, error
handling is determined by S. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. If DclRec.HasBinding(N) is true, then
a. Return DclRec.SetMutableBinding(N, V, S).
3. Let ObjRec be envRec.[[ObjectRecord]].
4. Return ? ObjRec.SetMutableBinding(N, V, S).

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9.1.1.4.6 GetBindingValue ( N, S )

The GetBindingValue concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes arguments N (a
String) and S (a Boolean). It returns the value of its bound identifier whose name is the value of the
argument N. If the binding is an uninitialized binding throw a ReferenceError exception. A property
named N normally already exists but if it does not or is not currently writable, error handling is
determined by S. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. If DclRec.HasBinding(N) is true, then
a. Return DclRec.GetBindingValue(N, S).
3. Let ObjRec be envRec.[[ObjectRecord]].
4. Return ? ObjRec.GetBindingValue(N, S).

9.1.1.4.7 DeleteBinding ( N )

The DeleteBinding concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes argument N (a
String). It can only delete bindings that have been explicitly designated as being subject to deletion.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. If DclRec.HasBinding(N) is true, then
a. Return DclRec.DeleteBinding(N).
3. Let ObjRec be envRec.[[ObjectRecord]].
4. Let globalObject be ObjRec.[[BindingObject]].
5. Let existingProp be ? HasOwnProperty(globalObject, N).
6. If existingProp is true, then
a. Let status be ? ObjRec.DeleteBinding(N).
b. If status is true, then
i. Let varNames be envRec.[[VarNames]].
ii. If N is an element of varNames, remove that element from the varNames.
c. Return status.
7. Return true.

9.1.1.4.8 HasThisBinding ( )

The HasThisBinding concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes no arguments.
It performs the following steps when called:
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1. Return true.

NOTE Global Environment Records always provide a this binding.

9.1.1.4.9 HasSuperBinding ( )

The HasSuperBinding concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes no arguments.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return false.

NOTE Global Environment Records do not provide a super binding.

9.1.1.4.10 WithBaseObject ( )

The WithBaseObject concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes no arguments.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return undefined.

9.1.1.4.11 GetThisBinding ( )

The GetThisBinding concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes no arguments. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Return envRec.[[GlobalThisValue]].

9.1.1.4.12 HasVarDeclaration ( N )

The HasVarDeclaration concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes argument N
(a String). It determines if the argument identifier has a binding in this record that was created using
a VariableStatement or a FunctionDeclaration. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let varDeclaredNames be envRec.[[VarNames]].

2. If varDeclaredNames contains N, return true.
3. Return false.

9.1.1.4.13 HasLexicalDeclaration ( N )
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The HasLexicalDeclaration concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes argument
N (a String). It determines if the argument identifier has a binding in this record that was created
using a lexical declaration such as a LexicalDeclaration or a ClassDeclaration. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let DclRec be envRec.[[DeclarativeRecord]].

2. Return DclRec.HasBinding(N).

9.1.1.4.14 HasRestrictedGlobalProperty ( N )

The HasRestrictedGlobalProperty concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes

argument N (a String). It determines if the argument identifier is the name of a property of the global
object that must not be shadowed by a global lexical binding. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Let ObjRec be envRec.[[ObjectRecord]].

2. Let globalObject be ObjRec.[[BindingObject]].
3. Let existingProp be ? globalObject.[[GetOwnProperty]](N).
4. If existingProp is undefined, return false.
5. If existingProp.[[Configurable]] is true, return false.
6. Return true.

NOTE Properties may exist upon a global object that were directly created rather than
being declared using a var or function declaration. A global lexical binding may not
be created that has the same name as a non-configurable property of the global
object. The global property "undefined" is an example of such a property.

9.1.1.4.15 CanDeclareGlobalVar ( N )

The CanDeclareGlobalVar concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes argument
N (a String). It determines if a corresponding CreateGlobalVarBinding call would succeed if called
for the same argument N. Redundant var declarations and var declarations for pre-existing global
object properties are allowed. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let ObjRec be envRec.[[ObjectRecord]].

2. Let globalObject be ObjRec.[[BindingObject]].
3. Let hasProperty be ? HasOwnProperty(globalObject, N).

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4. If hasProperty is true, return true.

5. Return ? IsExtensible(globalObject).

9.1.1.4.16 CanDeclareGlobalFunction ( N )

The CanDeclareGlobalFunction concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes

argument N (a String). It determines if a corresponding CreateGlobalFunctionBinding call would
succeed if called for the same argument N. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let ObjRec be envRec.[[ObjectRecord]].

2. Let globalObject be ObjRec.[[BindingObject]].
3. Let existingProp be ? globalObject.[[GetOwnProperty]](N).
4. If existingProp is undefined, return ? IsExtensible(globalObject).
5. If existingProp.[[Configurable]] is true, return true.
6. If IsDataDescriptor(existingProp) is true and existingProp has attribute values { [[Writable]]:
true, [[Enumerable]]: true }, return true.
7. Return false.

9.1.1.4.17 CreateGlobalVarBinding ( N, D )

The CreateGlobalVarBinding concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes

arguments N (a String) and D (a Boolean). It creates and initializes a mutable binding in the
associated object Environment Record and records the bound name in the associated [[VarNames]]
List. If a binding already exists, it is reused and assumed to be initialized. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let ObjRec be envRec.[[ObjectRecord]].

2. Let globalObject be ObjRec.[[BindingObject]].
3. Let hasProperty be ? HasOwnProperty(globalObject, N).
4. Let extensible be ? IsExtensible(globalObject).
5. If hasProperty is false and extensible is true, then
a. Perform ? ObjRec.CreateMutableBinding(N, D).
b. Perform ? ObjRec.InitializeBinding(N, undefined).
6. Let varDeclaredNames be envRec.[[VarNames]].
7. If varDeclaredNames does not contain N, then
a. Append N to varDeclaredNames.
8. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

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9.1.1.4.18 CreateGlobalFunctionBinding ( N, V, D )

The CreateGlobalFunctionBinding concrete method of a global Environment Record envRec takes

arguments N (a String), V (an ECMAScript language value), and D (a Boolean). It creates and
initializes a mutable binding in the associated object Environment Record and records the bound
name in the associated [[VarNames]] List. If a binding already exists, it is replaced. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let ObjRec be envRec.[[ObjectRecord]].

2. Let globalObject be ObjRec.[[BindingObject]].
3. Let existingProp be ? globalObject.[[GetOwnProperty]](N).
4. If existingProp is undefined or existingProp.[[Configurable]] is true, then
a. Let desc be the PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: V, [[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]:
true, [[Configurable]]: D }.
5. Else,
a. Let desc be the PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: V }.
6. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(globalObject, N, desc).
7. Perform ? Set(globalObject, N, V, false).
8. Let varDeclaredNames be envRec.[[VarNames]].
9. If varDeclaredNames does not contain N, then
a. Append N to varDeclaredNames.
10. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

NOTE Global function declarations are always represented as own properties of the global
object. If possible, an existing own property is reconfigured to have a standard set of
attribute values. Step 7 is equivalent to what calling the InitializeBinding concrete
method would do and if globalObject is a Proxy will produce the same sequence of
Proxy trap calls.

9.1.1.5 Module Environment Records

A module Environment Record is a declarative Environment Record that is used to represent the
outer scope of an ECMAScript Module. In additional to normal mutable and immutable bindings,
module Environment Records also provide immutable import bindings which are bindings that
provide indirect access to a target binding that exists in another Environment Record.

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Module Environment Records support all of the declarative Environment Record methods listed in
Table 17 and share the same specifications for all of those methods except for GetBindingValue,
DeleteBinding, HasThisBinding and GetThisBinding. In addition, module Environment Records
support the methods listed in Table 23:

Table 23: Additional Methods of Module Environment Records

Method Purpose

CreateImportBinding(N, Create an immutable indirect binding in a module Environment Record.

M, N2) The String value N is the text of the bound name. M is a Module
Record, and N2 is a binding that exists in M's module Environment
Record.

GetThisBinding() Return the value of this Environment Record's this binding.

The behaviour of the additional concrete specification methods for module Environment Records are
defined by the following algorithms:

9.1.1.5.1 GetBindingValue ( N, S )

The GetBindingValue concrete method of a module Environment Record envRec takes arguments N
(a String) and S (a Boolean). It returns the value of its bound identifier whose name is the value of
the argument N. However, if the binding is an indirect binding the value of the target binding is
returned. If the binding exists but is uninitialized a ReferenceError is thrown. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: S is true.
2. Assert: envRec has a binding for N.
3. If the binding for N is an indirect binding, then
a. Let M and N2 be the indirection values provided when this binding for N was created.
b. Let targetEnv be M.[[Environment]].
c. If targetEnv is undefined, throw a ReferenceError exception.
d. Return ? targetEnv.GetBindingValue(N2, true).
4. If the binding for N in envRec is an uninitialized binding, throw a ReferenceError exception.
5. Return the value currently bound to N in envRec.

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NOTE S will always be true because a Module is always strict mode code.

9.1.1.5.2 DeleteBinding ( N )

The DeleteBinding concrete method of a module Environment Record is never used within this
specification.

NOTE Module Environment Records are only used within strict code and an early error
rule prevents the delete operator, in strict code, from being applied to a Reference
Record that would resolve to a module Environment Record binding. See 13.5.1.1.

9.1.1.5.3 HasThisBinding ( )

The HasThisBinding concrete method of a module Environment Record envRec takes no arguments.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return true.

NOTE Module Environment Records always provide a this binding.

9.1.1.5.4 GetThisBinding ( )

The GetThisBinding concrete method of a module Environment Record envRec takes no arguments.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return undefined.

9.1.1.5.5 CreateImportBinding ( N, M, N2 )

The CreateImportBinding concrete method of a module Environment Record envRec takes

arguments N (a String), M (a Module Record), and N2 (a String). It creates a new initialized
immutable indirect binding for the name N. A binding must not already exist in this Environment
Record for N. N2 is the name of a binding that exists in M's module Environment Record. Accesses
to the value of the new binding will indirectly access the bound value of the target binding. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: envRec does not already have a binding for N.

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2. Assert: M is a Module Record.

3. Assert: When M.[[Environment]] is instantiated it will have a direct binding for N2.
4. Create an immutable indirect binding in envRec for N that references M and N2 as its target
binding and record that the binding is initialized.
5. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

9.1.2 Environment Record Operations

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate upon Environment
Records:

9.1.2.1 GetIdentifierReference ( env, name, strict )

The abstract operation GetIdentifierReference takes arguments env (an Environment Record or null),
name (a String), and strict (a Boolean). It performs the following steps when called:

1. If env is the value null, then

a. Return the Reference Record { [[Base]]: unresolvable, [[ReferencedName]]: name,
[[Strict]]: strict, [[ThisValue]]: empty }.
2. Let exists be ? env.HasBinding(name).
3. If exists is true, then
a. Return the Reference Record { [[Base]]: env, [[ReferencedName]]: name, [[Strict]]: strict,
[[ThisValue]]: empty }.
4. Else,
a. Let outer be env.[[OuterEnv]].
b. Return ? GetIdentifierReference(outer, name, strict).

9.1.2.2 NewDeclarativeEnvironment ( E )

The abstract operation NewDeclarativeEnvironment takes argument E (an Environment Record). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. Let env be a new declarative Environment Record containing no bindings.

2. Set env.[[OuterEnv]] to E.
3. Return env.

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9.1.2.3 NewObjectEnvironment ( O, W, E )

The abstract operation NewObjectEnvironment takes arguments O (an Object), W (a Boolean), and E
(an Environment Record or null). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let env be a new object Environment Record.

2. Set env.[[BindingObject]] to O.
3. Set env.[[IsWithEnvironment]] to W.
4. Set env.[[OuterEnv]] to E.
5. Return env.

9.1.2.4 NewFunctionEnvironment ( F, newTarget )

The abstract operation NewFunctionEnvironment takes arguments F and newTarget. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: F is an ECMAScript function.

2. Assert: Type(newTarget) is Undefined or Object.
3. Let env be a new function Environment Record containing no bindings.
4. Set env.[[FunctionObject]] to F.
5. If F.[[ThisMode]] is lexical, set env.[[ThisBindingStatus]] to lexical.
6. Else, set env.[[ThisBindingStatus]] to uninitialized.
7. Set env.[[NewTarget]] to newTarget.
8. Set env.[[OuterEnv]] to F.[[Environment]].
9. Return env.

9.1.2.5 NewGlobalEnvironment ( G, thisValue )

The abstract operation NewGlobalEnvironment takes arguments G and thisValue. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let objRec be NewObjectEnvironment(G, false, null).

2. Let dclRec be a new declarative Environment Record containing no bindings.
3. Let env be a new global Environment Record.
4. Set env.[[ObjectRecord]] to objRec.
5. Set env.[[GlobalThisValue]] to thisValue.
6. Set env.[[DeclarativeRecord]] to dclRec.
7. Set env.[[VarNames]] to a new empty List.
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8. Set env.[[OuterEnv]] to null.

9. Return env.

9.1.2.6 NewModuleEnvironment ( E )

The abstract operation NewModuleEnvironment takes argument E (an Environment Record). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. Let env be a new module Environment Record containing no bindings.

2. Set env.[[OuterEnv]] to E.
3. Return env.

9.2 Realms
Before it is evaluated, all ECMAScript code must be associated with a realm. Conceptually, a realm
consists of a set of intrinsic objects, an ECMAScript global environment, all of the ECMAScript
code that is loaded within the scope of that global environment, and other associated state and
resources.

A realm is represented in this specification as a Realm Record with the fields specified in Table 24:

Table 24: Realm Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning

[[Intrinsics]] Record whose The intrinsic values used by code associated with this realm
field names are
intrinsic keys
and whose
values are
objects

[[GlobalObject]] Object The global object for this realm

[[GlobalEnv]] global The global environment for this realm

Environment
Record

[[TemplateMap]] A List of
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Record { Template objects are canonicalized separately for each realm

[[Site]]: Parse using its Realm Record's [[TemplateMap]]. Each [[Site]]

Node, value is a Parse Node that is a TemplateLiteral. The
[[Array]]: associated [[Array]] value is the corresponding template
Object }. object that is passed to a tag function.

NOTE Once a Parse Node becomes unreachable,

the corresponding [[Array]] is also
unreachable, and it would be unobservable if
an implementation removed the pair from
the [[TemplateMap]] list.

[[HostDefined]] Any, default Field reserved for use by hosts that need to associate
value is additional information with a Realm Record.
undefined.

9.2.1 CreateRealm ( )
The abstract operation CreateRealm takes no arguments. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let realmRec be a new Realm Record.

2. Perform CreateIntrinsics(realmRec).
3. Set realmRec.[[GlobalObject]] to undefined.
4. Set realmRec.[[GlobalEnv]] to undefined.
5. Set realmRec.[[TemplateMap]] to a new empty List.
6. Return realmRec.

9.2.2 CreateIntrinsics ( realmRec )

The abstract operation CreateIntrinsics takes argument realmRec. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let intrinsics be a new Record.

2. Set realmRec.[[Intrinsics]] to intrinsics.

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3. Set fields of intrinsics with the values listed in Table 8. The field names are the names listed in
column one of the table. The value of each field is a new object value fully and recursively
populated with property values as defined by the specification of each object in clauses 19
through 28. All object property values are newly created object values. All values that are built-
in function objects are created by performing CreateBuiltinFunction(steps, length, name, slots,
realmRec, prototype) where steps is the definition of that function provided by this
specification, name is the initial value of the function's name property, length is the initial
value of the function's length property, slots is a list of the names, if any, of the function's
specified internal slots, and prototype is the specified value of the function's [[Prototype]]
internal slot. The creation of the intrinsics and their properties must be ordered to avoid any
dependencies upon objects that have not yet been created.
4. Perform AddRestrictedFunctionProperties(intrinsics.[[%Function.prototype%]], realmRec).
5. Return intrinsics.

9.2.3 SetRealmGlobalObject ( realmRec, globalObj, thisValue )

The abstract operation SetRealmGlobalObject takes arguments realmRec, globalObj, and thisValue.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. If globalObj is undefined, then

a. Let intrinsics be realmRec.[[Intrinsics]].
b. Set globalObj to ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(intrinsics.[[%Object.prototype%]]).
2. Assert: Type(globalObj) is Object.
3. If thisValue is undefined, set thisValue to globalObj.
4. Set realmRec.[[GlobalObject]] to globalObj.
5. Let newGlobalEnv be NewGlobalEnvironment(globalObj, thisValue).
6. Set realmRec.[[GlobalEnv]] to newGlobalEnv.
7. Return realmRec.

9.2.4 SetDefaultGlobalBindings ( realmRec )

The abstract operation SetDefaultGlobalBindings takes argument realmRec. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let global be realmRec.[[GlobalObject]].

2. For each property of the Global Object specified in clause 19, do

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a. Let name be the String value of the property name.

b. Let desc be the fully populated data Property Descriptor for the property, containing the
specified attributes for the property. For properties listed in 19.2, 19.3, or 19.4 the value
of the [[Value]] attribute is the corresponding intrinsic object from realmRec.
c. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(global, name, desc).
3. Return global.

9.3 Execution Contexts

An execution context is a specification device that is used to track the runtime evaluation of code by
an ECMAScript implementation. At any point in time, there is at most one execution context per
agent that is actually executing code. This is known as the agent's running execution context. All
references to the running execution context in this specification denote the running execution context
of the surrounding agent.

The execution context stack is used to track execution contexts. The running execution context is
always the top element of this stack. A new execution context is created whenever control is
transferred from the executable code associated with the currently running execution context to
executable code that is not associated with that execution context. The newly created execution
context is pushed onto the stack and becomes the running execution context.

An execution context contains whatever implementation specific state is necessary to track the
execution progress of its associated code. Each execution context has at least the state components
listed in Table 25.

Table 25: State Components for All Execution Contexts

Component Purpose

code evaluation Any state needed to perform, suspend, and resume evaluation of the code
state associated with this execution context.

Function If this execution context is evaluating the code of a function object, then the
value of this component is that function object. If the context is evaluating the
code of a Script or Module, the value is null.

Realm The Realm Record from which associated code accesses ECMAScript
resources.

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ScriptOrModule The Module Record or Script Record from which associated code originates. If
there is no originating script or module, as is the case for the original execution
context created in InitializeHostDefinedRealm, the value is null.

Evaluation of code by the running execution context may be suspended at various points defined
within this specification. Once the running execution context has been suspended a different
execution context may become the running execution context and commence evaluating its code. At
some later time a suspended execution context may again become the running execution context and
continue evaluating its code at the point where it had previously been suspended. Transition of the
running execution context status among execution contexts usually occurs in stack-like last-in/first-
out manner. However, some ECMAScript features require non-LIFO transitions of the running
execution context.

The value of the Realm component of the running execution context is also called the current Realm
Record. The value of the Function component of the running execution context is also called the
active function object.

Execution contexts for ECMAScript code have the additional state components listed in Table 26.

Table 26: Additional State Components for ECMAScript Code Execution Contexts
Component Purpose

LexicalEnvironment Identifies the Environment Record used to resolve identifier references

made by code within this execution context.

VariableEnvironment Identifies the Environment Record that holds bindings created by

VariableStatements within this execution context.

The LexicalEnvironment and VariableEnvironment components of an execution context are always

Environment Records.

Execution contexts representing the evaluation of generator objects have the additional state
components listed in Table 27.

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Table 27: Additional State Components for Generator Execution Contexts

Component Purpose

Generator The generator object that this execution context is evaluating.

In most situations only the running execution context (the top of the execution context stack) is
directly manipulated by algorithms within this specification. Hence when the terms
“LexicalEnvironment”, and “VariableEnvironment” are used without qualification they are in
reference to those components of the running execution context.

An execution context is purely a specification mechanism and need not correspond to any particular
artefact of an ECMAScript implementation. It is impossible for ECMAScript code to directly access
or observe an execution context.

9.3.1 GetActiveScriptOrModule ( )
The abstract operation GetActiveScriptOrModule takes no arguments. It is used to determine the
running script or module, based on the running execution context. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. If the execution context stack is empty, return null.

2. Let ec be the topmost execution context on the execution context stack whose ScriptOrModule
component is not null.
3. If no such execution context exists, return null. Otherwise, return ec's ScriptOrModule.

9.3.2 ResolveBinding ( name [ , env ] )

The abstract operation ResolveBinding takes argument name (a String) and optional argument env
(an Environment Record). It is used to determine the binding of name. env can be used to explicitly
provide the Environment Record that is to be searched for the binding. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. If env is not present or if env is undefined, then

a. Set env to the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
2. Assert: env is an Environment Record.
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3. If the code matching the syntactic production that is being evaluated is contained in strict mode
code, let strict be true; else let strict be false.
4. Return ? GetIdentifierReference(env, name, strict).

NOTE The result of ResolveBinding is always a Reference Record whose

[[ReferencedName]] field is name.

9.3.3 GetThisEnvironment ( )
The abstract operation GetThisEnvironment takes no arguments. It finds the Environment Record
that currently supplies the binding of the keyword this. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Let env be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.

2. Repeat,
a. Let exists be env.HasThisBinding().
b. If exists is true, return env.
c. Let outer be env.[[OuterEnv]].
d. Assert: outer is not null.
e. Set env to outer.

NOTE The loop in step 2 will always terminate because the list of environments always
ends with the global environment which has a this binding.

9.3.4 ResolveThisBinding ( )
The abstract operation ResolveThisBinding takes no arguments. It determines the binding of the
keyword this using the LexicalEnvironment of the running execution context. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let envRec be GetThisEnvironment().

2. Return ? envRec.GetThisBinding().

9.3.5 GetNewTarget ( )

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The abstract operation GetNewTarget takes no arguments. It determines the NewTarget value using
the LexicalEnvironment of the running execution context. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Let envRec be GetThisEnvironment().

2. Assert: envRec has a [[NewTarget]] field.
3. Return envRec.[[NewTarget]].

9.3.6 GetGlobalObject ( )
The abstract operation GetGlobalObject takes no arguments. It returns the global object used by the
currently running execution context. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let currentRealm be the current Realm Record.

2. Return currentRealm.[[GlobalObject]].

9.4 Jobs and Host Operations to Enqueue Jobs

A Job is an Abstract Closure with no parameters that initiates an ECMAScript computation when no
other ECMAScript computation is currently in progress.

Jobs are scheduled for execution by ECMAScript host environments. This specification describes the
host hook HostEnqueuePromiseJob to schedule one kind of job; hosts may define additional abstract
operations which schedule jobs. Such operations accept a Job Abstract Closure as the parameter and
schedule it to be performed at some future time. Their implementations must conform to the
following requirements:

At some future point in time, when there is no running execution context and the execution
context stack is empty, the implementation must:
1. Perform any host-defined preparation steps.
2. Invoke the Job Abstract Closure.
3. Perform any host-defined cleanup steps, after which the execution context stack must be
empty.
Only one Job may be actively undergoing evaluation at any point in time.
Once evaluation of a Job starts, it must run to completion before evaluation of any other Job
starts.

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The Abstract Closure must return a normal completion, implementing its own handling of
errors.

NOTE 1 Host environments are not required to treat Jobs uniformly with respect to
scheduling. For example, web browsers and Node.js treat Promise-handling Jobs as
a higher priority than other work; future features may add Jobs that are not treated at
such a high priority.

At any particular time, scriptOrModule (a Script Record, a Module Record, or null) is the active
script or module if all of the following conditions are true:

GetActiveScriptOrModule() is scriptOrModule.
If scriptOrModule is a Script Record or Module Record, let ec be the topmost execution
context on the execution context stack whose ScriptOrModule component is scriptOrModule.
The Realm component of ec is scriptOrModule.[[Realm]].

At any particular time, an execution is prepared to evaluate ECMAScript code if all of the following
conditions are true:

The execution context stack is not empty.

The Realm component of the topmost execution context on the execution context stack is a
Realm Record.

NOTE 2 Host environments may prepare an execution to evaluate code by pushing execution
contexts onto the execution context stack. The specific steps are implementation-
defined.

The specific choice of Realm is up to the host environment. This initial execution
context and Realm is only in use before any callback function is invoked. When a
callback function related to a Job, like a Promise handler, is invoked, the invocation
pushes its own execution context and Realm.

Particular kinds of Jobs have additional conformance requirements.

9.4.1 JobCallback Records

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A JobCallback Record is a Record value used to store a function object and a host-defined value.
Function objects that are invoked via a Job enqueued by the host may have additional host-defined
context. To propagate the state, Job Abstract Closures should not capture and call function objects
directly. Instead, use HostMakeJobCallback and HostCallJobCallback.

NOTE The WHATWG HTML specification (https://html.spec.whatwg.org/), for example,

uses the host-defined value to propagate the incumbent settings object for Promise
callbacks.

JobCallback Records have the fields listed in Table 28.

Table 28: JobCallback Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning

[[Callback]] A function object The function to invoke when the Job is invoked.

[[HostDefined]] Any, default value is empty. Field reserved for use by hosts.

9.4.2 HostMakeJobCallback ( callback )

The host-defined abstract operation HostMakeJobCallback takes argument callback (a function
object).

The implementation of HostMakeJobCallback must conform to the following requirements:

It must always complete normally (i.e., not return an abrupt completion).

It must always return a JobCallback Record whose [[Callback]] field is callback.

The default implementation of HostMakeJobCallback performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsCallable(callback) is true.

2. Return the JobCallback Record { [[Callback]]: callback, [[HostDefined]]: empty }.

ECMAScript hosts that are not web browsers must use the default implementation of
HostMakeJobCallback.

NOTE This is called at the time that the callback is passed to the function that is
responsible for its being eventually scheduled and run. For example,
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promise.then(thenAction) calls MakeJobCallback on thenAction at

the time of invoking Promise.prototype.then, not at the time of scheduling
the reaction Job.

9.4.3 HostCallJobCallback ( jobCallback, V, argumentsList )

The host-defined abstract operation HostCallJobCallback takes arguments jobCallback (a
JobCallback Record), V (an ECMAScript language value), and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript
language values).

The implementation of HostCallJobCallback must conform to the following requirements:

It must always perform and return the result of Call(jobCallback.[[Callback]], V,

argumentsList).

NOTE This requirement means that hosts cannot change the [[Call]] behaviour of function
objects defined in this specification.

The default implementation of HostCallJobCallback performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsCallable(jobCallback.[[Callback]]) is true.

2. Return ? Call(jobCallback.[[Callback]], V, argumentsList).

ECMAScript hosts that are not web browsers must use the default implementation of
HostCallJobCallback.

9.4.4 HostEnqueuePromiseJob ( job, realm )

The host-defined abstract operation HostEnqueuePromiseJob takes arguments job (a Job Abstract
Closure) and realm (a Realm Record or null). It schedules job to be performed at some future time.
The Abstract Closures used with this algorithm are intended to be related to the handling of
Promises, or otherwise, to be scheduled with equal priority to Promise handling operations.

The implementation of HostEnqueuePromiseJob must conform to the requirements in 9.4 as well as

the following:

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If realm is not null, each time job is invoked the implementation must perform
implementation-defined steps such that execution is prepared to evaluate ECMAScript code at
the time of job's invocation.
Let scriptOrModule be GetActiveScriptOrModule() at the time HostEnqueuePromiseJob is
invoked. If realm is not null, each time job is invoked the implementation must perform
implementation-defined steps such that scriptOrModule is the active script or module at the
time of job's invocation.
Jobs must run in the same order as the HostEnqueuePromiseJob invocations that scheduled
them.

NOTE The realm for Jobs returned by NewPromiseResolveThenableJob is usually the

result of calling GetFunctionRealm on the then function object. The realm for Jobs
returned by NewPromiseReactionJob is usually the result of calling
GetFunctionRealm on the handler if the handler is not undefined. If the handler is
undefined, realm is null. For both kinds of Jobs, when GetFunctionRealm
completes abnormally (i.e. called on a revoked Proxy), realm is the current Realm at
the time of the GetFunctionRealm call. When the realm is null, no user
ECMAScript code will be evaluated and no new ECMAScript objects (e.g. Error
objects) will be created. The WHATWG HTML specification
(https://html.spec.whatwg.org/), for example, uses realm to check for the ability to
run script and for the entry concept.

9.5 InitializeHostDefinedRealm ( )
The abstract operation InitializeHostDefinedRealm takes no arguments. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Let realm be CreateRealm().

2. Let newContext be a new execution context.
3. Set the Function of newContext to null.
4. Set the Realm of newContext to realm.
5. Set the ScriptOrModule of newContext to null.
6. Push newContext onto the execution context stack; newContext is now the running execution
context.

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7. If the host requires use of an exotic object to serve as realm's global object, let global be such
an object created in a host-defined manner. Otherwise, let global be undefined, indicating that
an ordinary object should be created as the global object.
8. If the host requires that the this binding in realm's global scope return an object other than
the global object, let thisValue be such an object created in a host-defined manner. Otherwise,
let thisValue be undefined, indicating that realm's global this binding should be the global
object.
9. Perform SetRealmGlobalObject(realm, global, thisValue).
10. Let globalObj be ? SetDefaultGlobalBindings(realm).
11. Create any host-defined global object properties on globalObj.
12. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

9.6 Agents
An agent comprises a set of ECMAScript execution contexts, an execution context stack, a running
execution context, an Agent Record, and an executing thread. Except for the executing thread, the
constituents of an agent belong exclusively to that agent.

An agent's executing thread executes a job on the agent's execution contexts independently of other
agents, except that an executing thread may be used as the executing thread by multiple agents,
provided none of the agents sharing the thread have an Agent Record whose [[CanBlock]] property
is true.

NOTE 1 Some web browsers share a single executing thread across multiple unrelated tabs of
a browser window, for example.

While an agent's executing thread executes jobs, the agent is the surrounding agent for the code in
those jobs. The code uses the surrounding agent to access the specification level execution objects
held within the agent: the running execution context, the execution context stack, and the Agent
Record's fields.

Table 29: Agent Record Fields

Field Name Value Meaning

[[LittleEndian]] Boolean The default value computed for the isLittleEndian parameter
when it is needed by the algorithms GetValueFromBuffer
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and SetValueInBuffer. The choice is implementation-defined

and should be the alternative that is most efficient for the
implementation. Once the value has been observed it cannot
change.

[[CanBlock]] Boolean Determines whether the agent can block or not.

[[Signifier]] Any Uniquely identifies the agent within its agent cluster.
globally-
unique
value

[[IsLockFree1]] Boolean true if atomic operations on one-byte values are lock-free,

false otherwise.

[[IsLockFree2]] Boolean true if atomic operations on two-byte values are lock-free,

false otherwise.

[[IsLockFree8]] Boolean true if atomic operations on eight-byte values are lock-free,

false otherwise.

[[CandidateExecution]] A See the memory model.

candidate
execution
Record

[[KeptAlive]] List of Initially a new empty List, representing the list of objects to
objects be kept alive until the end of the current Job

Once the values of [[Signifier]], [[IsLockFree1]], and [[IsLockFree2]] have been observed by any
agent in the agent cluster they cannot change.

NOTE 2 The values of [[IsLockFree1]] and [[IsLockFree2]] are not necessarily determined
by the hardware, but may also reflect implementation choices that can vary over
time and between ECMAScript implementations.

There is no [[IsLockFree4]] property: 4-byte atomic operations are always lock-free.

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In practice, if an atomic operation is implemented with any type of lock the

operation is not lock-free. Lock-free does not imply wait-free: there is no upper
bound on how many machine steps may be required to complete a lock-free atomic
operation.

That an atomic access of size n is lock-free does not imply anything about the
(perceived) atomicity of non-atomic accesses of size n, specifically, non-atomic
accesses may still be performed as a sequence of several separate memory accesses.
See ReadSharedMemory and WriteSharedMemory for details.

NOTE 3 An agent is a specification mechanism and need not correspond to any particular
artefact of an ECMAScript implementation.

9.6.1 AgentSignifier ( )
The abstract operation AgentSignifier takes no arguments. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Let AR be the Agent Record of the surrounding agent.

2. Return AR.[[Signifier]].

9.6.2 AgentCanSuspend ( )
The abstract operation AgentCanSuspend takes no arguments. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Let AR be the Agent Record of the surrounding agent.

2. Return AR.[[CanBlock]].

NOTE In some environments it may not be reasonable for a given agent to suspend. For
example, in a web browser environment, it may be reasonable to disallow
suspending a document's main event handling thread, while still allowing workers'
event handling threads to suspend.

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9.7 Agent Clusters

An agent cluster is a maximal set of agents that can communicate by operating on shared memory.

NOTE 1 Programs within different agents may share memory by unspecified means. At a
minimum, the backing memory for SharedArrayBuffer objects can be shared among
the agents in the cluster.

There may be agents that can communicate by message passing that cannot share
memory; they are never in the same agent cluster.

Every agent belongs to exactly one agent cluster.

NOTE 2 The agents in a cluster need not all be alive at some particular point in time. If agent
A creates another agent B, after which A terminates and B creates agent C, the three
agents are in the same cluster if A could share some memory with B and B could
share some memory with C.

All agents within a cluster must have the same value for the [[LittleEndian]] property in their
respective Agent Records.

NOTE 3 If different agents within an agent cluster have different values of [[LittleEndian]] it
becomes hard to use shared memory for multi-byte data.

All agents within a cluster must have the same values for the [[IsLockFree1]] property in their
respective Agent Records; similarly for the [[IsLockFree2]] property.

All agents within a cluster must have different values for the [[Signifier]] property in their respective
Agent Records.

An embedding may deactivate (stop forward progress) or activate (resume forward progress) an
agent without the agent's knowledge or cooperation. If the embedding does so, it must not leave
some agents in the cluster active while other agents in the cluster are deactivated indefinitely.

NOTE 4 The purpose of the preceding restriction is to avoid a situation where an agent
deadlocks or starves because another agent has been deactivated. For example, if an
HTML shared worker that has a lifetime independent of documents in any windows
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were allowed to share memory with the dedicated worker of such an independent
document, and the document and its dedicated worker were to be deactivated while
the dedicated worker holds a lock (say, the document is pushed into its window's
history), and the shared worker then tries to acquire the lock, then the shared worker
will be blocked until the dedicated worker is activated again, if ever. Meanwhile
other workers trying to access the shared worker from other windows will starve.

The implication of the restriction is that it will not be possible to share memory
between agents that don't belong to the same suspend/wake collective within the
embedding.

An embedding may terminate an agent without any of the agent's cluster's other agents' prior
knowledge or cooperation. If an agent is terminated not by programmatic action of its own or of
another agent in the cluster but by forces external to the cluster, then the embedding must choose one
of two strategies: Either terminate all the agents in the cluster, or provide reliable APIs that allow the
agents in the cluster to coordinate so that at least one remaining member of the cluster will be able to
detect the termination, with the termination data containing enough information to identify the agent
that was terminated.

NOTE 5 Examples of that type of termination are: operating systems or users terminating
agents that are running in separate processes; the embedding itself terminating an
agent that is running in-process with the other agents when per-agent resource
accounting indicates that the agent is runaway.

Prior to any evaluation of any ECMAScript code by any agent in a cluster, the
[[CandidateExecution]] field of the Agent Record for all agents in the cluster is set to the initial
candidate execution. The initial candidate execution is an empty candidate execution whose
[[EventsRecords]] field is a List containing, for each agent, an Agent Events Record whose
[[AgentSignifier]] field is that agent's signifier, and whose [[EventList]] and
[[AgentSynchronizesWith]] fields are empty Lists.

NOTE 6 All agents in an agent cluster share the same candidate execution in its Agent
Record's [[CandidateExecution]] field. The candidate execution is a specification
mechanism used by the memory model.

NOTE 7 An agent cluster is a specification mechanism and need not correspond to any
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particular artefact of an ECMAScript implementation.

9.8 Forward Progress

For an agent to make forward progress is for it to perform an evaluation step according to this
specification.

An agent becomes blocked when its running execution context waits synchronously and indefinitely
for an external event. Only agents whose Agent Record's [[CanBlock]] property is true can become
blocked in this sense. An unblocked agent is one that is not blocked.

Implementations must ensure that:

every unblocked agent with a dedicated executing thread eventually makes forward progress
in a set of agents that share an executing thread, one agent eventually makes forward progress
an agent does not cause another agent to become blocked except via explicit APIs that provide
blocking.

NOTE This, along with the liveness guarantee in the memory model, ensures that all
SeqCst writes eventually become observable to all agents.

9.9 Processing Model of WeakRef and FinalizationRegistry

Objects

9.9.1 Objectives
This specification does not make any guarantees that any object will be garbage collected. Objects
which are not live may be released after long periods of time, or never at all. For this reason, this
specification uses the term "may" when describing behaviour triggered by garbage collection.

The semantics of WeakRef and FinalizationRegistry objects is based on two operations which
happen at particular points in time:

When WeakRef.prototype.deref is called, the referent (if undefined is not returned) is

kept alive so that subsequent, synchronous accesses also return the object. This list is reset
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when synchronous work is done using the ClearKeptObjects abstract operation.

When an object which is registered with a FinalizationRegistry becomes unreachable, a call of
the FinalizationRegistry's cleanup callback may eventually be made, after synchronous
ECMAScript execution completes. The FinalizationRegistry cleanup is performed with the
CleanupFinalizationRegistry abstract operation.

Neither of these actions (ClearKeptObjects or CleanupFinalizationRegistry) may interrupt

synchronous ECMAScript execution. Because hosts may assemble longer, synchronous
ECMAScript execution runs, this specification defers the scheduling of ClearKeptObjects and
CleanupFinalizationRegistry to the host environment.

Some ECMAScript implementations include garbage collector implementations which run in the
background, including when ECMAScript is idle. Letting the host environment schedule
CleanupFinalizationRegistry allows it to resume ECMAScript execution in order to run finalizer
work, which may free up held values, reducing overall memory usage.

9.9.2 Liveness
For some set of objects S, a hypothetical WeakRef-oblivious execution with respect to S is an
execution whereby the abstract operation WeakRefDeref of a WeakRef whose referent is an element
of S always returns undefined.

NOTE 1 WeakRef-obliviousness, together with liveness, capture two notions. One, that a
WeakRef itself does not keep an object alive. Two, that cycles in liveness does not
imply that an object is live. To be concrete, if determining obj's liveness depends on
determining the liveness of another WeakRef referent, obj2, obj2's liveness cannot
assume obj's liveness, which would be circular reasoning.

NOTE 2 WeakRef-obliviousness is defined on sets of objects instead of individual objects to

account for cycles. If it were defined on individual objects, then an object in a cycle
will be considered live even though its Object value is only observed via WeakRefs
of other objects in the cycle.

NOTE 3 Colloquially, we say that an individual object is live if every set of objects
containing it is live.

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At any point during evaluation, a set of objects S is considered live if either of the following
conditions is met:

Any element in S is included in any agent's [[KeptAlive]] List.

There exists a valid future hypothetical WeakRef-oblivious execution with respect to S that
observes the Object value of any object in S.

NOTE 4 The second condition above intends to capture the intuition that an object is live if
its identity is observable via non-WeakRef means. An object's identity may be
observed by observing a strict equality comparison between objects or observing the
object being used as key in a Map.

NOTE 5 Presence of an object in a field, an internal slot, or a property does not imply that the
object is live. For example if the object in question is never passed back to the
program, then it cannot be observed.

This is the case for keys in a WeakMap, members of a WeakSet, as well as the
[[WeakRefTarget]] and [[UnregisterToken]] fields of a FinalizationRegistry Cell
record.

The above definition implies that, if a key in a WeakMap is not live, then its
corresponding value is not necessarily live either.

NOTE 6 Liveness is the lower bound for guaranteeing which WeakRefs engines must not
empty. Liveness as defined here is undecidable. In practice, engines use
conservative approximations such as reachability. There is expected to be significant
implementation leeway.

9.9.3 Execution
At any time, if a set of objects S is not live, an ECMAScript implementation may perform the
following steps atomically:

1. For each element obj of S, do

a. For each WeakRef ref such that ref.[[WeakRefTarget]] is obj, do
i. Set ref.[[WeakRefTarget]] to empty.
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b. For each FinalizationRegistry fg such that fg.[[Cells]] contains a Record cell such that
cell.[[WeakRefTarget]] is obj, do
i. Set cell.[[WeakRefTarget]] to empty.
ii. Optionally, perform ! HostEnqueueFinalizationRegistryCleanupJob(fg).
c. For each WeakMap map such that map.[[WeakMapData]] contains a Record r such that r.
[[Key]] is obj, do
i. Set r.[[Key]] to empty.
ii. Set r.[[Value]] to empty.
d. For each WeakSet set such that set.[[WeakSetData]] contains obj, do
i. Replace the element of set.[[WeakSetData]] whose value is obj with an element
whose value is empty.

NOTE 1 Together with the definition of liveness, this clause prescribes legal optimizations
that an implementation may apply regarding WeakRefs.

It is possible to access an object without observing its identity. Optimizations such

as dead variable elimination and scalar replacement on properties of non-escaping
objects whose identity is not observed are allowed. These optimizations are thus
allowed to observably empty WeakRefs that point to such objects.

On the other hand, if an object's identity is observable, and that object is in the
[[WeakRefTarget]] internal slot of a WeakRef, optimizations such as
rematerialization that observably empty the WeakRef are prohibited.

Because calling HostEnqueueFinalizationRegistryCleanupJob is optional, registered

objects in a FinalizationRegistry do not necessarily hold that FinalizationRegistry
live. Implementations may omit FinalizationRegistry callbacks for any reason, e.g.,
if the FinalizationRegistry itself becomes dead, or if the application is shutting
down.

NOTE 2 Implementations are not obligated to empty WeakRefs for maximal sets of non-live
objects.

If an implementation chooses a non-live set S in which to empty WeakRefs, it must

empty WeakRefs for all objects in S simultaneously. In other words, an
implementation must not empty a WeakRef pointing to an object obj without

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emptying out other WeakRefs that, if not emptied, could result in an execution that
observes the Object value of obj.

9.9.4 Host Hooks

9.9.4.1 HostEnqueueFinalizationRegistryCleanupJob ( finalizationRegistry )

The abstract operation HostEnqueueFinalizationRegistryCleanupJob takes argument

finalizationRegistry (a FinalizationRegistry). HostEnqueueFinalizationRegistryCleanupJob is an
implementation-defined abstract operation that is expected to call
CleanupFinalizationRegistry(finalizationRegistry) at some point in the future, if possible. The host's
responsibility is to make this call at a time which does not interrupt synchronous ECMAScript code
execution.

9.10 ClearKeptObjects ( )
The abstract operation ClearKeptObjects takes no arguments. ECMAScript implementations are
expected to call ClearKeptObjects when a synchronous sequence of ECMAScript executions
completes. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let agentRecord be the surrounding agent's Agent Record.

2. Set agentRecord.[[KeptAlive]] to a new empty List.

9.11 AddToKeptObjects ( object )

The abstract operation AddToKeptObjects takes argument object (an Object). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let agentRecord be the surrounding agent's Agent Record.

2. Append object to agentRecord.[[KeptAlive]].

NOTE When the abstract operation AddToKeptObjects is called with a target object
reference, it adds the target to a list that will point strongly at the target until
ClearKeptObjects is called.
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9.12 CleanupFinalizationRegistry ( finalizationRegistry )

The abstract operation CleanupFinalizationRegistry takes argument finalizationRegistry (a
FinalizationRegistry). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: finalizationRegistry has [[Cells]] and [[CleanupCallback]] internal slots.

2. Let callback be finalizationRegistry.[[CleanupCallback]].
3. While finalizationRegistry.[[Cells]] contains a Record cell such that cell.[[WeakRefTarget]] is
empty, an implementation may perform the following steps:
a. Choose any such cell.
b. Remove cell from finalizationRegistry.[[Cells]].
c. Perform ? HostCallJobCallback(callback, undefined, « cell.[[HeldValue]] »).
4. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).

10 Ordinary and Exotic Objects Behaviours

10.1 Ordinary Object Internal Methods and Internal Slots

All ordinary objects have an internal slot called [[Prototype]]. The value of this internal slot is either
null or an object and is used for implementing inheritance. Data properties of the [[Prototype]]
object are inherited (and visible as properties of the child object) for the purposes of get access, but
not for set access. Accessor properties are inherited for both get access and set access.

Every ordinary object has a Boolean-valued [[Extensible]] internal slot which is used to fulfill the
extensibility-related internal method invariants specified in 6.1.7.3. Namely, once the value of an
object's [[Extensible]] internal slot has been set to false, it is no longer possible to add properties to
the object, to modify the value of the object's [[Prototype]] internal slot, or to subsequently change
the value of [[Extensible]] to true.

In the following algorithm descriptions, assume O is an ordinary object, P is a property key value, V
is any ECMAScript language value, and Desc is a Property Descriptor record.

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Each ordinary object internal method delegates to a similarly-named abstract operation. If such an
abstract operation depends on another internal method, then the internal method is invoked on O
rather than calling the similarly-named abstract operation directly. These semantics ensure that
exotic objects have their overridden internal methods invoked when ordinary object internal methods
are applied to them.

10.1.1 [[GetPrototypeOf]] ( )
The [[GetPrototypeOf]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes no arguments. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Return ! OrdinaryGetPrototypeOf(O).

10.1.1.1 OrdinaryGetPrototypeOf ( O )

The abstract operation OrdinaryGetPrototypeOf takes argument O (an Object). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Return O.[[Prototype]].

10.1.2 [[SetPrototypeOf]] ( V )
The [[SetPrototypeOf]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes argument V (an Object or
null). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ! OrdinarySetPrototypeOf(O, V).

10.1.2.1 OrdinarySetPrototypeOf ( O, V )

The abstract operation OrdinarySetPrototypeOf takes arguments O (an Object) and V (an
ECMAScript language value). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Either Type(V) is Object or Type(V) is Null.

2. Let current be O.[[Prototype]].
3. If SameValue(V, current) is true, return true.
4. Let extensible be O.[[Extensible]].
5. If extensible is false, return false.

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6. Let p be V.
7. Let done be false.
8. Repeat, while done is false,
a. If p is null, set done to true.
b. Else if SameValue(p, O) is true, return false.
c. Else,
i. If p.[[GetPrototypeOf]] is not the ordinary object internal method defined in 10.1.1,
set done to true.
ii. Else, set p to p.[[Prototype]].
9. Set O.[[Prototype]] to V.
10. Return true.

NOTE The loop in step 8 guarantees that there will be no circularities in any prototype
chain that only includes objects that use the ordinary object definitions for
[[GetPrototypeOf]] and [[SetPrototypeOf]].

10.1.3 [[IsExtensible]] ( )
The [[IsExtensible]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes no arguments. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Return ! OrdinaryIsExtensible(O).

10.1.3.1 OrdinaryIsExtensible ( O )

The abstract operation OrdinaryIsExtensible takes argument O (an Object). It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Return O.[[Extensible]].

10.1.4 [[PreventExtensions]] ( )
The [[PreventExtensions]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes no arguments. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Return ! OrdinaryPreventExtensions(O).

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10.1.4.1 OrdinaryPreventExtensions ( O )

The abstract operation OrdinaryPreventExtensions takes argument O (an Object). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Set O.[[Extensible]] to false.

2. Return true.

10.1.5 [[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )
The [[GetOwnProperty]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes argument P (a property key).
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ! OrdinaryGetOwnProperty(O, P).

10.1.5.1 OrdinaryGetOwnProperty ( O, P )

The abstract operation OrdinaryGetOwnProperty takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a property
key). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. If O does not have an own property with key P, return undefined.
3. Let D be a newly created Property Descriptor with no fields.
4. Let X be O's own property whose key is P.
5. If X is a data property, then
a. Set D.[[Value]] to the value of X's [[Value]] attribute.
b. Set D.[[Writable]] to the value of X's [[Writable]] attribute.
6. Else,
a. Assert: X is an accessor property.
b. Set D.[[Get]] to the value of X's [[Get]] attribute.
c. Set D.[[Set]] to the value of X's [[Set]] attribute.
7. Set D.[[Enumerable]] to the value of X's [[Enumerable]] attribute.
8. Set D.[[Configurable]] to the value of X's [[Configurable]] attribute.
9. Return D.

10.1.6 [[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

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The [[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes arguments P (a property

key) and Desc (a Property Descriptor). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(O, P, Desc).

10.1.6.1 OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty ( O, P, Desc )

The abstract operation OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property

key), and Desc (a Property Descriptor). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let current be ? O.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).

2. Let extensible be ? IsExtensible(O).
3. Return ValidateAndApplyPropertyDescriptor(O, P, extensible, Desc, current).

10.1.6.2 IsCompatiblePropertyDescriptor ( Extensible, Desc, Current )

The abstract operation IsCompatiblePropertyDescriptor takes arguments Extensible (a Boolean),

Desc (a Property Descriptor), and Current (a Property Descriptor). It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Return ValidateAndApplyPropertyDescriptor(undefined, undefined, Extensible, Desc,

Current).

10.1.6.3 ValidateAndApplyPropertyDescriptor ( O, P, extensible, Desc, current )

The abstract operation ValidateAndApplyPropertyDescriptor takes arguments O (an Object or

undefined), P (a property key), extensible (a Boolean), Desc (a Property Descriptor), and current (a
Property Descriptor). It performs the following steps when called:

NOTE If undefined is passed as O, only validation is performed and no object updates are
performed.

1. Assert: If O is not undefined, then IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. If current is undefined, then
a. If extensible is false, return false.
b. Assert: extensible is true.
c. If IsGenericDescriptor(Desc) is true or IsDataDescriptor(Desc) is true, then

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i. If O is not undefined, create an own data property named P of object O whose

[[Value]], [[Writable]], [[Enumerable]], and [[Configurable]] attribute values are
described by Desc. If the value of an attribute field of Desc is absent, the attribute of
the newly created property is set to its default value.
d. Else,
i. Assert: ! IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) is true.
ii. If O is not undefined, create an own accessor property named P of object O whose
[[Get]], [[Set]], [[Enumerable]], and [[Configurable]] attribute values are described
by Desc. If the value of an attribute field of Desc is absent, the attribute of the newly
created property is set to its default value.
e. Return true.
3. If every field in Desc is absent, return true.
4. If current.[[Configurable]] is false, then
a. If Desc.[[Configurable]] is present and its value is true, return false.
b. If Desc.[[Enumerable]] is present and ! SameValue(Desc.[[Enumerable]], current.
[[Enumerable]]) is false, return false.
5. If ! IsGenericDescriptor(Desc) is true, then
a. NOTE: No further validation is required.
6. Else if ! SameValue(! IsDataDescriptor(current), ! IsDataDescriptor(Desc)) is false, then
a. If current.[[Configurable]] is false, return false.
b. If IsDataDescriptor(current) is true, then
i. If O is not undefined, convert the property named P of object O from a data
property to an accessor property. Preserve the existing values of the converted
property's [[Configurable]] and [[Enumerable]] attributes and set the rest of the
property's attributes to their default values.
c. Else,
i. If O is not undefined, convert the property named P of object O from an accessor
property to a data property. Preserve the existing values of the converted property's
[[Configurable]] and [[Enumerable]] attributes and set the rest of the property's
attributes to their default values.
7. Else if IsDataDescriptor(current) and IsDataDescriptor(Desc) are both true, then
a. If current.[[Configurable]] is false and current.[[Writable]] is false, then
i. If Desc.[[Writable]] is present and Desc.[[Writable]] is true, return false.
ii. If Desc.[[Value]] is present and SameValue(Desc.[[Value]], current.[[Value]]) is
false, return false.
iii. Return true.
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8. Else,
a. Assert: ! IsAccessorDescriptor(current) and ! IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) are both true.
b. If current.[[Configurable]] is false, then
i. If Desc.[[Set]] is present and SameValue(Desc.[[Set]], current.[[Set]]) is false,
return false.
ii. If Desc.[[Get]] is present and SameValue(Desc.[[Get]], current.[[Get]]) is false,
return false.
iii. Return true.
9. If O is not undefined, then
a. For each field of Desc that is present, set the corresponding attribute of the property
named P of object O to the value of the field.
10. Return true.

10.1.7 [[HasProperty]] ( P )
The [[HasProperty]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes argument P (a property key). It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? OrdinaryHasProperty(O, P).

10.1.7.1 OrdinaryHasProperty ( O, P )

The abstract operation OrdinaryHasProperty takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a property key).
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Let hasOwn be ? O.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
3. If hasOwn is not undefined, return true.
4. Let parent be ? O.[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
5. If parent is not null, then
a. Return ? parent.[[HasProperty]](P).
6. Return false.

10.1.8 [[Get]] ( P, Receiver )

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The [[Get]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes arguments P (a property key) and Receiver
(an ECMAScript language value). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? OrdinaryGet(O, P, Receiver).

10.1.8.1 OrdinaryGet ( O, P, Receiver )

The abstract operation OrdinaryGet takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key), and Receiver
(an ECMAScript language value). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Let desc be ? O.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
3. If desc is undefined, then
a. Let parent be ? O.[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
b. If parent is null, return undefined.
c. Return ? parent.[[Get]](P, Receiver).
4. If IsDataDescriptor(desc) is true, return desc.[[Value]].
5. Assert: IsAccessorDescriptor(desc) is true.
6. Let getter be desc.[[Get]].
7. If getter is undefined, return undefined.
8. Return ? Call(getter, Receiver).

10.1.9 [[Set]] ( P, V, Receiver )

The [[Set]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes arguments P (a property key), V (an
ECMAScript language value), and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Return ? OrdinarySet(O, P, V, Receiver).

10.1.9.1 OrdinarySet ( O, P, V, Receiver )

The abstract operation OrdinarySet takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property key), V (an
ECMAScript language value), and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

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2. Let ownDesc be ? O.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).

3. Return OrdinarySetWithOwnDescriptor(O, P, V, Receiver, ownDesc).

10.1.9.2 OrdinarySetWithOwnDescriptor ( O, P, V, Receiver, ownDesc )

The abstract operation OrdinarySetWithOwnDescriptor takes arguments O (an Object), P (a property

key), V (an ECMAScript language value), Receiver (an ECMAScript language value), and ownDesc
(a Property Descriptor or undefined). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. If ownDesc is undefined, then
a. Let parent be ? O.[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
b. If parent is not null, then
i. Return ? parent.[[Set]](P, V, Receiver).
c. Else,
i. Set ownDesc to the PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: undefined, [[Writable]]: true,
[[Enumerable]]: true, [[Configurable]]: true }.
3. If IsDataDescriptor(ownDesc) is true, then
a. If ownDesc.[[Writable]] is false, return false.
b. If Type(Receiver) is not Object, return false.
c. Let existingDescriptor be ? Receiver.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
d. If existingDescriptor is not undefined, then
i. If IsAccessorDescriptor(existingDescriptor) is true, return false.
ii. If existingDescriptor.[[Writable]] is false, return false.
iii. Let valueDesc be the PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: V }.
iv. Return ? Receiver.[[DefineOwnProperty]](P, valueDesc).
e. Else,
i. Assert: Receiver does not currently have a property P.
ii. Return ? CreateDataProperty(Receiver, P, V).
4. Assert: IsAccessorDescriptor(ownDesc) is true.
5. Let setter be ownDesc.[[Set]].
6. If setter is undefined, return false.
7. Perform ? Call(setter, Receiver, « V »).
8. Return true.

10.1.10 [[Delete]] ( P )
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The [[Delete]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes argument P (a property key). It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? OrdinaryDelete(O, P).

10.1.10.1 OrdinaryDelete ( O, P )

The abstract operation OrdinaryDelete takes arguments O (an Object) and P (a property key). It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Let desc be ? O.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
3. If desc is undefined, return true.
4. If desc.[[Configurable]] is true, then
a. Remove the own property with name P from O.
b. Return true.
5. Return false.

10.1.11 [[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( )
The [[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal method of an ordinary object O takes no arguments. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Return ! OrdinaryOwnPropertyKeys(O).

10.1.11.1 OrdinaryOwnPropertyKeys ( O )

The abstract operation OrdinaryOwnPropertyKeys takes argument O (an Object). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let keys be a new empty List.

2. For each own property key P of O such that P is an array index, in ascending numeric index
order, do
a. Add P as the last element of keys.
3. For each own property key P of O such that Type(P) is String and P is not an array index, in
ascending chronological order of property creation, do
a. Add P as the last element of keys.

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4. For each own property key P of O such that Type(P) is Symbol, in ascending chronological
order of property creation, do
a. Add P as the last element of keys.
5. Return keys.

10.1.12 OrdinaryObjectCreate ( proto [ , additionalInternalSlotsList ] )

The abstract operation OrdinaryObjectCreate takes argument proto (an Object or null) and optional
argument additionalInternalSlotsList (a List of names of internal slots). It is used to specify the
runtime creation of new ordinary objects. additionalInternalSlotsList contains the names of
additional internal slots that must be defined as part of the object, beyond [[Prototype]] and
[[Extensible]]. If additionalInternalSlotsList is not provided, a new empty List is used. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Let internalSlotsList be « [[Prototype]], [[Extensible]] ».

2. If additionalInternalSlotsList is present, append each of its elements to internalSlotsList.
3. Let O be ! MakeBasicObject(internalSlotsList).
4. Set O.[[Prototype]] to proto.
5. Return O.

NOTE Although OrdinaryObjectCreate does little more than call MakeBasicObject, its use
communicates the intention to create an ordinary object, and not an exotic one.
Thus, within this specification, it is not called by any algorithm that subsequently
modifies the internal methods of the object in ways that would make the result non-
ordinary. Operations that create exotic objects invoke MakeBasicObject directly.

10.1.13 OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor ( constructor,

intrinsicDefaultProto [ , internalSlotsList ] )
The abstract operation OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor takes arguments constructor and
intrinsicDefaultProto and optional argument internalSlotsList (a List of names of internal slots). It
creates an ordinary object whose [[Prototype]] value is retrieved from a constructor's "prototype"
property, if it exists. Otherwise the intrinsic named by intrinsicDefaultProto is used for [[Prototype]].
internalSlotsList contains the names of additional internal slots that must be defined as part of the
object. If internalSlotsList is not provided, a new empty List is used. It performs the following steps
when called:
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1. Assert: intrinsicDefaultProto is a String value that is this specification's name of an intrinsic

object. The corresponding object must be an intrinsic that is intended to be used as the
[[Prototype]] value of an object.
2. Let proto be ? GetPrototypeFromConstructor(constructor, intrinsicDefaultProto).
3. Return ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(proto, internalSlotsList).

10.1.14 GetPrototypeFromConstructor ( constructor, intrinsicDefaultProto )

The abstract operation GetPrototypeFromConstructor takes arguments constructor and
intrinsicDefaultProto. It determines the [[Prototype]] value that should be used to create an object
corresponding to a specific constructor. The value is retrieved from the constructor's "prototype"
property, if it exists. Otherwise the intrinsic named by intrinsicDefaultProto is used for [[Prototype]].
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: intrinsicDefaultProto is a String value that is this specification's name of an intrinsic

object. The corresponding object must be an intrinsic that is intended to be used as the
[[Prototype]] value of an object.
2. Assert: IsCallable(constructor) is true.
3. Let proto be ? Get(constructor, "prototype").
4. If Type(proto) is not Object, then
a. Let realm be ? GetFunctionRealm(constructor).
b. Set proto to realm's intrinsic object named intrinsicDefaultProto.
5. Return proto.

NOTE If constructor does not supply a [[Prototype]] value, the default value that is used is
obtained from the realm of the constructor function rather than from the running
execution context.

10.1.15 RequireInternalSlot ( O, internalSlot )

The abstract operation RequireInternalSlot takes arguments O and internalSlot. It throws an
exception unless O is an Object and has the given internal slot. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. If Type(O) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. If O does not have an internalSlot internal slot, throw a TypeError exception.
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10.2 ECMAScript Function Objects

ECMAScript function objects encapsulate parameterized ECMAScript code closed over a lexical
environment and support the dynamic evaluation of that code. An ECMAScript function object is an
ordinary object and has the same internal slots and the same internal methods as other ordinary
objects. The code of an ECMAScript function object may be either strict mode code (11.2.2) or non-
strict code. An ECMAScript function object whose code is strict mode code is called a strict
function. One whose code is not strict mode code is called a non-strict function.

In addition to [[Extensible]] and [[Prototype]], ECMAScript function objects also have the internal
slots listed in Table 30.

Table 30: Internal Slots of ECMAScript Function Objects

Internal Slot Type Description

[[Environment]] Environment The Environment Record that the function was closed
Record over. Used as the outer environment when evaluating the
code of the function.

[[FormalParameters]] Parse Node The root parse node of the source text that defines the
function's formal parameter list.

[[ECMAScriptCode]] Parse Node The root parse node of the source text that defines the
function's body.

[[ConstructorKind]] base | Whether or not the function is a derived class constructor.

derived

[[Realm]] Realm The realm in which the function was created and which
Record provides any intrinsic objects that are accessed when
evaluating the function.

[[ScriptOrModule]] Script The script or module in which the function was created.
Record or
Module
Record

[[ThisMode]] lexical | Defines how this references are interpreted within the
strict | formal parameters and code body of the function. lexical
global means that this refers to the this value of a lexically
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enclosing function. strict means that the this value is used

exactly as provided by an invocation of the function.
global means that a this value of undefined or null is
interpreted as a reference to the global object, and any
other this value is first passed to ToObject.

[[Strict]] Boolean true if this is a strict function, false if this is a non-strict

function.

[[HomeObject]] Object If the function uses super, this is the object whose
[[GetPrototypeOf]] provides the object where super
property lookups begin.

[[SourceText]] sequence of The source text that defines the function.

Unicode
code points

[[IsClassConstructor]] Boolean Indicates whether the function is a class constructor. (If

true, invoking the function's [[Call]] will immediately
throw a TypeError exception.)

All ECMAScript function objects have the [[Call]] internal method defined here. ECMAScript
functions that are also constructors in addition have the [[Construct]] internal method.

10.2.1 [[Call]] ( thisArgument, argumentsList )

The [[Call]] internal method of an ECMAScript function object F takes arguments thisArgument (an
ECMAScript language value) and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values). It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: F is an ECMAScript function object.

2. Let callerContext be the running execution context.
3. Let calleeContext be PrepareForOrdinaryCall(F, undefined).
4. Assert: calleeContext is now the running execution context.
5. If F.[[IsClassConstructor]] is true, then
a. Let error be a newly created TypeError object.

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b. NOTE: error is created in calleeContext with F's associated Realm Record.

c. Remove calleeContext from the execution context stack and restore callerContext as the
running execution context.
d. Return ThrowCompletion(error).
6. Perform OrdinaryCallBindThis(F, calleeContext, thisArgument).
7. Let result be OrdinaryCallEvaluateBody(F, argumentsList).
8. Remove calleeContext from the execution context stack and restore callerContext as the
running execution context.
9. If result.[[Type]] is return, return NormalCompletion(result.[[Value]]).
10. ReturnIfAbrupt(result).
11. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).

NOTE When calleeContext is removed from the execution context stack in step 8 it must
not be destroyed if it is suspended and retained for later resumption by an accessible
generator object.

10.2.1.1 PrepareForOrdinaryCall ( F, newTarget )

The abstract operation PrepareForOrdinaryCall takes arguments F (a function object) and newTarget
(an ECMAScript language value). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(newTarget) is Undefined or Object.

2. Let callerContext be the running execution context.
3. Let calleeContext be a new ECMAScript code execution context.
4. Set the Function of calleeContext to F.
5. Let calleeRealm be F.[[Realm]].
6. Set the Realm of calleeContext to calleeRealm.
7. Set the ScriptOrModule of calleeContext to F.[[ScriptOrModule]].
8. Let localEnv be NewFunctionEnvironment(F, newTarget).
9. Set the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext to localEnv.
10. Set the VariableEnvironment of calleeContext to localEnv.
11. If callerContext is not already suspended, suspend callerContext.
12. Push calleeContext onto the execution context stack; calleeContext is now the running
execution context.
13. NOTE: Any exception objects produced after this point are associated with calleeRealm.
14. Return calleeContext.
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10.2.1.2 OrdinaryCallBindThis ( F, calleeContext, thisArgument )

The abstract operation OrdinaryCallBindThis takes arguments F (a function object), calleeContext

(an execution context), and thisArgument (an ECMAScript language value). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let thisMode be F.[[ThisMode]].

2. If thisMode is lexical, return NormalCompletion(undefined).
3. Let calleeRealm be F.[[Realm]].
4. Let localEnv be the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext.
5. If thisMode is strict, let thisValue be thisArgument.
6. Else,
a. If thisArgument is undefined or null, then
i. Let globalEnv be calleeRealm.[[GlobalEnv]].
ii. Assert: globalEnv is a global Environment Record.
iii. Let thisValue be globalEnv.[[GlobalThisValue]].
b. Else,
i. Let thisValue be ! ToObject(thisArgument).
ii. NOTE: ToObject produces wrapper objects using calleeRealm.
7. Assert: localEnv is a function Environment Record.
8. Assert: The next step never returns an abrupt completion because localEnv.
[[ThisBindingStatus]] is not initialized.
9. Return localEnv.BindThisValue(thisValue).

10.2.1.3 Runtime Semantics: EvaluateBody

With parameters functionObject and argumentsList (a List).

FunctionBody : FunctionStatementList

1. Return ? EvaluateFunctionBody of FunctionBody with arguments functionObject and

argumentsList.

ConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Return ? EvaluateConciseBody of ConciseBody with arguments functionObject and

argumentsList.

GeneratorBody : FunctionBody
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1. Return ? EvaluateGeneratorBody of GeneratorBody with arguments functionObject and

argumentsList.

AsyncGeneratorBody : FunctionBody

1. Return ? EvaluateAsyncGeneratorBody of AsyncGeneratorBody with arguments

functionObject and argumentsList.

AsyncFunctionBody : FunctionBody

1. Return ? EvaluateAsyncFunctionBody of AsyncFunctionBody with arguments functionObject

and argumentsList.

AsyncConciseBody : ExpressionBody

1. Return ? EvaluateAsyncConciseBody of AsyncConciseBody with arguments functionObject

and argumentsList.

10.2.1.4 OrdinaryCallEvaluateBody ( F, argumentsList )

The abstract operation OrdinaryCallEvaluateBody takes arguments F (a function object) and

argumentsList (a List). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return the result of EvaluateBody of the parsed code that is F.[[ECMAScriptCode]] passing F
and argumentsList as the arguments.

10.2.2 [[Construct]] ( argumentsList, newTarget )

The [[Construct]] internal method of an ECMAScript function object F takes arguments
argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and newTarget (a constructor). It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Assert: F is an ECMAScript function object.

2. Assert: Type(newTarget) is Object.
3. Let callerContext be the running execution context.
4. Let kind be F.[[ConstructorKind]].
5. If kind is base, then

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a. Let thisArgument be ? OrdinaryCreateFromConstructor(newTarget,

"%Object.prototype%").
6. Let calleeContext be PrepareForOrdinaryCall(F, newTarget).
7. Assert: calleeContext is now the running execution context.
8. If kind is base, perform OrdinaryCallBindThis(F, calleeContext, thisArgument).
9. Let constructorEnv be the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext.
10. Let result be OrdinaryCallEvaluateBody(F, argumentsList).
11. Remove calleeContext from the execution context stack and restore callerContext as the
running execution context.
12. If result.[[Type]] is return, then
a. If Type(result.[[Value]]) is Object, return NormalCompletion(result.[[Value]]).
b. If kind is base, return NormalCompletion(thisArgument).
c. If result.[[Value]] is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
13. Else, ReturnIfAbrupt(result).
14. Return ? constructorEnv.GetThisBinding().

10.2.3 OrdinaryFunctionCreate ( functionPrototype, sourceText,

ParameterList, Body, thisMode, Scope )
The abstract operation OrdinaryFunctionCreate takes arguments functionPrototype (an Object),
sourceText (a sequence of Unicode code points), ParameterList (a Parse Node), Body (a Parse Node),
thisMode (either lexical-this or non-lexical-this), and Scope (an Environment Record). sourceText
is the source text of the syntactic definition of the function to be created. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(functionPrototype) is Object.

2. Let internalSlotsList be the internal slots listed in Table 30.
3. Let F be ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(functionPrototype, internalSlotsList).
4. Set F.[[Call]] to the definition specified in 10.2.1.
5. Set F.[[SourceText]] to sourceText.
6. Set F.[[FormalParameters]] to ParameterList.
7. Set F.[[ECMAScriptCode]] to Body.
8. If the source text matching Body is strict mode code, let Strict be true; else let Strict be false.
9. Set F.[[Strict]] to Strict.
10. If thisMode is lexical-this, set F.[[ThisMode]] to lexical.
11. Else if Strict is true, set F.[[ThisMode]] to strict.

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12. Else, set F.[[ThisMode]] to global.

13. Set F.[[IsClassConstructor]] to false.
14. Set F.[[Environment]] to Scope.
15. Set F.[[ScriptOrModule]] to GetActiveScriptOrModule().
16. Set F.[[Realm]] to the current Realm Record.
17. Set F.[[HomeObject]] to undefined.
18. Let len be the ExpectedArgumentCount of ParameterList.
19. Perform ! SetFunctionLength(F, len).
20. Return F.

10.2.4 AddRestrictedFunctionProperties ( F, realm )

The abstract operation AddRestrictedFunctionProperties takes arguments F (a function object) and
realm (a Realm Record). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: realm.[[Intrinsics]].[[%ThrowTypeError%]] exists and has been initialized.

2. Let thrower be realm.[[Intrinsics]].[[%ThrowTypeError%]].
3. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "caller", PropertyDescriptor { [[Get]]: thrower, [[Set]]:
thrower, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: true }).
4. Return ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "arguments", PropertyDescriptor { [[Get]]: thrower,
[[Set]]: thrower, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: true }).

10.2.4.1 %ThrowTypeError% ( )

The %ThrowTypeError% intrinsic is an anonymous built-in function object that is defined once for
each realm. When %ThrowTypeError% is called it performs the following steps:

1. Throw a TypeError exception.

The value of the [[Extensible]] internal slot of a %ThrowTypeError% function is false.

The "length" property of a %ThrowTypeError% function has the attributes { [[Writable]]: false,
[[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: false }.

The "name" property of a %ThrowTypeError% function has the attributes { [[Writable]]: false,
[[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: false }.

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10.2.5 MakeConstructor ( F [ , writablePrototype [ , prototype ] ] )

The abstract operation MakeConstructor takes argument F (a function object) and optional
arguments writablePrototype (a Boolean) and prototype (an Object). It converts F into a constructor.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: F is an ECMAScript function object or a built-in function object.

2. If F is an ECMAScript function object, then
a. Assert: IsConstructor(F) is false.
b. Assert: F is an extensible object that does not have a "prototype" own property.
c. Set F.[[Construct]] to the definition specified in 10.2.2.
3. Set F.[[ConstructorKind]] to base.
4. If writablePrototype is not present, set writablePrototype to true.
5. If prototype is not present, then
a. Set prototype to ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(%Object.prototype%).
b. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(prototype, "constructor", PropertyDescriptor {
[[Value]]: F, [[Writable]]: writablePrototype, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]:
true }).
6. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "prototype", PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: prototype,
[[Writable]]: writablePrototype, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: false }).
7. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).

10.2.6 MakeClassConstructor ( F )
The abstract operation MakeClassConstructor takes argument F. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Assert: F is an ECMAScript function object.

2. Assert: F.[[IsClassConstructor]] is false.
3. Set F.[[IsClassConstructor]] to true.
4. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).

10.2.7 MakeMethod ( F, homeObject )

The abstract operation MakeMethod takes arguments F and homeObject. It configures F as a
method. It performs the following steps when called:

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1. Assert: F is an ECMAScript function object.

2. Assert: Type(homeObject) is Object.
3. Set F.[[HomeObject]] to homeObject.
4. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).

10.2.8 SetFunctionName ( F, name [ , prefix ] )

The abstract operation SetFunctionName takes arguments F (a function object) and name (a property
key) and optional argument prefix (a String). It adds a "name" property to F. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: F is an extensible object that does not have a "name" own property.
2. Assert: Type(name) is either Symbol or String.
3. Assert: If prefix is present, then Type(prefix) is String.
4. If Type(name) is Symbol, then
a. Let description be name's [[Description]] value.
b. If description is undefined, set name to the empty String.
c. Else, set name to the string-concatenation of "[", description, and "]".
5. If F has an [[InitialName]] internal slot, then
a. Set F.[[InitialName]] to name.
6. If prefix is present, then
a. Set name to the string-concatenation of prefix, the code unit 0x0020 (SPACE), and name.
b. If F has an [[InitialName]] internal slot, then
i. Optionally, set F.[[InitialName]] to name.
7. Return ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "name", PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: name,
[[Writable]]: false, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: true }).

10.2.9 SetFunctionLength ( F, length )

The abstract operation SetFunctionLength takes arguments F (a function object) and length (a non-
negative integer or +∞). It adds a "length" property to F. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: F is an extensible object that does not have a "length" own property.
2. Return ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(F, "length", PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: 𝔽(length),
[[Writable]]: false, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: true }).

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10.2.10 FunctionDeclarationInstantiation ( func, argumentsList )

NOTE 1 When an execution context is established for evaluating an ECMAScript function a

new function Environment Record is created and bindings for each formal
parameter are instantiated in that Environment Record. Each declaration in the
function body is also instantiated. If the function's formal parameters do not include
any default value initializers then the body declarations are instantiated in the same
Environment Record as the parameters. If default value parameter initializers exist,
a second Environment Record is created for the body declarations. Formal
parameters and functions are initialized as part of FunctionDeclarationInstantiation.
All other bindings are initialized during evaluation of the function body.

The abstract operation FunctionDeclarationInstantiation takes arguments func (a function object) and
argumentsList. func is the function object for which the execution context is being established. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Let calleeContext be the running execution context.

2. Let code be func.[[ECMAScriptCode]].
3. Let strict be func.[[Strict]].
4. Let formals be func.[[FormalParameters]].
5. Let parameterNames be the BoundNames of formals.
6. If parameterNames has any duplicate entries, let hasDuplicates be true. Otherwise, let
hasDuplicates be false.
7. Let simpleParameterList be IsSimpleParameterList of formals.
8. Let hasParameterExpressions be ContainsExpression of formals.
9. Let varNames be the VarDeclaredNames of code.
10. Let varDeclarations be the VarScopedDeclarations of code.
11. Let lexicalNames be the LexicallyDeclaredNames of code.
12. Let functionNames be a new empty List.
13. Let functionsToInitialize be a new empty List.
14. For each element d of varDeclarations, in reverse List order, do
a. If d is neither a VariableDeclaration nor a ForBinding nor a BindingIdentifier, then
i. Assert: d is either a FunctionDeclaration, a GeneratorDeclaration, an
AsyncFunctionDeclaration, or an AsyncGeneratorDeclaration.
ii. Let fn be the sole element of the BoundNames of d.
iii. If fn is not an element of functionNames, then

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1. Insert fn as the first element of functionNames.

2. NOTE: If there are multiple function declarations for the same name, the last
declaration is used.
3. Insert d as the first element of functionsToInitialize.
15. Let argumentsObjectNeeded be true.
16. If func.[[ThisMode]] is lexical, then
a. NOTE: Arrow functions never have an arguments objects.
b. Set argumentsObjectNeeded to false.
17. Else if "arguments" is an element of parameterNames, then
a. Set argumentsObjectNeeded to false.
18. Else if hasParameterExpressions is false, then
a. If "arguments" is an element of functionNames or if "arguments" is an element of
lexicalNames, then
i. Set argumentsObjectNeeded to false.
19. If strict is true or if hasParameterExpressions is false, then
a. NOTE: Only a single Environment Record is needed for the parameters and top-level
vars.
b. Let env be the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext.
20. Else,
a. NOTE: A separate Environment Record is needed to ensure that bindings created by
direct eval calls in the formal parameter list are outside the environment where
parameters are declared.
b. Let calleeEnv be the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext.
c. Let env be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(calleeEnv).
d. Assert: The VariableEnvironment of calleeContext is calleeEnv.
e. Set the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext to env.
21. For each String paramName of parameterNames, do
a. Let alreadyDeclared be env.HasBinding(paramName).
b. NOTE: Early errors ensure that duplicate parameter names can only occur in non-strict
functions that do not have parameter default values or rest parameters.
c. If alreadyDeclared is false, then
i. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding(paramName, false).
ii. If hasDuplicates is true, then
1. Perform ! env.InitializeBinding(paramName, undefined).
22. If argumentsObjectNeeded is true, then
a. If strict is true or if simpleParameterList is false, then
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i. Let ao be CreateUnmappedArgumentsObject(argumentsList).
b. Else,
i. NOTE: A mapped argument object is only provided for non-strict functions that
don't have a rest parameter, any parameter default value initializers, or any
destructured parameters.
ii. Let ao be CreateMappedArgumentsObject(func, formals, argumentsList, env).
c. If strict is true, then
i. Perform ! env.CreateImmutableBinding("arguments", false).
d. Else,
i. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding("arguments", false).
e. Call env.InitializeBinding("arguments", ao).
f. Let parameterBindings be a List whose elements are the elements of parameterNames,
followed by "arguments".
23. Else,
a. Let parameterBindings be parameterNames.
24. Let iteratorRecord be CreateListIteratorRecord(argumentsList).
25. If hasDuplicates is true, then
a. Perform ? IteratorBindingInitialization for formals with iteratorRecord and undefined as
arguments.
26. Else,
a. Perform ? IteratorBindingInitialization for formals with iteratorRecord and env as
arguments.
27. If hasParameterExpressions is false, then
a. NOTE: Only a single Environment Record is needed for the parameters and top-level
vars.
b. Let instantiatedVarNames be a copy of the List parameterBindings.
c. For each element n of varNames, do
i. If n is not an element of instantiatedVarNames, then
1. Append n to instantiatedVarNames.
2. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding(n, false).
3. Call env.InitializeBinding(n, undefined).
d. Let varEnv be env.
28. Else,
a. NOTE: A separate Environment Record is needed to ensure that closures created by
expressions in the formal parameter list do not have visibility of declarations in the
function body.
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b. Let varEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(env).

c. Set the VariableEnvironment of calleeContext to varEnv.
d. Let instantiatedVarNames be a new empty List.
e. For each element n of varNames, do
i. If n is not an element of instantiatedVarNames, then
1. Append n to instantiatedVarNames.
2. Perform ! varEnv.CreateMutableBinding(n, false).
3. If n is not an element of parameterBindings or if n is an element of
functionNames, let initialValue be undefined.
4. Else,
a. Let initialValue be ! env.GetBindingValue(n, false).
5. Call varEnv.InitializeBinding(n, initialValue).
6. NOTE: A var with the same name as a formal parameter initially has the same
value as the corresponding initialized parameter.
29. NOTE: Annex B.3.3.1 adds additional steps at this point.
30. If strict is false, then
a. Let lexEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(varEnv).
b. NOTE: Non-strict functions use a separate Environment Record for top-level lexical
declarations so that a direct eval can determine whether any var scoped declarations
introduced by the eval code conflict with pre-existing top-level lexically scoped
declarations. This is not needed for strict functions because a strict direct eval always
places all declarations into a new Environment Record.
31. Else, let lexEnv be varEnv.
32. Set the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext to lexEnv.
33. Let lexDeclarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of code.
34. For each element d of lexDeclarations, do
a. NOTE: A lexically declared name cannot be the same as a function/generator declaration,
formal parameter, or a var name. Lexically declared names are only instantiated here but
not initialized.
b. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then
1. Perform ! lexEnv.CreateImmutableBinding(dn, true).
ii. Else,
1. Perform ! lexEnv.CreateMutableBinding(dn, false).
35. For each Parse Node f of functionsToInitialize, do
a. Let fn be the sole element of the BoundNames of f.
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b. Let fo be InstantiateFunctionObject of f with argument lexEnv.

c. Perform ! varEnv.SetMutableBinding(fn, fo, false).
36. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

NOTE 2 B.3.3 provides an extension to the above algorithm that is necessary for backwards
compatibility with web browser implementations of ECMAScript that predate
ECMAScript 2015.

NOTE 3 Parameter Initializers may contain direct eval expressions. Any top level
declarations of such evals are only visible to the eval code (11.2). The creation of
the environment for such declarations is described in 8.5.3.

10.3 Built-in Function Objects

The built-in function objects defined in this specification may be implemented as either ECMAScript
function objects (10.2) whose behaviour is provided using ECMAScript code or as implementation
provided function exotic objects whose behaviour is provided in some other manner. In either case,
the effect of calling such functions must conform to their specifications. An implementation may
also provide additional built-in function objects that are not defined in this specification.

If a built-in function object is implemented as an exotic object it must have the ordinary object
behaviour specified in 10.1. All such function exotic objects also have [[Prototype]], [[Extensible]],
and [[Realm]] internal slots.

Unless otherwise specified every built-in function object has the %Function.prototype% object as the
initial value of its [[Prototype]] internal slot.

The behaviour specified for each built-in function via algorithm steps or other means is the
specification of the function body behaviour for both [[Call]] and [[Construct]] invocations of the
function. However, [[Construct]] invocation is not supported by all built-in functions. For each built-
in function, when invoked with [[Call]], the [[Call]] thisArgument provides the this value, the
[[Call]] argumentsList provides the named parameters, and the NewTarget value is undefined. When
invoked with [[Construct]], the this value is uninitialized, the [[Construct]] argumentsList provides
the named parameters, and the [[Construct]] newTarget parameter provides the NewTarget value. If
the built-in function is implemented as an ECMAScript function object then this specified behaviour

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must be implemented by the ECMAScript code that is the body of the function. Built-in functions
that are ECMAScript function objects must be strict functions. If a built-in constructor has any
[[Call]] behaviour other than throwing a TypeError exception, an ECMAScript implementation of
the function must be done in a manner that does not cause the function's [[IsClassConstructor]]
internal slot to have the value true.

Built-in function objects that are not identified as constructors do not implement the [[Construct]]
internal method unless otherwise specified in the description of a particular function. When a built-in
constructor is called as part of a new expression the argumentsList parameter of the invoked
[[Construct]] internal method provides the values for the built-in constructor's named parameters.

Built-in functions that are not constructors do not have a "prototype" property unless otherwise
specified in the description of a particular function.

Built-in functions have an [[InitialName]] internal slot.

If a built-in function object is not implemented as an ECMAScript function it must provide [[Call]]
and [[Construct]] internal methods that conform to the following definitions:

10.3.1 [[Call]] ( thisArgument, argumentsList )

The [[Call]] internal method of a built-in function object F takes arguments thisArgument (an
ECMAScript language value) and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values). It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Let callerContext be the running execution context.

2. If callerContext is not already suspended, suspend callerContext.
3. Let calleeContext be a new execution context.
4. Set the Function of calleeContext to F.
5. Let calleeRealm be F.[[Realm]].
6. Set the Realm of calleeContext to calleeRealm.
7. Set the ScriptOrModule of calleeContext to null.
8. Perform any necessary implementation-defined initialization of calleeContext.
9. Push calleeContext onto the execution context stack; calleeContext is now the running
execution context.
10. Let result be the Completion Record that is the result of evaluating F in a manner that conforms
to the specification of F. thisArgument is the this value, argumentsList provides the named

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parameters, and the NewTarget value is undefined.

11. Remove calleeContext from the execution context stack and restore callerContext as the
running execution context.
12. Return result.

NOTE When calleeContext is removed from the execution context stack it must not be
destroyed if it has been suspended and retained by an accessible generator object for
later resumption.

10.3.2 [[Construct]] ( argumentsList, newTarget )

The [[Construct]] internal method of a built-in function object F takes arguments argumentsList (a
List of ECMAScript language values) and newTarget (a constructor). The steps performed are the
same as [[Call]] (see 10.3.1) except that step 10 is replaced by:

10. Let result be the Completion Record that is the result of evaluating F in a manner that conforms
to the specification of F. The this value is uninitialized, argumentsList provides the named
parameters, and newTarget provides the NewTarget value.

10.3.3 CreateBuiltinFunction ( steps, length, name, internalSlotsList [ , realm

[ , prototype [ , prefix ] ] ] )
The abstract operation CreateBuiltinFunction takes arguments steps, length, name, and
internalSlotsList (a List of names of internal slots) and optional arguments realm, prototype, and
prefix. internalSlotsList contains the names of additional internal slots that must be defined as part of
the object. This operation creates a built-in function object. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: steps is either a set of algorithm steps or other definition of a function's behaviour
provided in this specification.
2. If realm is not present or realm is empty, set realm to the current Realm Record.
3. Assert: realm is a Realm Record.
4. If prototype is not present, set prototype to realm.[[Intrinsics]].[[%Function.prototype%]].
5. Let func be a new built-in function object that when called performs the action described by
steps. The new function object has internal slots whose names are the elements of
internalSlotsList, and an [[InitialName]] internal slot.
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6. Set func.[[Realm]] to realm.

7. Set func.[[Prototype]] to prototype.
8. Set func.[[Extensible]] to true.
9. Set func.[[InitialName]] to null.
10. Perform ! SetFunctionLength(func, length).
11. If prefix is not present, then
a. Perform ! SetFunctionName(func, name).
12. Else,
a. Perform ! SetFunctionName(func, name, prefix).
13. Return func.

Each built-in function defined in this specification is created by calling the CreateBuiltinFunction
abstract operation.

10.4 Built-in Exotic Object Internal Methods and Slots

This specification defines several kinds of built-in exotic objects. These objects generally behave
similar to ordinary objects except for a few specific situations. The following exotic objects use the
ordinary object internal methods except where it is explicitly specified otherwise below:

10.4.1 Bound Function Exotic Objects

A bound function exotic object is an exotic object that wraps another function object. A bound
function exotic object is callable (it has a [[Call]] internal method and may have a [[Construct]]
internal method). Calling a bound function exotic object generally results in a call of its wrapped
function.

An object is a bound function exotic object if its [[Call]] and (if applicable) [[Construct]] internal
methods use the following implementations, and its other essential internal methods use the
definitions found in 10.1. These methods are installed in BoundFunctionCreate.

Bound function exotic objects do not have the internal slots of ECMAScript function objects listed in
Table 30. Instead they have the internal slots listed in Table 31, in addition to [[Prototype]] and
[[Extensible]].

Table 31: Internal Slots of Bound Function Exotic Objects

Internal Slot
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Internal Slot Type Description

[[BoundTargetFunction]] Callable The wrapped function object.

Object

[[BoundThis]] Any The value that is always passed as the this value when
calling the wrapped function.

[[BoundArguments]] List of A list of values whose elements are used as the first
Any arguments to any call to the wrapped function.

10.4.1.1 [[Call]] ( thisArgument, argumentsList )

The [[Call]] internal method of a bound function exotic object F takes arguments thisArgument (an
ECMAScript language value) and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values). It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Let target be F.[[BoundTargetFunction]].

2. Let boundThis be F.[[BoundThis]].
3. Let boundArgs be F.[[BoundArguments]].
4. Let args be a List whose elements are the elements of boundArgs, followed by the elements of
argumentsList.
5. Return ? Call(target, boundThis, args).

10.4.1.2 [[Construct]] ( argumentsList, newTarget )

The [[Construct]] internal method of a bound function exotic object F takes arguments
argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values) and newTarget (a constructor). It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Let target be F.[[BoundTargetFunction]].

2. Assert: IsConstructor(target) is true.
3. Let boundArgs be F.[[BoundArguments]].
4. Let args be a List whose elements are the elements of boundArgs, followed by the elements of
argumentsList.
5. If SameValue(F, newTarget) is true, set newTarget to target.
6. Return ? Construct(target, args, newTarget).

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10.4.1.3 BoundFunctionCreate ( targetFunction, boundThis, boundArgs )

The abstract operation BoundFunctionCreate takes arguments targetFunction, boundThis, and

boundArgs. It is used to specify the creation of new bound function exotic objects. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(targetFunction) is Object.

2. Let proto be ? targetFunction.[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
3. Let internalSlotsList be the internal slots listed in Table 31, plus [[Prototype]] and
[[Extensible]].
4. Let obj be ! MakeBasicObject(internalSlotsList).
5. Set obj.[[Prototype]] to proto.
6. Set obj.[[Call]] as described in 10.4.1.1.
7. If IsConstructor(targetFunction) is true, then
a. Set obj.[[Construct]] as described in 10.4.1.2.
8. Set obj.[[BoundTargetFunction]] to targetFunction.
9. Set obj.[[BoundThis]] to boundThis.
10. Set obj.[[BoundArguments]] to boundArgs.
11. Return obj.

10.4.2 Array Exotic Objects

An Array object is an exotic object that gives special treatment to array index property keys (see
6.1.7). A property whose property name is an array index is also called an element. Every Array
object has a non-configurable "length" property whose value is always a non-negative integral
Number whose mathematical value is less than 232. The value of the "length" property is
numerically greater than the name of every own property whose name is an array index; whenever an
own property of an Array object is created or changed, other properties are adjusted as necessary to
maintain this invariant. Specifically, whenever an own property is added whose name is an array
index, the value of the "length" property is changed, if necessary, to be one more than the numeric
value of that array index; and whenever the value of the "length" property is changed, every own
property whose name is an array index whose value is not smaller than the new length is deleted.
This constraint applies only to own properties of an Array object and is unaffected by "length" or
array index properties that may be inherited from its prototypes.

NOTE A String property name P is an array index if and only if ToString(ToUint32(P))

equals P and ToUint32(P) is not the same value as 𝔽(232 - 1).
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( )

An object is an Array exotic object (or simply, an Array object) if its [[DefineOwnProperty]] internal
method uses the following implementation, and its other essential internal methods use the
definitions found in 10.1. These methods are installed in ArrayCreate.

10.4.2.1 [[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

The [[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of an Array exotic object A takes arguments P (a

property key) and Desc (a Property Descriptor). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. If P is "length", then
a. Return ? ArraySetLength(A, Desc).
3. Else if P is an array index, then
a. Let oldLenDesc be OrdinaryGetOwnProperty(A, "length").
b. Assert: ! IsDataDescriptor(oldLenDesc) is true.
c. Assert: oldLenDesc.[[Configurable]] is false.
d. Let oldLen be oldLenDesc.[[Value]].
e. Assert: oldLen is a non-negative integral Number.
f. Let index be ! ToUint32(P).
g. If index ≥ oldLen and oldLenDesc.[[Writable]] is false, return false.
h. Let succeeded be ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, P, Desc).
i. If succeeded is false, return false.
j. If index ≥ oldLen, then
i. Set oldLenDesc.[[Value]] to index + 1𝔽.
ii. Set succeeded to OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, "length", oldLenDesc).
iii. Assert: succeeded is true.
k. Return true.
4. Return OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, P, Desc).

10.4.2.2 ArrayCreate ( length [ , proto ] )

The abstract operation ArrayCreate takes argument length (a non-negative integer) and optional
argument proto. It is used to specify the creation of new Array exotic objects. It performs the
following steps when called:

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1. If length > 232 - 1, throw a RangeError exception.

2. If proto is not present, set proto to %Array.prototype%.
3. Let A be ! MakeBasicObject(« [[Prototype]], [[Extensible]] »).
4. Set A.[[Prototype]] to proto.
5. Set A.[[DefineOwnProperty]] as specified in 10.4.2.1.
6. Perform ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, "length", PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]:
𝔽(length), [[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: false }).
7. Return A.

10.4.2.3 ArraySpeciesCreate ( originalArray, length )

The abstract operation ArraySpeciesCreate takes arguments originalArray and length (a non-
negative integer). It is used to specify the creation of a new Array object using a constructor function
that is derived from originalArray. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let isArray be ? IsArray(originalArray).

2. If isArray is false, return ? ArrayCreate(length).
3. Let C be ? Get(originalArray, "constructor").
4. If IsConstructor(C) is true, then
a. Let thisRealm be the current Realm Record.
b. Let realmC be ? GetFunctionRealm(C).
c. If thisRealm and realmC are not the same Realm Record, then
i. If SameValue(C, realmC.[[Intrinsics]].[[%Array%]]) is true, set C to undefined.
5. If Type(C) is Object, then
a. Set C to ? Get(C, @@species).
b. If C is null, set C to undefined.
6. If C is undefined, return ? ArrayCreate(length).
7. If IsConstructor(C) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
8. Return ? Construct(C, « 𝔽(length) »).

NOTE If originalArray was created using the standard built-in Array constructor for a
realm that is not the realm of the running execution context, then a new Array is
created using the realm of the running execution context. This maintains
compatibility with Web browsers that have historically had that behaviour for the
Array.prototype methods that now are defined using ArraySpeciesCreate.

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10.4.2.4 ArraySetLength ( A, Desc )

The abstract operation ArraySetLength takes arguments A (an Array object) and Desc (a Property
Descriptor). It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Desc.[[Value]] is absent, then

a. Return OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, "length", Desc).
2. Let newLenDesc be a copy of Desc.
3. Let newLen be ? ToUint32(Desc.[[Value]]).
4. Let numberLen be ? ToNumber(Desc.[[Value]]).
5. If newLen is not the same value as numberLen, throw a RangeError exception.
6. Set newLenDesc.[[Value]] to newLen.
7. Let oldLenDesc be OrdinaryGetOwnProperty(A, "length").
8. Assert: ! IsDataDescriptor(oldLenDesc) is true.
9. Assert: oldLenDesc.[[Configurable]] is false.
10. Let oldLen be oldLenDesc.[[Value]].
11. If newLen ≥ oldLen, then
a. Return OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, "length", newLenDesc).
12. If oldLenDesc.[[Writable]] is false, return false.
13. If newLenDesc.[[Writable]] is absent or has the value true, let newWritable be true.
14. Else,
a. NOTE: Setting the [[Writable]] attribute to false is deferred in case any elements cannot
be deleted.
b. Let newWritable be false.
c. Set newLenDesc.[[Writable]] to true.
15. Let succeeded be ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, "length", newLenDesc).
16. If succeeded is false, return false.
17. For each own property key P of A that is an array index, whose numeric value is greater than or
equal to newLen, in descending numeric index order, do
a. Let deleteSucceeded be ! A.[[Delete]](P).
b. If deleteSucceeded is false, then
i. Set newLenDesc.[[Value]] to ! ToUint32(P) + 1𝔽.
ii. If newWritable is false, set newLenDesc.[[Writable]] to false.
iii. Perform ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, "length", newLenDesc).
iv. Return false.
18. If newWritable is false, then

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a. Set succeeded to ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(A, "length", PropertyDescriptor {

[[Writable]]: false }).
b. Assert: succeeded is true.
19. Return true.

NOTE In steps 3 and 4, if Desc.[[Value]] is an object then its valueOf method is called
twice. This is legacy behaviour that was specified with this effect starting with the
2nd Edition of this specification.

10.4.3 String Exotic Objects

A String object is an exotic object that encapsulates a String value and exposes virtual integer-
indexed data properties corresponding to the individual code unit elements of the String value. String
exotic objects always have a data property named "length" whose value is the number of code unit
elements in the encapsulated String value. Both the code unit data properties and the "length"
property are non-writable and non-configurable.

An object is a String exotic object (or simply, a String object) if its [[GetOwnProperty]],
[[DefineOwnProperty]], and [[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal methods use the following
implementations, and its other essential internal methods use the definitions found in 10.1. These
methods are installed in StringCreate.

String exotic objects have the same internal slots as ordinary objects. They also have a [[StringData]]
internal slot.

10.4.3.1 [[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )

The [[GetOwnProperty]] internal method of a String exotic object S takes argument P (a property
key). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Let desc be OrdinaryGetOwnProperty(S, P).
3. If desc is not undefined, return desc.
4. Return ! StringGetOwnProperty(S, P).

10.4.3.2 [[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

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The [[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of a String exotic object S takes arguments P (a

property key) and Desc (a Property Descriptor). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Let stringDesc be ! StringGetOwnProperty(S, P).
3. If stringDesc is not undefined, then
a. Let extensible be S.[[Extensible]].
b. Return ! IsCompatiblePropertyDescriptor(extensible, Desc, stringDesc).
4. Return ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(S, P, Desc).

10.4.3.3 [[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( )

The [[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal method of a String exotic object O takes no arguments. It

performs the following steps when called:

1. Let keys be a new empty List.

2. Let str be O.[[StringData]].
3. Assert: Type(str) is String.
4. Let len be the length of str.
5. For each integer i starting with 0 such that i < len, in ascending order, do
a. Add ! ToString(𝔽(i)) as the last element of keys.
6. For each own property key P of O such that P is an array index and ! ToIntegerOrInfinity(P) ≥
len, in ascending numeric index order, do
a. Add P as the last element of keys.
7. For each own property key P of O such that Type(P) is String and P is not an array index, in
ascending chronological order of property creation, do
a. Add P as the last element of keys.
8. For each own property key P of O such that Type(P) is Symbol, in ascending chronological
order of property creation, do
a. Add P as the last element of keys.
9. Return keys.

10.4.3.4 StringCreate ( value, prototype )

The abstract operation StringCreate takes arguments value (a String) and prototype. It is used to
specify the creation of new String exotic objects. It performs the following steps when called:

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1. Let S be ! MakeBasicObject(« [[Prototype]], [[Extensible]], [[StringData]] »).

2. Set S.[[Prototype]] to prototype.
3. Set S.[[StringData]] to value.
4. Set S.[[GetOwnProperty]] as specified in 10.4.3.1.
5. Set S.[[DefineOwnProperty]] as specified in 10.4.3.2.
6. Set S.[[OwnPropertyKeys]] as specified in 10.4.3.3.
7. Let length be the number of code unit elements in value.
8. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(S, "length", PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: 𝔽(length),
[[Writable]]: false, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: false }).
9. Return S.

10.4.3.5 StringGetOwnProperty ( S, P )

The abstract operation StringGetOwnProperty takes arguments S and P. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Assert: S is an Object that has a [[StringData]] internal slot.

2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
3. If Type(P) is not String, return undefined.
4. Let index be ! CanonicalNumericIndexString(P).
5. If index is undefined, return undefined.
6. If IsIntegralNumber(index) is false, return undefined.
7. If index is -0𝔽, return undefined.
8. Let str be S.[[StringData]].
9. Assert: Type(str) is String.
10. Let len be the length of str.
11. If ℝ(index) < 0 or len ≤ ℝ(index), return undefined.
12. Let resultStr be the String value of length 1, containing one code unit from str, specifically the
code unit at index ℝ(index).
13. Return the PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: resultStr, [[Writable]]: false, [[Enumerable]]: true,
[[Configurable]]: false }.

10.4.4 Arguments Exotic Objects

Most ECMAScript functions make an arguments object available to their code. Depending upon the
characteristics of the function definition, its arguments object is either an ordinary object or an

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arguments exotic object. An arguments exotic object is an exotic object whose array index properties
map to the formal parameters bindings of an invocation of its associated ECMAScript function.

An object is an arguments exotic object if its internal methods use the following implementations,
with the ones not specified here using those found in 10.1. These methods are installed in
CreateMappedArgumentsObject.

NOTE 1 While CreateUnmappedArgumentsObject is grouped into this clause, it creates an

ordinary object, not an arguments exotic object.

Arguments exotic objects have the same internal slots as ordinary objects. They also have a
[[ParameterMap]] internal slot. Ordinary arguments objects also have a [[ParameterMap]] internal
slot whose value is always undefined. For ordinary argument objects the [[ParameterMap]] internal
slot is only used by Object.prototype.toString (20.1.3.6) to identify them as such.

NOTE 2 The integer-indexed data properties of an arguments exotic object whose numeric
name values are less than the number of formal parameters of the corresponding
function object initially share their values with the corresponding argument bindings
in the function's execution context. This means that changing the property changes
the corresponding value of the argument binding and vice-versa. This
correspondence is broken if such a property is deleted and then redefined or if the
property is changed into an accessor property. If the arguments object is an ordinary
object, the values of its properties are simply a copy of the arguments passed to the
function and there is no dynamic linkage between the property values and the
formal parameter values.

NOTE 3 The ParameterMap object and its property values are used as a device for specifying
the arguments object correspondence to argument bindings. The ParameterMap
object and the objects that are the values of its properties are not directly observable
from ECMAScript code. An ECMAScript implementation does not need to actually
create or use such objects to implement the specified semantics.

NOTE 4 Ordinary arguments objects define a non-configurable accessor property named

"callee" which throws a TypeError exception on access. The "callee" property
has a more specific meaning for arguments exotic objects, which are created only
for some class of non-strict functions. The definition of this property in the ordinary
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for some class of non strict functions. The definition of this property in the ordinary
variant exists to ensure that it is not defined in any other manner by conforming
ECMAScript implementations.

NOTE 5 ECMAScript implementations of arguments exotic objects have historically

contained an accessor property named "caller". Prior to ECMAScript 2017, this
specification included the definition of a throwing "caller" property on ordinary
arguments objects. Since implementations do not contain this extension any longer,
ECMAScript 2017 dropped the requirement for a throwing "caller" accessor.

10.4.4.1 [[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )

The [[GetOwnProperty]] internal method of an arguments exotic object args takes argument P (a
property key). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let desc be OrdinaryGetOwnProperty(args, P).

2. If desc is undefined, return desc.
3. Let map be args.[[ParameterMap]].
4. Let isMapped be ! HasOwnProperty(map, P).
5. If isMapped is true, then
a. Set desc.[[Value]] to Get(map, P).
6. Return desc.

10.4.4.2 [[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

The [[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of an arguments exotic object args takes arguments P (a
property key) and Desc (a Property Descriptor). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let map be args.[[ParameterMap]].

2. Let isMapped be HasOwnProperty(map, P).
3. Let newArgDesc be Desc.
4. If isMapped is true and IsDataDescriptor(Desc) is true, then
a. If Desc.[[Value]] is not present and Desc.[[Writable]] is present and its value is false, then
i. Set newArgDesc to a copy of Desc.
ii. Set newArgDesc.[[Value]] to Get(map, P).
5. Let allowed be ? OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(args, P, newArgDesc).
6. If allowed is false, return false.
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7. If isMapped is true, then

a. If IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) is true, then
i. Call map.[[Delete]](P).
b. Else,
i. If Desc.[[Value]] is present, then
1. Let setStatus be Set(map, P, Desc.[[Value]], false).
2. Assert: setStatus is true because formal parameters mapped by argument
objects are always writable.
ii. If Desc.[[Writable]] is present and its value is false, then
1. Call map.[[Delete]](P).
8. Return true.

10.4.4.3 [[Get]] ( P, Receiver )

The [[Get]] internal method of an arguments exotic object args takes arguments P (a property key)
and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let map be args.[[ParameterMap]].

2. Let isMapped be ! HasOwnProperty(map, P).
3. If isMapped is false, then
a. Return ? OrdinaryGet(args, P, Receiver).
4. Else,
a. Assert: map contains a formal parameter mapping for P.
b. Return Get(map, P).

10.4.4.4 [[Set]] ( P, V, Receiver )

The [[Set]] internal method of an arguments exotic object args takes arguments P (a property key), V
(an ECMAScript language value), and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. If SameValue(args, Receiver) is false, then

a. Let isMapped be false.
2. Else,
a. Let map be args.[[ParameterMap]].
b. Let isMapped be ! HasOwnProperty(map, P).
3. If isMapped is true, then
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a. Let setStatus be Set(map, P, V, false).

b. Assert: setStatus is true because formal parameters mapped by argument objects are
always writable.
4. Return ? OrdinarySet(args, P, V, Receiver).

10.4.4.5 [[Delete]] ( P )

The [[Delete]] internal method of an arguments exotic object args takes argument P (a property key).
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let map be args.[[ParameterMap]].

2. Let isMapped be ! HasOwnProperty(map, P).
3. Let result be ? OrdinaryDelete(args, P).
4. If result is true and isMapped is true, then
a. Call map.[[Delete]](P).
5. Return result.

10.4.4.6 CreateUnmappedArgumentsObject ( argumentsList )

The abstract operation CreateUnmappedArgumentsObject takes argument argumentsList. It performs

the following steps when called:

1. Let len be the number of elements in argumentsList.

2. Let obj be ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(%Object.prototype%, « [[ParameterMap]] »).
3. Set obj.[[ParameterMap]] to undefined.
4. Perform DefinePropertyOrThrow(obj, "length", PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: 𝔽(len),
[[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: true }).
5. Let index be 0.
6. Repeat, while index < len,
a. Let val be argumentsList[index].
b. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, ! ToString(𝔽(index)), val).
c. Set index to index + 1.
7. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(obj, @@iterator, PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]:
%Array.prototype.values%, [[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: true }).
8. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(obj, "callee", PropertyDescriptor { [[Get]]:
%ThrowTypeError%, [[Set]]: %ThrowTypeError%, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]:
false }).
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9. Return obj.

10.4.4.7 CreateMappedArgumentsObject ( func, formals, argumentsList, env )

The abstract operation CreateMappedArgumentsObject takes arguments func (an Object), formals (a
Parse Node), argumentsList (a List), and env (an Environment Record). It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Assert: formals does not contain a rest parameter, any binding patterns, or any initializers. It
may contain duplicate identifiers.
2. Let len be the number of elements in argumentsList.
3. Let obj be ! MakeBasicObject(« [[Prototype]], [[Extensible]], [[ParameterMap]] »).
4. Set obj.[[GetOwnProperty]] as specified in 10.4.4.1.
5. Set obj.[[DefineOwnProperty]] as specified in 10.4.4.2.
6. Set obj.[[Get]] as specified in 10.4.4.3.
7. Set obj.[[Set]] as specified in 10.4.4.4.
8. Set obj.[[Delete]] as specified in 10.4.4.5.
9. Set obj.[[Prototype]] to %Object.prototype%.
10. Let map be ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(null).
11. Set obj.[[ParameterMap]] to map.
12. Let parameterNames be the BoundNames of formals.
13. Let numberOfParameters be the number of elements in parameterNames.
14. Let index be 0.
15. Repeat, while index < len,
a. Let val be argumentsList[index].
b. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, ! ToString(𝔽(index)), val).
c. Set index to index + 1.
16. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(obj, "length", PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: 𝔽(len),
[[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: true }).
17. Let mappedNames be a new empty List.
18. Set index to numberOfParameters - 1.
19. Repeat, while index ≥ 0,
a. Let name be parameterNames[index].
b. If name is not an element of mappedNames, then
i. Add name as an element of the list mappedNames.
ii. If index < len, then

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1. Let g be MakeArgGetter(name, env).

2. Let p be MakeArgSetter(name, env).
3. Perform map.[[DefineOwnProperty]](! ToString(𝔽(index)),
PropertyDescriptor { [[Set]]: p, [[Get]]: g, [[Enumerable]]: false,
[[Configurable]]: true }).
c. Set index to index - 1.
20. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(obj, @@iterator, PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]:
%Array.prototype.values%, [[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: true }).
21. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(obj, "callee", PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: func,
[[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: true }).
22. Return obj.

10.4.4.7.1 MakeArgGetter ( name, env )

The abstract operation MakeArgGetter takes arguments name (a String) and env (an Environment
Record). It creates a built-in function object that when executed returns the value bound for name in
env. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let steps be the steps of an ArgGetter function as specified below.

2. Let length be the number of non-optional parameters of an ArgGetter function as specified
below.
3. Let getter be ! CreateBuiltinFunction(steps, length, "", « [[Name]], [[Env]] »).
4. Set getter.[[Name]] to name.
5. Set getter.[[Env]] to env.
6. Return getter.

An ArgGetter function is an anonymous built-in function with [[Name]] and [[Env]] internal slots.
When an ArgGetter function that expects no arguments is called it performs the following steps:

1. Let f be the active function object.

2. Let name be f.[[Name]].
3. Let env be f.[[Env]].
4. Return env.GetBindingValue(name, false).

NOTE ArgGetter functions are never directly accessible to ECMAScript code.

10.4.4.7.2 MakeArgSetter ( name, env )

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The abstract operation MakeArgSetter takes arguments name (a String) and env (an Environment
Record). It creates a built-in function object that when executed sets the value bound for name in
env. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let steps be the steps of an ArgSetter function as specified below.

2. Let length be the number of non-optional parameters of an ArgSetter function as specified
below.
3. Let setter be ! CreateBuiltinFunction(steps, length, "", « [[Name]], [[Env]] »).
4. Set setter.[[Name]] to name.
5. Set setter.[[Env]] to env.
6. Return setter.

An ArgSetter function is an anonymous built-in function with [[Name]] and [[Env]] internal slots.
When an ArgSetter function is called with argument value it performs the following steps:

1. Let f be the active function object.

2. Let name be f.[[Name]].
3. Let env be f.[[Env]].
4. Return env.SetMutableBinding(name, value, false).

NOTE ArgSetter functions are never directly accessible to ECMAScript code.

10.4.5 Integer-Indexed Exotic Objects

An Integer-Indexed exotic object is an exotic object that performs special handling of integer index
property keys.

Integer-Indexed exotic objects have the same internal slots as ordinary objects and additionally
[[ViewedArrayBuffer]], [[ArrayLength]], [[ByteOffset]], [[ContentType]], and [[TypedArrayName]]
internal slots.

An object is an Integer-Indexed exotic object if its [[GetOwnProperty]], [[HasProperty]],

[[DefineOwnProperty]], [[Get]], [[Set]], [[Delete]], and [[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal methods use
the definitions in this section, and its other essential internal methods use the definitions found in
10.1. These methods are installed by IntegerIndexedObjectCreate.

10.4.5.1 [[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )
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The [[GetOwnProperty]] internal method of an Integer-Indexed exotic object O takes argument P (a

property key). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Assert: O is an Integer-Indexed exotic object.
3. If Type(P) is String, then
a. Let numericIndex be ! CanonicalNumericIndexString(P).
b. If numericIndex is not undefined, then
i. Let value be ! IntegerIndexedElementGet(O, numericIndex).
ii. If value is undefined, return undefined.
iii. Return the PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: value, [[Writable]]: true,
[[Enumerable]]: true, [[Configurable]]: true }.
4. Return OrdinaryGetOwnProperty(O, P).

10.4.5.2 [[HasProperty]] ( P )

The [[HasProperty]] internal method of an Integer-Indexed exotic object O takes argument P (a

property key). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Assert: O is an Integer-Indexed exotic object.
3. If Type(P) is String, then
a. Let numericIndex be ! CanonicalNumericIndexString(P).
b. If numericIndex is not undefined, return ! IsValidIntegerIndex(O, numericIndex).
4. Return ? OrdinaryHasProperty(O, P).

10.4.5.3 [[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

The [[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of an Integer-Indexed exotic object O takes arguments

P (a property key) and Desc (a Property Descriptor). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Assert: O is an Integer-Indexed exotic object.
3. If Type(P) is String, then
a. Let numericIndex be ! CanonicalNumericIndexString(P).
b. If numericIndex is not undefined, then
i. If ! IsValidIntegerIndex(O, numericIndex) is false, return false.

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ii. If Desc has a [[Configurable]] field and if Desc.[[Configurable]] is false, return

false.
iii. If Desc has an [[Enumerable]] field and if Desc.[[Enumerable]] is false, return false.
iv. If ! IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) is true, return false.
v. If Desc has a [[Writable]] field and if Desc.[[Writable]] is false, return false.
vi. If Desc has a [[Value]] field, perform ? IntegerIndexedElementSet(O, numericIndex,
Desc.[[Value]]).
vii. Return true.
4. Return ! OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(O, P, Desc).

10.4.5.4 [[Get]] ( P, Receiver )

The [[Get]] internal method of an Integer-Indexed exotic object O takes arguments P (a property
key) and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. If Type(P) is String, then
a. Let numericIndex be ! CanonicalNumericIndexString(P).
b. If numericIndex is not undefined, then
i. Return ! IntegerIndexedElementGet(O, numericIndex).
3. Return ? OrdinaryGet(O, P, Receiver).

10.4.5.5 [[Set]] ( P, V, Receiver )

The [[Set]] internal method of an Integer-Indexed exotic object O takes arguments P (a property
key), V (an ECMAScript language value), and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value). It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. If Type(P) is String, then
a. Let numericIndex be ! CanonicalNumericIndexString(P).
b. If numericIndex is not undefined, then
i. Perform ? IntegerIndexedElementSet(O, numericIndex, V).
ii. Return true.
3. Return ? OrdinarySet(O, P, V, Receiver).

10.4.5.6 [[Delete]] ( P )
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The [[Delete]] internal method of an Integer-Indexed exotic object O takes arguments P (a property
key). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Assert: O is an Integer-Indexed exotic object.
3. If Type(P) is String, then
a. Let numericIndex be ! CanonicalNumericIndexString(P).
b. If numericIndex is not undefined, then
i. If ! IsValidIntegerIndex(O, numericIndex) is false, return true; else return false.
4. Return ? OrdinaryDelete(O, P).

10.4.5.7 [[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( )

The [[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal method of an Integer-Indexed exotic object O takes no

arguments. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let keys be a new empty List.

2. Assert: O is an Integer-Indexed exotic object.
3. If IsDetachedBuffer(O.[[ViewedArrayBuffer]]) is false, then
a. For each integer i starting with 0 such that i < O.[[ArrayLength]], in ascending order, do
i. Add ! ToString(𝔽(i)) as the last element of keys.
4. For each own property key P of O such that Type(P) is String and P is not an integer index, in
ascending chronological order of property creation, do
a. Add P as the last element of keys.
5. For each own property key P of O such that Type(P) is Symbol, in ascending chronological
order of property creation, do
a. Add P as the last element of keys.
6. Return keys.

10.4.5.8 IntegerIndexedObjectCreate ( prototype )

The abstract operation IntegerIndexedObjectCreate takes argument prototype. It is used to specify

the creation of new Integer-Indexed exotic objects. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let internalSlotsList be « [[Prototype]], [[Extensible]], [[ViewedArrayBuffer]],

[[TypedArrayName]], [[ContentType]], [[ByteLength]], [[ByteOffset]], [[ArrayLength]] ».
2. Let A be ! MakeBasicObject(internalSlotsList).

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3. Set A.[[GetOwnProperty]] as specified in 10.4.5.1.

4. Set A.[[HasProperty]] as specified in 10.4.5.2.
5. Set A.[[DefineOwnProperty]] as specified in 10.4.5.3.
6. Set A.[[Get]] as specified in 10.4.5.4.
7. Set A.[[Set]] as specified in 10.4.5.5.
8. Set A.[[Delete]] as specified in 10.4.5.6.
9. Set A.[[OwnPropertyKeys]] as specified in 10.4.5.7.
10. Set A.[[Prototype]] to prototype.
11. Return A.

10.4.5.9 IsValidIntegerIndex ( O, index )

The abstract operation IsValidIntegerIndex takes arguments O and index (a Number). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: O is an Integer-Indexed exotic object.

2. If IsDetachedBuffer(O.[[ViewedArrayBuffer]]) is true, return false.
3. If ! IsIntegralNumber(index) is false, return false.
4. If index is -0𝔽, return false.
5. If ℝ(index) < 0 or ℝ(index) ≥ O.[[ArrayLength]], return false.
6. Return true.

10.4.5.10 IntegerIndexedElementGet ( O, index )

The abstract operation IntegerIndexedElementGet takes arguments O and index (a Number). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: O is an Integer-Indexed exotic object.

2. If ! IsValidIntegerIndex(O, index) is false, return undefined.
3. Let offset be O.[[ByteOffset]].
4. Let arrayTypeName be the String value of O.[[TypedArrayName]].
5. Let elementSize be the Element Size value specified in Table 61 for arrayTypeName.
6. Let indexedPosition be (ℝ(index) × elementSize) + offset.
7. Let elementType be the Element Type value in Table 61 for arrayTypeName.
8. Return GetValueFromBuffer(O.[[ViewedArrayBuffer]], indexedPosition, elementType, true,
Unordered).

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10.4.5.11 IntegerIndexedElementSet ( O, index, value )

The abstract operation IntegerIndexedElementSet takes arguments O, index (a Number), and value. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: O is an Integer-Indexed exotic object.

2. If O.[[ContentType]] is BigInt, let numValue be ? ToBigInt(value).
3. Otherwise, let numValue be ? ToNumber(value).
4. If ! IsValidIntegerIndex(O, index) is true, then
a. Let offset be O.[[ByteOffset]].
b. Let arrayTypeName be the String value of O.[[TypedArrayName]].
c. Let elementSize be the Element Size value specified in Table 61 for arrayTypeName.
d. Let indexedPosition be (ℝ(index) × elementSize) + offset.
e. Let elementType be the Element Type value in Table 61 for arrayTypeName.
f. Perform SetValueInBuffer(O.[[ViewedArrayBuffer]], indexedPosition, elementType,
numValue, true, Unordered).
5. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).

NOTE This operation always appears to succeed, but it has no effect when attempting to
write past the end of a TypedArray or to a TypedArray which is backed by a
detached ArrayBuffer.

10.4.6 Module Namespace Exotic Objects

A module namespace exotic object is an exotic object that exposes the bindings exported from an
ECMAScript Module (See 16.2.3). There is a one-to-one correspondence between the String-keyed
own properties of a module namespace exotic object and the binding names exported by the Module.
The exported bindings include any bindings that are indirectly exported using export * export
items. Each String-valued own property key is the StringValue of the corresponding exported
binding name. These are the only String-keyed properties of a module namespace exotic object. Each
such property has the attributes { [[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]: true, [[Configurable]]: false }.
Module namespace exotic objects are not extensible.

An object is a module namespace exotic object if its [[SetPrototypeOf]], [[IsExtensible]],

[[PreventExtensions]], [[GetOwnProperty]], [[DefineOwnProperty]], [[HasProperty]], [[Get]],
[[Set]], [[Delete]], and [[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal methods use the definitions in this section, and

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its other essential internal methods use the definitions found in 10.1. These methods are installed by
ModuleNamespaceCreate.

Module namespace exotic objects have the internal slots defined in Table 32.

Table 32: Internal Slots of Module Namespace Exotic Objects

Internal Type Description
Slot

[[Module]] Module The Module Record whose exports this namespace exposes.
Record

[[Exports]] List of A List whose elements are the String values of the exported names
String exposed as own properties of this object. The list is ordered as if an Array
of those String values had been sorted using %Array.prototype.sort%
using undefined as comparefn.

[[Prototype]] Null This slot always contains the value null (see 10.4.6.1).

Module namespace exotic objects provide alternative definitions for all of the internal methods
except [[GetPrototypeOf]], which behaves as defined in 10.1.1.

10.4.6.1 [[SetPrototypeOf]] ( V )

The [[SetPrototypeOf]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object O takes argument V
(an Object or null). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? SetImmutablePrototype(O, V).

10.4.6.2 [[IsExtensible]] ( )

The [[IsExtensible]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object takes no arguments. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Return false.

10.4.6.3 [[PreventExtensions]] ( )
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The [[PreventExtensions]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object takes no arguments.
It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return true.

10.4.6.4 [[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )

The [[GetOwnProperty]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object O takes argument P
(a property key). It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Type(P) is Symbol, return OrdinaryGetOwnProperty(O, P).

2. Let exports be O.[[Exports]].
3. If P is not an element of exports, return undefined.
4. Let value be ? O.[[Get]](P, O).
5. Return PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: value, [[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]: true,
[[Configurable]]: false }.

10.4.6.5 [[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

The [[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object O takes arguments
P (a property key) and Desc (a Property Descriptor). It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Type(P) is Symbol, return OrdinaryDefineOwnProperty(O, P, Desc).

2. Let current be ? O.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
3. If current is undefined, return false.
4. If Desc.[[Configurable]] is present and has value true, return false.
5. If Desc.[[Enumerable]] is present and has value false, return false.
6. If ! IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) is true, return false.
7. If Desc.[[Writable]] is present and has value false, return false.
8. If Desc.[[Value]] is present, return SameValue(Desc.[[Value]], current.[[Value]]).
9. Return true.

10.4.6.6 [[HasProperty]] ( P )

The [[HasProperty]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object O takes argument P (a
property key). It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Type(P) is Symbol, return OrdinaryHasProperty(O, P).

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2. Let exports be O.[[Exports]].

3. If P is an element of exports, return true.
4. Return false.

10.4.6.7 [[Get]] ( P, Receiver )

The [[Get]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object O takes arguments P (a property
key) and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. If Type(P) is Symbol, then
a. Return ? OrdinaryGet(O, P, Receiver).
3. Let exports be O.[[Exports]].
4. If P is not an element of exports, return undefined.
5. Let m be O.[[Module]].
6. Let binding be ! m.ResolveExport(P).
7. Assert: binding is a ResolvedBinding Record.
8. Let targetModule be binding.[[Module]].
9. Assert: targetModule is not undefined.
10. If binding.[[BindingName]] is "*namespace*", then
a. Return ? GetModuleNamespace(targetModule).
11. Let targetEnv be targetModule.[[Environment]].
12. If targetEnv is undefined, throw a ReferenceError exception.
13. Return ? targetEnv.GetBindingValue(binding.[[BindingName]], true).

NOTE ResolveExport is side-effect free. Each time this operation is called with a specific
exportName, resolveSet pair as arguments it must return the same result. An
implementation might choose to pre-compute or cache the ResolveExport results for
the [[Exports]] of each module namespace exotic object.

10.4.6.8 [[Set]] ( P, V, Receiver )

The [[Set]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object takes arguments P (a property key),
V (an ECMAScript language value), and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value). It performs the
following steps when called:

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1. Return false.

10.4.6.9 [[Delete]] ( P )

The [[Delete]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object O takes argument P (a property
key). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. If Type(P) is Symbol, then
a. Return ? OrdinaryDelete(O, P).
3. Let exports be O.[[Exports]].
4. If P is an element of exports, return false.
5. Return true.

10.4.6.10 [[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( )

The [[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal method of a module namespace exotic object O takes no

arguments. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let exports be a copy of O.[[Exports]].

2. Let symbolKeys be ! OrdinaryOwnPropertyKeys(O).
3. Append all the entries of symbolKeys to the end of exports.
4. Return exports.

10.4.6.11 ModuleNamespaceCreate ( module, exports )

The abstract operation ModuleNamespaceCreate takes arguments module and exports. It is used to
specify the creation of new module namespace exotic objects. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: module is a Module Record.

2. Assert: module.[[Namespace]] is undefined.
3. Assert: exports is a List of String values.
4. Let internalSlotsList be the internal slots listed in Table 32.
5. Let M be ! MakeBasicObject(internalSlotsList).
6. Set M's essential internal methods to the definitions specified in 10.4.6.
7. Set M.[[Prototype]] to null.

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8. Set M.[[Module]] to module.

9. Let sortedExports be a List whose elements are the elements of exports ordered as if an Array
of the same values had been sorted using %Array.prototype.sort% using undefined as
comparefn.
10. Set M.[[Exports]] to sortedExports.
11. Create own properties of M corresponding to the definitions in 28.3.
12. Set module.[[Namespace]] to M.
13. Return M.

10.4.7 Immutable Prototype Exotic Objects

An immutable prototype exotic object is an exotic object that has a [[Prototype]] internal slot that
will not change once it is initialized.

An object is an immutable prototype exotic object if its [[SetPrototypeOf]] internal method uses the
following implementation. (Its other essential internal methods may use any implementation,
depending on the specific immutable prototype exotic object in question.)

NOTE Unlike other exotic objects, there is not a dedicated creation abstract operation
provided for immutable prototype exotic objects. This is because they are only used
by %Object.prototype% and by host environments, and in host environments, the
relevant objects are potentially exotic in other ways and thus need their own
dedicated creation operation.

10.4.7.1 [[SetPrototypeOf]] ( V )

The [[SetPrototypeOf]] internal method of an immutable prototype exotic object O takes argument V
(an Object or null). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Return ? SetImmutablePrototype(O, V).

10.4.7.2 SetImmutablePrototype ( O, V )

The abstract operation SetImmutablePrototype takes arguments O and V. It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Assert: Either Type(V) is Object or Type(V) is Null.

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2. Let current be ? O.[[GetPrototypeOf]]().

3. If SameValue(V, current) is true, return true.
4. Return false.

10.5 Proxy Object Internal Methods and Internal Slots

A proxy object is an exotic object whose essential internal methods are partially implemented using
ECMAScript code. Every proxy object has an internal slot called [[ProxyHandler]]. The value of
[[ProxyHandler]] is an object, called the proxy's handler object, or null. Methods (see Table 33) of a
handler object may be used to augment the implementation for one or more of the proxy object's
internal methods. Every proxy object also has an internal slot called [[ProxyTarget]] whose value is
either an object or the null value. This object is called the proxy's target object.

An object is a Proxy exotic object if its essential internal methods (including [[Call]] and
[[Construct]], if applicable) use the definitions in this section. These internal methods are installed in
ProxyCreate.

Table 33: Proxy Handler Methods

Internal Method Handler Method

[[GetPrototypeOf]] getPrototypeOf

[[SetPrototypeOf]] setPrototypeOf

[[IsExtensible]] isExtensible

[[PreventExtensions]] preventExtensions

[[GetOwnProperty]] getOwnPropertyDescriptor

[[DefineOwnProperty]] defineProperty

[[HasProperty]] has

[[Get]] get

[[Set]] set

[[Delete]] deleteProperty

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[[OwnPropertyKeys]] ownKeys

[[Call]] apply

[[Construct]] construct

When a handler method is called to provide the implementation of a proxy object internal method,
the handler method is passed the proxy's target object as a parameter. A proxy's handler object does
not necessarily have a method corresponding to every essential internal method. Invoking an internal
method on the proxy results in the invocation of the corresponding internal method on the proxy's
target object if the handler object does not have a method corresponding to the internal trap.

The [[ProxyHandler]] and [[ProxyTarget]] internal slots of a proxy object are always initialized when
the object is created and typically may not be modified. Some proxy objects are created in a manner
that permits them to be subsequently revoked. When a proxy is revoked, its [[ProxyHandler]] and
[[ProxyTarget]] internal slots are set to null causing subsequent invocations of internal methods on
that proxy object to throw a TypeError exception.

Because proxy objects permit the implementation of internal methods to be provided by arbitrary
ECMAScript code, it is possible to define a proxy object whose handler methods violates the
invariants defined in 6.1.7.3. Some of the internal method invariants defined in 6.1.7.3 are essential
integrity invariants. These invariants are explicitly enforced by the proxy object internal methods
specified in this section. An ECMAScript implementation must be robust in the presence of all
possible invariant violations.

In the following algorithm descriptions, assume O is an ECMAScript proxy object, P is a property

key value, V is any ECMAScript language value and Desc is a Property Descriptor record.

10.5.1 [[GetPrototypeOf]] ( )
The [[GetPrototypeOf]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes no arguments. It performs
the following steps when called:

1. Let handler be O.[[ProxyHandler]].

2. If handler is null, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Assert: Type(handler) is Object.
4. Let target be O.[[ProxyTarget]].
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5. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "getPrototypeOf").

6. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? target.[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
7. Let handlerProto be ? Call(trap, handler, « target »).
8. If Type(handlerProto) is neither Object nor Null, throw a TypeError exception.
9. Let extensibleTarget be ? IsExtensible(target).
10. If extensibleTarget is true, return handlerProto.
11. Let targetProto be ? target.[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
12. If SameValue(handlerProto, targetProto) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
13. Return handlerProto.

NOTE [[GetPrototypeOf]] for proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of [[GetPrototypeOf]] must be either an Object or null.

If the target object is not extensible, [[GetPrototypeOf]] applied to the proxy
object must return the same value as [[GetPrototypeOf]] applied to the proxy
object's target object.

10.5.2 [[SetPrototypeOf]] ( V )
The [[SetPrototypeOf]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes argument V (an Object or
null). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Either Type(V) is Object or Type(V) is Null.

2. Let handler be O.[[ProxyHandler]].
3. If handler is null, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Assert: Type(handler) is Object.
5. Let target be O.[[ProxyTarget]].
6. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "setPrototypeOf").
7. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? target.[[SetPrototypeOf]](V).
8. Let booleanTrapResult be ! ToBoolean(? Call(trap, handler, « target, V »)).
9. If booleanTrapResult is false, return false.
10. Let extensibleTarget be ? IsExtensible(target).
11. If extensibleTarget is true, return true.

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12. Let targetProto be ? target.[[GetPrototypeOf]]().

13. If SameValue(V, targetProto) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
14. Return true.

NOTE [[SetPrototypeOf]] for proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of [[SetPrototypeOf]] is a Boolean value.

If the target object is not extensible, the argument value must be the same as
the result of [[GetPrototypeOf]] applied to target object.

10.5.3 [[IsExtensible]] ( )
The [[IsExtensible]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes no arguments. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let handler be O.[[ProxyHandler]].

2. If handler is null, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Assert: Type(handler) is Object.
4. Let target be O.[[ProxyTarget]].
5. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "isExtensible").
6. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? IsExtensible(target).
7. Let booleanTrapResult be ! ToBoolean(? Call(trap, handler, « target »)).
8. Let targetResult be ? IsExtensible(target).
9. If SameValue(booleanTrapResult, targetResult) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
10. Return booleanTrapResult.

NOTE [[IsExtensible]] for proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of [[IsExtensible]] is a Boolean value.

[[IsExtensible]] applied to the proxy object must return the same value as
[[IsExtensible]] applied to the proxy object's target object with the same
argument.

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10.5.4 [[PreventExtensions]] ( )
The [[PreventExtensions]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes no arguments. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Let handler be O.[[ProxyHandler]].

2. If handler is null, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Assert: Type(handler) is Object.
4. Let target be O.[[ProxyTarget]].
5. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "preventExtensions").
6. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? target.[[PreventExtensions]]().
7. Let booleanTrapResult be ! ToBoolean(? Call(trap, handler, « target »)).
8. If booleanTrapResult is true, then
a. Let extensibleTarget be ? IsExtensible(target).
b. If extensibleTarget is true, throw a TypeError exception.
9. Return booleanTrapResult.

NOTE [[PreventExtensions]] for proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of [[PreventExtensions]] is a Boolean value.

[[PreventExtensions]] applied to the proxy object only returns true if
[[IsExtensible]] applied to the proxy object's target object is false.

10.5.5 [[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )
The [[GetOwnProperty]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes argument P (a property
key). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Let handler be O.[[ProxyHandler]].
3. If handler is null, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Assert: Type(handler) is Object.
5. Let target be O.[[ProxyTarget]].
6. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "getOwnPropertyDescriptor").
7. If trap is undefined, then

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a. Return ? target.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
8. Let trapResultObj be ? Call(trap, handler, « target, P »).
9. If Type(trapResultObj) is neither Object nor Undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
10. Let targetDesc be ? target.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
11. If trapResultObj is undefined, then
a. If targetDesc is undefined, return undefined.
b. If targetDesc.[[Configurable]] is false, throw a TypeError exception.
c. Let extensibleTarget be ? IsExtensible(target).
d. If extensibleTarget is false, throw a TypeError exception.
e. Return undefined.
12. Let extensibleTarget be ? IsExtensible(target).
13. Let resultDesc be ? ToPropertyDescriptor(trapResultObj).
14. Call CompletePropertyDescriptor(resultDesc).
15. Let valid be IsCompatiblePropertyDescriptor(extensibleTarget, resultDesc, targetDesc).
16. If valid is false, throw a TypeError exception.
17. If resultDesc.[[Configurable]] is false, then
a. If targetDesc is undefined or targetDesc.[[Configurable]] is true, then
i. Throw a TypeError exception.
b. If resultDesc has a [[Writable]] field and resultDesc.[[Writable]] is false, then
i. If targetDesc.[[Writable]] is true, throw a TypeError exception.
18. Return resultDesc.

NOTE [[GetOwnProperty]] for proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of [[GetOwnProperty]] must be either an Object or undefined.

A property cannot be reported as non-existent, if it exists as a non-
configurable own property of the target object.
A property cannot be reported as non-existent, if the target object is not
extensible, unless it does not exist as an own property of the target object.
A property cannot be reported as existent, if the target object is not extensible,
unless it exists as an own property of the target object.
A property cannot be reported as non-configurable, unless it exists as a non-
configurable own property of the target object.
A property cannot be reported as both non-configurable and non-writable,
unless it exists as a non-configurable, non-writable own property of the target
object.

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10.5.6 [[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

The [[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes arguments P (a
property key) and Desc (a Property Descriptor). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Let handler be O.[[ProxyHandler]].
3. If handler is null, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Assert: Type(handler) is Object.
5. Let target be O.[[ProxyTarget]].
6. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "defineProperty").
7. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? target.[[DefineOwnProperty]](P, Desc).
8. Let descObj be FromPropertyDescriptor(Desc).
9. Let booleanTrapResult be ! ToBoolean(? Call(trap, handler, « target, P, descObj »)).
10. If booleanTrapResult is false, return false.
11. Let targetDesc be ? target.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
12. Let extensibleTarget be ? IsExtensible(target).
13. If Desc has a [[Configurable]] field and if Desc.[[Configurable]] is false, then
a. Let settingConfigFalse be true.
14. Else, let settingConfigFalse be false.
15. If targetDesc is undefined, then
a. If extensibleTarget is false, throw a TypeError exception.
b. If settingConfigFalse is true, throw a TypeError exception.
16. Else,
a. If IsCompatiblePropertyDescriptor(extensibleTarget, Desc, targetDesc) is false, throw a
TypeError exception.
b. If settingConfigFalse is true and targetDesc.[[Configurable]] is true, throw a TypeError
exception.
c. If IsDataDescriptor(targetDesc) is true, targetDesc.[[Configurable]] is false, and
targetDesc.[[Writable]] is true, then
i. If Desc has a [[Writable]] field and Desc.[[Writable]] is false, throw a TypeError
exception.
17. Return true.

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NOTE
[[DefineOwnProperty]] for proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of [[DefineOwnProperty]] is a Boolean value.

A property cannot be added, if the target object is not extensible.
A property cannot be non-configurable, unless there exists a corresponding
non-configurable own property of the target object.
A non-configurable property cannot be non-writable, unless there exists a
corresponding non-configurable, non-writable own property of the target
object.
If a property has a corresponding target object property then applying the
Property Descriptor of the property to the target object using
[[DefineOwnProperty]] will not throw an exception.

10.5.7 [[HasProperty]] ( P )
The [[HasProperty]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes argument P (a property key). It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Let handler be O.[[ProxyHandler]].
3. If handler is null, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Assert: Type(handler) is Object.
5. Let target be O.[[ProxyTarget]].
6. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "has").
7. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? target.[[HasProperty]](P).
8. Let booleanTrapResult be ! ToBoolean(? Call(trap, handler, « target, P »)).
9. If booleanTrapResult is false, then
a. Let targetDesc be ? target.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
b. If targetDesc is not undefined, then
i. If targetDesc.[[Configurable]] is false, throw a TypeError exception.
ii. Let extensibleTarget be ? IsExtensible(target).
iii. If extensibleTarget is false, throw a TypeError exception.
10. Return booleanTrapResult.

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NOTE
[[HasProperty]] for proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of [[HasProperty]] is a Boolean value.

A property cannot be reported as non-existent, if it exists as a non-
configurable own property of the target object.
A property cannot be reported as non-existent, if it exists as an own property
of the target object and the target object is not extensible.

10.5.8 [[Get]] ( P, Receiver )

The [[Get]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes arguments P (a property key) and
Receiver (an ECMAScript language value). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Let handler be O.[[ProxyHandler]].
3. If handler is null, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Assert: Type(handler) is Object.
5. Let target be O.[[ProxyTarget]].
6. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "get").
7. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? target.[[Get]](P, Receiver).
8. Let trapResult be ? Call(trap, handler, « target, P, Receiver »).
9. Let targetDesc be ? target.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
10. If targetDesc is not undefined and targetDesc.[[Configurable]] is false, then
a. If IsDataDescriptor(targetDesc) is true and targetDesc.[[Writable]] is false, then
i. If SameValue(trapResult, targetDesc.[[Value]]) is false, throw a TypeError
exception.
b. If IsAccessorDescriptor(targetDesc) is true and targetDesc.[[Get]] is undefined, then
i. If trapResult is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
11. Return trapResult.

NOTE [[Get]] for proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The value reported for a property must be the same as the value of the
corresponding target object property if the target object property is a non-
writable, non-configurable own data property.
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w tab e, o co gu ab e ow data p ope ty.
The value reported for a property must be undefined if the corresponding
target object property is a non-configurable own accessor property that has
undefined as its [[Get]] attribute.

10.5.9 [[Set]] ( P, V, Receiver )

The [[Set]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes arguments P (a property key), V (an
ECMAScript language value), and Receiver (an ECMAScript language value). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Let handler be O.[[ProxyHandler]].
3. If handler is null, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Assert: Type(handler) is Object.
5. Let target be O.[[ProxyTarget]].
6. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "set").
7. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? target.[[Set]](P, V, Receiver).
8. Let booleanTrapResult be ! ToBoolean(? Call(trap, handler, « target, P, V, Receiver »)).
9. If booleanTrapResult is false, return false.
10. Let targetDesc be ? target.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
11. If targetDesc is not undefined and targetDesc.[[Configurable]] is false, then
a. If IsDataDescriptor(targetDesc) is true and targetDesc.[[Writable]] is false, then
i. If SameValue(V, targetDesc.[[Value]]) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
b. If IsAccessorDescriptor(targetDesc) is true, then
i. If targetDesc.[[Set]] is undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
12. Return true.

NOTE [[Set]] for proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of [[Set]] is a Boolean value.

Cannot change the value of a property to be different from the value of the
corresponding target object property if the corresponding target object
property is a non-writable, non-configurable own data property.

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Cannot set the value of a property if the corresponding target object property is
a non-configurable own accessor property that has undefined as its [[Set]]
attribute.

10.5.10 [[Delete]] ( P )
The [[Delete]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes argument P (a property key). It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.

2. Let handler be O.[[ProxyHandler]].
3. If handler is null, throw a TypeError exception.
4. Assert: Type(handler) is Object.
5. Let target be O.[[ProxyTarget]].
6. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "deleteProperty").
7. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? target.[[Delete]](P).
8. Let booleanTrapResult be ! ToBoolean(? Call(trap, handler, « target, P »)).
9. If booleanTrapResult is false, return false.
10. Let targetDesc be ? target.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
11. If targetDesc is undefined, return true.
12. If targetDesc.[[Configurable]] is false, throw a TypeError exception.
13. Let extensibleTarget be ? IsExtensible(target).
14. If extensibleTarget is false, throw a TypeError exception.
15. Return true.

NOTE [[Delete]] for proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of [[Delete]] is a Boolean value.

A property cannot be reported as deleted, if it exists as a non-configurable own
property of the target object.
A property cannot be reported as deleted, if it exists as an own property of the
target object and the target object is non-extensible.

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10.5.11 [[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( )
The [[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes no arguments. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Let handler be O.[[ProxyHandler]].

2. If handler is null, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Assert: Type(handler) is Object.
4. Let target be O.[[ProxyTarget]].
5. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "ownKeys").
6. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? target.[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
7. Let trapResultArray be ? Call(trap, handler, « target »).
8. Let trapResult be ? CreateListFromArrayLike(trapResultArray, « String, Symbol »).
9. If trapResult contains any duplicate entries, throw a TypeError exception.
10. Let extensibleTarget be ? IsExtensible(target).
11. Let targetKeys be ? target.[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
12. Assert: targetKeys is a List whose elements are only String and Symbol values.
13. Assert: targetKeys contains no duplicate entries.
14. Let targetConfigurableKeys be a new empty List.
15. Let targetNonconfigurableKeys be a new empty List.
16. For each element key of targetKeys, do
a. Let desc be ? target.[[GetOwnProperty]](key).
b. If desc is not undefined and desc.[[Configurable]] is false, then
i. Append key as an element of targetNonconfigurableKeys.
c. Else,
i. Append key as an element of targetConfigurableKeys.
17. If extensibleTarget is true and targetNonconfigurableKeys is empty, then
a. Return trapResult.
18. Let uncheckedResultKeys be a List whose elements are the elements of trapResult.
19. For each element key of targetNonconfigurableKeys, do
a. If key is not an element of uncheckedResultKeys, throw a TypeError exception.
b. Remove key from uncheckedResultKeys.
20. If extensibleTarget is true, return trapResult.
21. For each element key of targetConfigurableKeys, do
a. If key is not an element of uncheckedResultKeys, throw a TypeError exception.
b. Remove key from uncheckedResultKeys.
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22. If uncheckedResultKeys is not empty, throw a TypeError exception.

23. Return trapResult.

NOTE [[OwnPropertyKeys]] for proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of [[OwnPropertyKeys]] is a List.

The returned List contains no duplicate entries.
The Type of each result List element is either String or Symbol.
The result List must contain the keys of all non-configurable own properties of
the target object.
If the target object is not extensible, then the result List must contain all the
keys of the own properties of the target object and no other values.

10.5.12 [[Call]] ( thisArgument, argumentsList )

The [[Call]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes arguments thisArgument (an
ECMAScript language value) and argumentsList (a List of ECMAScript language values). It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Let handler be O.[[ProxyHandler]].

2. If handler is null, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Assert: Type(handler) is Object.
4. Let target be O.[[ProxyTarget]].
5. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "apply").
6. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? Call(target, thisArgument, argumentsList).
7. Let argArray be ! CreateArrayFromList(argumentsList).
8. Return ? Call(trap, handler, « target, thisArgument, argArray »).

NOTE A Proxy exotic object only has a [[Call]] internal method if the initial value of its
[[ProxyTarget]] internal slot is an object that has a [[Call]] internal method.

10.5.13 [[Construct]] ( argumentsList, newTarget )

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The [[Construct]] internal method of a Proxy exotic object O takes arguments argumentsList (a List
of ECMAScript language values) and newTarget (a constructor). It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let handler be O.[[ProxyHandler]].

2. If handler is null, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Assert: Type(handler) is Object.
4. Let target be O.[[ProxyTarget]].
5. Assert: IsConstructor(target) is true.
6. Let trap be ? GetMethod(handler, "construct").
7. If trap is undefined, then
a. Return ? Construct(target, argumentsList, newTarget).
8. Let argArray be ! CreateArrayFromList(argumentsList).
9. Let newObj be ? Call(trap, handler, « target, argArray, newTarget »).
10. If Type(newObj) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
11. Return newObj.

NOTE 1 A Proxy exotic object only has a [[Construct]] internal method if the initial value of
its [[ProxyTarget]] internal slot is an object that has a [[Construct]] internal method.

NOTE 2 [[Construct]] for proxy objects enforces the following invariants:

The result of [[Construct]] must be an Object.

10.5.14 ProxyCreate ( target, handler )

The abstract operation ProxyCreate takes arguments target and handler. It is used to specify the
creation of new Proxy exotic objects. It performs the following steps when called:

1. If Type(target) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. If Type(handler) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Let P be ! MakeBasicObject(« [[ProxyHandler]], [[ProxyTarget]] »).
4. Set P's essential internal methods, except for [[Call]] and [[Construct]], to the definitions
specified in 10.5.
5. If IsCallable(target) is true, then

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a. Set P.[[Call]] as specified in 10.5.12.

b. If IsConstructor(target) is true, then
i. Set P.[[Construct]] as specified in 10.5.13.
6. Set P.[[ProxyTarget]] to target.
7. Set P.[[ProxyHandler]] to handler.
8. Return P.

11 ECMAScript Language: Source Code

11.1 Source Text

Syntax

SourceCharacter ::
any Unicode code point

ECMAScript code is expressed using Unicode. ECMAScript source text is a sequence of code
points. All Unicode code point values from U+0000 to U+10FFFF, including surrogate code points,
may occur in source text where permitted by the ECMAScript grammars. The actual encodings used
to store and interchange ECMAScript source text is not relevant to this specification. Regardless of
the external source text encoding, a conforming ECMAScript implementation processes the source
text as if it was an equivalent sequence of SourceCharacter values, each SourceCharacter being a
Unicode code point. Conforming ECMAScript implementations are not required to perform any
normalization of source text, or behave as though they were performing normalization of source text.

The components of a combining character sequence are treated as individual Unicode code points
even though a user might think of the whole sequence as a single character.

NOTE In string literals, regular expression literals, template literals and identifiers, any
Unicode code point may also be expressed using Unicode escape sequences that
explicitly express a code point's numeric value. Within a comment, such an escape
sequence is effectively ignored as part of the comment.

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ECMAScript differs from the Java programming language in the behaviour of

Unicode escape sequences. In a Java program, if the Unicode escape sequence
\u000A, for example, occurs within a single-line comment, it is interpreted as a
line terminator (Unicode code point U+000A is LINE FEED (LF)) and therefore the
next code point is not part of the comment. Similarly, if the Unicode escape
sequence \u000A occurs within a string literal in a Java program, it is likewise
interpreted as a line terminator, which is not allowed within a string literal—one
must write \n instead of \u000A to cause a LINE FEED (LF) to be part of the
String value of a string literal. In an ECMAScript program, a Unicode escape
sequence occurring within a comment is never interpreted and therefore cannot
contribute to termination of the comment. Similarly, a Unicode escape sequence
occurring within a string literal in an ECMAScript program always contributes to
the literal and is never interpreted as a line terminator or as a code point that might
terminate the string literal.

11.1.1 Static Semantics: UTF16EncodeCodePoint ( cp )

The abstract operation UTF16EncodeCodePoint takes argument cp (a Unicode code point). It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: 0 ≤ cp ≤ 0x10FFFF.
2. If cp ≤ 0xFFFF, return the String value consisting of the code unit whose value is cp.
3. Let cu1 be the code unit whose value is floor((cp - 0x10000) / 0x400) + 0xD800.
4. Let cu2 be the code unit whose value is ((cp - 0x10000) modulo 0x400) + 0xDC00.
5. Return the string-concatenation of cu1 and cu2.

11.1.2 Static Semantics: CodePointsToString ( text )

The abstract operation CodePointsToString takes argument text (a sequence of Unicode code points).
It converts text into a String value, as described in 6.1.4. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let result be the empty String.

2. For each code point cp of text, do
a. Set result to the string-concatenation of result and ! UTF16EncodeCodePoint(cp).
3. Return result.

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11.1.3 Static Semantics: UTF16SurrogatePairToCodePoint ( lead, trail )

The abstract operation UTF16SurrogatePairToCodePoint takes arguments lead (a code unit) and trail
(a code unit). Two code units that form a UTF-16 surrogate pair are converted to a code point. It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: lead is a leading surrogate and trail is a trailing surrogate.

2. Let cp be (lead - 0xD800) × 0x400 + (trail - 0xDC00) + 0x10000.
3. Return the code point cp.

11.1.4 Static Semantics: CodePointAt ( string, position )

The abstract operation CodePointAt takes arguments string (a String) and position (a non-negative
integer). It interprets string as a sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points, as described in 6.1.4, and
reads from it a single code point starting with the code unit at index position. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let size be the length of string.

2. Assert: position ≥ 0 and position < size.
3. Let first be the code unit at index position within string.
4. Let cp be the code point whose numeric value is that of first.
5. If first is not a leading surrogate or trailing surrogate, then
a. Return the Record { [[CodePoint]]: cp, [[CodeUnitCount]]: 1, [[IsUnpairedSurrogate]]:
false }.
6. If first is a trailing surrogate or position + 1 = size, then
a. Return the Record { [[CodePoint]]: cp, [[CodeUnitCount]]: 1, [[IsUnpairedSurrogate]]:
true }.
7. Let second be the code unit at index position + 1 within string.
8. If second is not a trailing surrogate, then
a. Return the Record { [[CodePoint]]: cp, [[CodeUnitCount]]: 1, [[IsUnpairedSurrogate]]:
true }.
9. Set cp to ! UTF16SurrogatePairToCodePoint(first, second).
10. Return the Record { [[CodePoint]]: cp, [[CodeUnitCount]]: 2, [[IsUnpairedSurrogate]]: false }.

11.1.5 Static Semantics: StringToCodePoints ( string )

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The abstract operation StringToCodePoints takes argument string (a String). It returns the sequence
of Unicode code points that results from interpreting string as UTF-16 encoded Unicode text as
described in 6.1.4. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let codePoints be a new empty List.

2. Let size be the length of string.
3. Let position be 0.
4. Repeat, while position < size,
a. Let cp be ! CodePointAt(string, position).
b. Append cp.[[CodePoint]] to codePoints.
c. Set position to position + cp.[[CodeUnitCount]].
5. Return codePoints.

11.1.6 Static Semantics: ParseText ( sourceText, goalSymbol )

The abstract operation ParseText takes arguments sourceText (a sequence of Unicode code points)
and goalSymbol (a nonterminal in one of the ECMAScript grammars). It performs the following
steps when called:

1. Attempt to parse sourceText using goalSymbol as the goal symbol, and analyse the parse result
for any early error conditions. Parsing and early error detection may be interleaved in an
implementation-defined manner.
2. If the parse succeeded and no early errors were found, return the Parse Node (an instance of
goalSymbol) at the root of the parse tree resulting from the parse.
3. Otherwise, return a List of one or more SyntaxError objects representing the parsing errors
and/or early errors. If more than one parsing error or early error is present, the number and
ordering of error objects in the list is implementation-defined, but at least one must be present.

NOTE 1 Consider a text that has an early error at a particular point, and also a syntax error at
a later point. An implementation that does a parse pass followed by an early errors
pass might report the syntax error and not proceed to the early errors pass. An
implementation that interleaves the two activities might report the early error and
not proceed to find the syntax error. A third implementation might report both
errors. All of these behaviours are conformant.

NOTE 2 See also clause 17.

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11.2 Types of Source Code

There are four types of ECMAScript code:

Global code is source text that is treated as an ECMAScript Script. The global code of a
particular Script does not include any source text that is parsed as part of a
FunctionDeclaration, FunctionExpression, GeneratorDeclaration, GeneratorExpression,
AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncFunctionExpression, AsyncGeneratorDeclaration,
AsyncGeneratorExpression, MethodDefinition, ArrowFunction, AsyncArrowFunction,
ClassDeclaration, or ClassExpression.
Eval code is the source text supplied to the built-in eval function. More precisely, if the
parameter to the built-in eval function is a String, it is treated as an ECMAScript Script. The
eval code for a particular invocation of eval is the global code portion of that Script.

Function code is source text that is parsed to supply the value of the [[ECMAScriptCode]] and
[[FormalParameters]] internal slots (see 10.2) of an ECMAScript function object. The function
code of a particular ECMAScript function does not include any source text that is parsed as the
function code of a nested FunctionDeclaration, FunctionExpression, GeneratorDeclaration,
GeneratorExpression, AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncFunctionExpression,
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, AsyncGeneratorExpression, MethodDefinition, ArrowFunction,
AsyncArrowFunction, ClassDeclaration, or ClassExpression.

In addition, if the source text referred to above is parsed as:

the FormalParameters and FunctionBody of a FunctionDeclaration or

FunctionExpression,
the FormalParameters and GeneratorBody of a GeneratorDeclaration or
GeneratorExpression,
the FormalParameters and AsyncFunctionBody of an AsyncFunctionDeclaration or
AsyncFunctionExpression, or
the FormalParameters and AsyncGeneratorBody of an AsyncGeneratorDeclaration or
AsyncGeneratorExpression,

then the source text matching the BindingIdentifier (if any) of that declaration or expression is
also included in the function code of the corresponding function.

Module code is source text that is code that is provided as a ModuleBody. It is the code that is
directly evaluated when a module is initialized. The module code of a particular module does
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not include any source text that is parsed as part of a nested FunctionDeclaration,
FunctionExpression, GeneratorDeclaration, GeneratorExpression, AsyncFunctionDeclaration,
AsyncFunctionExpression, AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, AsyncGeneratorExpression,
MethodDefinition, ArrowFunction, AsyncArrowFunction, ClassDeclaration, or
ClassExpression.

NOTE 1 Function code is generally provided as the bodies of Function Definitions (15.2),
Arrow Function Definitions (15.3), Method Definitions (15.4), Generator Function
Definitions (15.5), Async Function Definitions (15.8), Async Generator Function
Definitions (15.6), and Async Arrow Functions (15.9). Function code is also derived
from the arguments to the Function constructor (20.2.1.1), the GeneratorFunction
constructor (27.3.1.1), and the AsyncFunction constructor (27.7.1.1).

NOTE 2 The practical effect of including the BindingIdentifier in function code is that the
Early Errors for strict mode code are applied to a BindingIdentifier that is the name
of a function whose body contains a "use strict" directive, even if the surrounding
code is not strict mode code.

11.2.1 Directive Prologues and the Use Strict Directive

A Directive Prologue is the longest sequence of ExpressionStatements occurring as the initial
StatementListItems or ModuleItems of a FunctionBody, a ScriptBody, or a ModuleBody and where
each ExpressionStatement in the sequence consists entirely of a StringLiteral token followed by a
semicolon. The semicolon may appear explicitly or may be inserted by automatic semicolon
insertion (12.9). A Directive Prologue may be an empty sequence.

A Use Strict Directive is an ExpressionStatement in a Directive Prologue whose StringLiteral is

either of the exact code point sequences "use strict" or 'use strict'. A Use Strict
Directive may not contain an EscapeSequence or LineContinuation.

A Directive Prologue may contain more than one Use Strict Directive. However, an implementation
may issue a warning if this occurs.

NOTE The ExpressionStatements of a Directive Prologue are evaluated normally during

evaluation of the containing production. Implementations may define
implementation specific meanings for ExpressionStatements which are not a Use
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Strict Directive and which occur in a Directive Prologue. If an appropriate

notification mechanism exists, an implementation should issue a warning if it
encounters in a Directive Prologue an ExpressionStatement that is not a Use Strict
Directive and which does not have a meaning defined by the implementation.

11.2.2 Strict Mode Code

An ECMAScript syntactic unit may be processed using either unrestricted or strict mode syntax and
semantics (4.3.2). Code is interpreted as strict mode code in the following situations:

Global code is strict mode code if it begins with a Directive Prologue that contains a Use Strict
Directive.
Module code is always strict mode code.
All parts of a ClassDeclaration or a ClassExpression are strict mode code.
Eval code is strict mode code if it begins with a Directive Prologue that contains a Use Strict
Directive or if the call to eval is a direct eval that is contained in strict mode code.
Function code is strict mode code if the associated FunctionDeclaration, FunctionExpression,
GeneratorDeclaration, GeneratorExpression, AsyncFunctionDeclaration,
AsyncFunctionExpression, AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, AsyncGeneratorExpression,
MethodDefinition, ArrowFunction, or AsyncArrowFunction is contained in strict mode code or
if the code that produces the value of the function's [[ECMAScriptCode]] internal slot begins
with a Directive Prologue that contains a Use Strict Directive.
Function code that is supplied as the arguments to the built-in Function, Generator,
AsyncFunction, and AsyncGenerator constructors is strict mode code if the last argument is a
String that when processed is a FunctionBody that begins with a Directive Prologue that
contains a Use Strict Directive.

ECMAScript code that is not strict mode code is called non-strict code.

11.2.3 Non-ECMAScript Functions

An ECMAScript implementation may support the evaluation of function exotic objects whose
evaluative behaviour is expressed in some host-defined form of executable code other than via
ECMAScript code. Whether a function object is an ECMAScript code function or a non-

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ECMAScript function is not semantically observable from the perspective of an ECMAScript code
function that calls or is called by such a non-ECMAScript function.

12 ECMAScript Language: Lexical Grammar

The source text of an ECMAScript Script or Module is first converted into a sequence of input
elements, which are tokens, line terminators, comments, or white space. The source text is scanned
from left to right, repeatedly taking the longest possible sequence of code points as the next input
element.

There are several situations where the identification of lexical input elements is sensitive to the
syntactic grammar context that is consuming the input elements. This requires multiple goal symbols
for the lexical grammar. The InputElementRegExpOrTemplateTail goal is used in syntactic grammar
contexts where a RegularExpressionLiteral, a TemplateMiddle, or a TemplateTail is permitted. The
InputElementRegExp goal symbol is used in all syntactic grammar contexts where a
RegularExpressionLiteral is permitted but neither a TemplateMiddle, nor a TemplateTail is permitted.
The InputElementTemplateTail goal is used in all syntactic grammar contexts where a
TemplateMiddle or a TemplateTail is permitted but a RegularExpressionLiteral is not permitted. In
all other contexts, InputElementDiv is used as the lexical goal symbol.

NOTE The use of multiple lexical goals ensures that there are no lexical ambiguities that
would affect automatic semicolon insertion. For example, there are no syntactic
grammar contexts where both a leading division or division-assignment, and a
leading RegularExpressionLiteral are permitted. This is not affected by semicolon
insertion (see 12.9); in examples such as the following:

a = b
/hi/g.exec(c).map(d);

where the first non-whitespace, non-comment code point after a LineTerminator is

U+002F (SOLIDUS) and the syntactic context allows division or division-
assignment, no semicolon is inserted at the LineTerminator. That is, the above
example is interpreted in the same way as:

a = b / hi / g.exec(c).map(d);

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Syntax
InputElementDiv ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
DivPunctuator
RightBracePunctuator

InputElementRegExp ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
RightBracePunctuator
RegularExpressionLiteral

InputElementRegExpOrTemplateTail ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
RegularExpressionLiteral
TemplateSubstitutionTail

InputElementTemplateTail ::
WhiteSpace
LineTerminator
Comment
CommonToken
DivPunctuator
TemplateSubstitutionTail
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12.1 Unicode Format-Control Characters

The Unicode format-control characters (i.e., the characters in category “Cf” in the Unicode Character
Database such as LEFT-TO-RIGHT MARK or RIGHT-TO-LEFT MARK) are control codes used to
control the formatting of a range of text in the absence of higher-level protocols for this (such as
mark-up languages).

It is useful to allow format-control characters in source text to facilitate editing and display. All
format control characters may be used within comments, and within string literals, template literals,
and regular expression literals.

U+200C (ZERO WIDTH NON-JOINER) and U+200D (ZERO WIDTH JOINER) are format-
control characters that are used to make necessary distinctions when forming words or phrases in
certain languages. In ECMAScript source text these code points may also be used in an
IdentifierName after the first character.

U+FEFF (ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE) is a format-control character used primarily at the
start of a text to mark it as Unicode and to allow detection of the text's encoding and byte order.
<ZWNBSP> characters intended for this purpose can sometimes also appear after the start of a text,
for example as a result of concatenating files. In ECMAScript source text <ZWNBSP> code points
are treated as white space characters (see 12.2).

The special treatment of certain format-control characters outside of comments, string literals, and
regular expression literals is summarized in Table 34.

Table 34: Format-Control Code Point Usage

Code Point Name Abbreviation Usage

U+200C ZERO WIDTH NON-JOINER <ZWNJ> IdentifierPart

U+200D ZERO WIDTH JOINER <ZWJ> IdentifierPart

U+FEFF ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE <ZWNBSP> WhiteSpace

12.2 White Space

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White space code points are used to improve source text readability and to separate tokens
(indivisible lexical units) from each other, but are otherwise insignificant. White space code points
may occur between any two tokens and at the start or end of input. White space code points may
occur within a StringLiteral, a RegularExpressionLiteral, a Template, or a TemplateSubstitutionTail
where they are considered significant code points forming part of a literal value. They may also
occur within a Comment, but cannot appear within any other kind of token.

The ECMAScript white space code points are listed in Table 35.

Table 35: White Space Code Points

Code Point Name Abbreviation

U+0009 CHARACTER TABULATION <TAB>

U+000B LINE TABULATION <VT>

U+000C FORM FEED (FF) <FF>

U+0020 SPACE <SP>

U+00A0 NO-BREAK SPACE <NBSP>

U+FEFF ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE <ZWNBSP>

Other category “Zs” Any other Unicode “Space_Separator” code point <USP>

ECMAScript implementations must recognize as WhiteSpace code points listed in the

“Space_Separator” (“Zs”) category.

NOTE Other than for the code points listed in Table 35, ECMAScript WhiteSpace
intentionally excludes all code points that have the Unicode “White_Space”
property but which are not classified in category “Space_Separator” (“Zs”).

Syntax

WhiteSpace ::
<TAB>
<VT>
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<FF>
<SP>
<NBSP>
<ZWNBSP>
<USP>

12.3 Line Terminators

Like white space code points, line terminator code points are used to improve source text readability
and to separate tokens (indivisible lexical units) from each other. However, unlike white space code
points, line terminators have some influence over the behaviour of the syntactic grammar. In general,
line terminators may occur between any two tokens, but there are a few places where they are
forbidden by the syntactic grammar. Line terminators also affect the process of automatic semicolon
insertion (12.9). A line terminator cannot occur within any token except a StringLiteral, Template, or
TemplateSubstitutionTail. <LF> and <CR> line terminators cannot occur within a StringLiteral token
except as part of a LineContinuation.

A line terminator can occur within a MultiLineComment but cannot occur within a
SingleLineComment.

Line terminators are included in the set of white space code points that are matched by the \s class
in regular expressions.

The ECMAScript line terminator code points are listed in Table 36.

Table 36: Line Terminator Code Points

Code Point Unicode Name Abbreviation

U+000A LINE FEED (LF) <LF>

U+000D CARRIAGE RETURN (CR) <CR>

U+2028 LINE SEPARATOR <LS>

U+2029 PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR <PS>

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Only the Unicode code points in Table 36 are treated as line terminators. Other new line or line
breaking Unicode code points are not treated as line terminators but are treated as white space if they
meet the requirements listed in Table 35. The sequence <CR><LF> is commonly used as a line
terminator. It should be considered a single SourceCharacter for the purpose of reporting line
numbers.

Syntax

LineTerminator ::
<LF>
<CR>
<LS>
<PS>

LineTerminatorSequence ::
<LF>
<CR> [lookahead ≠ <LF>]
<LS>
<PS>
<CR> <LF>

12.4 Comments
Comments can be either single or multi-line. Multi-line comments cannot nest.

Because a single-line comment can contain any Unicode code point except a LineTerminator code
point, and because of the general rule that a token is always as long as possible, a single-line
comment always consists of all code points from the // marker to the end of the line. However, the
LineTerminator at the end of the line is not considered to be part of the single-line comment; it is
recognized separately by the lexical grammar and becomes part of the stream of input elements for
the syntactic grammar. This point is very important, because it implies that the presence or absence
of single-line comments does not affect the process of automatic semicolon insertion (see 12.9).

Comments behave like white space and are discarded except that, if a MultiLineComment contains a
line terminator code point, then the entire comment is considered to be a LineTerminator for

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purposes of parsing by the syntactic grammar.

Syntax

Comment ::
MultiLineComment
SingleLineComment

MultiLineComment ::
/* MultiLineCommentCharsopt */

MultiLineCommentChars ::
MultiLineNotAsteriskChar MultiLineCommentCharsopt
* PostAsteriskCommentCharsopt

PostAsteriskCommentChars ::
MultiLineNotForwardSlashOrAsteriskChar MultiLineCommentCharsopt
* PostAsteriskCommentCharsopt

MultiLineNotAsteriskChar ::
SourceCharacter but not *

MultiLineNotForwardSlashOrAsteriskChar ::
SourceCharacter but not one of / or *

SingleLineComment ::
// SingleLineCommentCharsopt

SingleLineCommentChars ::
SingleLineCommentChar SingleLineCommentCharsopt

SingleLineCommentChar ::
SourceCharacter but not LineTerminator

A number of productions in this section are given alternative definitions in section B.1.3

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12.5 Tokens
Syntax

CommonToken ::
IdentifierName
Punctuator
NumericLiteral
StringLiteral
Template

NOTE The DivPunctuator, RegularExpressionLiteral, RightBracePunctuator, and

TemplateSubstitutionTail productions derive additional tokens that are not included
in the CommonToken production.

12.6 Names and Keywords

IdentifierName and ReservedWord are tokens that are interpreted according to the Default Identifier
Syntax given in Unicode Standard Annex #31, Identifier and Pattern Syntax, with some small
modifications. ReservedWord is an enumerated subset of IdentifierName. The syntactic grammar
defines Identifier as an IdentifierName that is not a ReservedWord. The Unicode identifier grammar
is based on character properties specified by the Unicode Standard. The Unicode code points in the
specified categories in the latest version of the Unicode standard must be treated as in those
categories by all conforming ECMAScript implementations. ECMAScript implementations may
recognize identifier code points defined in later editions of the Unicode Standard.

NOTE 1 This standard specifies specific code point additions: U+0024 (DOLLAR SIGN)
and U+005F (LOW LINE) are permitted anywhere in an IdentifierName, and the
code points U+200C (ZERO WIDTH NON-JOINER) and U+200D (ZERO WIDTH
JOINER) are permitted anywhere after the first code point of an IdentifierName.

Unicode escape sequences are permitted in an IdentifierName, where they contribute a single
Unicode code point to the IdentifierName. The code point is expressed by the CodePoint of the
UnicodeEscapeSequence (see 12.8.4). The \ preceding the UnicodeEscapeSequence and the u and

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{ } code units, if they appear, do not contribute code points to the IdentifierName. A
UnicodeEscapeSequence cannot be used to put a code point into an IdentifierName that would
otherwise be illegal. In other words, if a \ UnicodeEscapeSequence sequence were replaced by the
SourceCharacter it contributes, the result must still be a valid IdentifierName that has the exact same
sequence of SourceCharacter elements as the original IdentifierName. All interpretations of
IdentifierName within this specification are based upon their actual code points regardless of
whether or not an escape sequence was used to contribute any particular code point.

Two IdentifierNames that are canonically equivalent according to the Unicode standard are not equal
unless, after replacement of each UnicodeEscapeSequence, they are represented by the exact same
sequence of code points.

Syntax

IdentifierName ::
IdentifierStart
IdentifierName IdentifierPart

IdentifierStart ::
UnicodeIDStart
$
_
\ UnicodeEscapeSequence

IdentifierPart ::
UnicodeIDContinue
$
\ UnicodeEscapeSequence
<ZWNJ>
<ZWJ>

UnicodeIDStart ::
any Unicode code point with the Unicode property “ID_Start”

UnicodeIDContinue ::
any Unicode code point with the Unicode property “ID_Continue”

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The definitions of the nonterminal UnicodeEscapeSequence is given in 12.8.4.

NOTE 2 The nonterminal IdentifierPart derives _ via UnicodeIDContinue.

NOTE 3 The sets of code points with Unicode properties “ID_Start” and “ID_Continue”
include, respectively, the code points with Unicode properties “Other_ID_Start” and
“Other_ID_Continue”.

12.6.1 Identifier Names

12.6.1.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

IdentifierStart :: \ UnicodeEscapeSequence

It is a Syntax Error if the SV of UnicodeEscapeSequence is none of "$", or "_", or !

UTF16EncodeCodePoint(cp) for some Unicode code point cp matched by the UnicodeIDStart
lexical grammar production.

IdentifierPart :: \ UnicodeEscapeSequence

It is a Syntax Error if the SV of UnicodeEscapeSequence is none of "$", "_", !

UTF16EncodeCodePoint(<ZWNJ>), ! UTF16EncodeCodePoint(<ZWJ>), or !
UTF16EncodeCodePoint(cp) for some Unicode code point cp that would be matched by the
UnicodeIDContinue lexical grammar production.

12.6.2 Keywords and Reserved Words

A keyword is a token that matches IdentifierName, but also has a syntactic use; that is, it appears
literally, in a fixed width font, in some syntactic production. The keywords of ECMAScript
include if, while, async, await, and many others.

A reserved word is an IdentifierName that cannot be used as an identifier. Many keywords are
reserved words, but some are not, and some are reserved only in certain contexts. if and while are
reserved words. await is reserved only inside async functions and modules. async is not reserved;
it can be used as a variable name or statement label without restriction.

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This specification uses a combination of grammatical productions and early error rules to specify
which names are valid identifiers and which are reserved words. All tokens in the ReservedWord list
below, except for await and yield, are unconditionally reserved. Exceptions for await and
yield are specified in 13.1, using parameterized syntactic productions. Lastly, several early error
rules restrict the set of valid identifiers. See 13.1.1, 14.3.1.1, 14.7.5.1, and 15.7.1. In summary, there
are five categories of identifier names:

Those that are always allowed as identifiers, and are not keywords, such as Math, window,
toString, and _;

Those that are never allowed as identifiers, namely the ReservedWords listed below except
await and yield;

Those that are contextually allowed as identifiers, namely await and yield;

Those that are contextually disallowed as identifiers, in strict mode code: let, static,
implements, interface, package, private, protected, and public;

Those that are always allowed as identifiers, but also appear as keywords within certain
syntactic productions, at places where Identifier is not allowed: as, async, from, get, of,
set, and target.

The term conditional keyword, or contextual keyword, is sometimes used to refer to the keywords
that fall in the last three categories, and thus can be used as identifiers in some contexts and as
keywords in others.

Syntax

ReservedWord :: one of
await break case catch class const continue debugger
default delete do else enum export extends false finally
for function if import in instanceof new null return
super switch this throw true try typeof var void while
with yield

NOTE 1 Per 5.1.5, keywords in the grammar match literal sequences of specific
SourceCharacter elements. A code point in a keyword cannot be expressed by a \
UnicodeEscapeSequence.
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An IdentifierName can contain \ UnicodeEscapeSequences, but it is not possible to

declare a variable named "else" by spelling it els\u{65}. The early error rules in
13.1.1 rule out identifiers with the same StringValue as a reserved word.

NOTE 2 enum is not currently used as a keyword in this specification. It is a future reserved
word, set aside for use as a keyword in future language extensions.

Similarly, implements, interface, package, private, protected, and

public are future reserved words in strict mode code.

NOTE 3 The names arguments and eval are not keywords, but they are subject to some
restrictions in strict mode code. See 13.1.1, 8.5.4, 15.2.1, 15.5.1, 15.6.1, and 15.8.1.

12.7 Punctuators
Syntax

Punctuator ::
OptionalChainingPunctuator
OtherPunctuator

OptionalChainingPunctuator ::
?. [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]

OtherPunctuator :: one of
{ ( ) [ ] . ... ; , < > <= >= == != === !== + - * % ** ++ --
<< >> >>> & | ^ ! ~ && || ?? ? : = += -= *= %= **= <<= >>=
>>>= &= |= ^= &&= ||= ??= =>

DivPunctuator ::
/
/=

RightBracePunctuator ::

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12.8 Literals

12.8.1 Null Literals

Syntax

NullLiteral ::
null

12.8.2 Boolean Literals

Syntax

BooleanLiteral ::
true
false

12.8.3 Numeric Literals

Syntax

NumericLiteralSeparator ::
_

NumericLiteral ::
DecimalLiteral
DecimalBigIntegerLiteral
NonDecimalIntegerLiteral[+Sep]
NonDecimalIntegerLiteral[+Sep] BigIntLiteralSuffix

DecimalBigIntegerLiteral ::
0 BigIntLiteralSuffix

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NonZeroDigit DecimalDigits[+Sep] opt BigIntLiteralSuffix

NonZeroDigit NumericLiteralSeparator DecimalDigits[+Sep] BigIntLiteralSuffix

NonDecimalIntegerLiteral[Sep] ::
BinaryIntegerLiteral[?Sep]
OctalIntegerLiteral[?Sep]
HexIntegerLiteral[?Sep]

BigIntLiteralSuffix ::
n

DecimalLiteral ::
DecimalIntegerLiteral . DecimalDigits[+Sep] opt ExponentPart[+Sep] opt
. DecimalDigits[+Sep] ExponentPart[+Sep] opt
DecimalIntegerLiteral ExponentPart[+Sep] opt

DecimalIntegerLiteral ::
0
NonZeroDigit
NonZeroDigit NumericLiteralSeparatoropt DecimalDigits[+Sep]

DecimalDigits[Sep] ::
DecimalDigit
DecimalDigits[?Sep] DecimalDigit
[+Sep] DecimalDigits[+Sep] NumericLiteralSeparator DecimalDigit

DecimalDigit :: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

NonZeroDigit :: one of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

ExponentPart[Sep] ::
ExponentIndicator SignedInteger[?Sep]

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ExponentIndicator :: one of
e E

SignedInteger[Sep] ::
DecimalDigits[?Sep]
+ DecimalDigits[?Sep]
- DecimalDigits[?Sep]

BinaryIntegerLiteral[Sep] ::
0b BinaryDigits[?Sep]
0B BinaryDigits[?Sep]

BinaryDigits[Sep] ::
BinaryDigit
BinaryDigits[?Sep] BinaryDigit
[+Sep] BinaryDigits[+Sep] NumericLiteralSeparator BinaryDigit

BinaryDigit :: one of
0 1

OctalIntegerLiteral[Sep] ::
0o OctalDigits[?Sep]
0O OctalDigits[?Sep]

OctalDigits[Sep] ::
OctalDigit
OctalDigits[?Sep] OctalDigit
[+Sep] OctalDigits[+Sep] NumericLiteralSeparator OctalDigit

OctalDigit :: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

HexIntegerLiteral[Sep] ::
0x HexDigits[?Sep]
0X HexDigits[?Sep]
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HexDigits[Sep] ::
HexDigit
HexDigits[?Sep] HexDigit
[+Sep] HexDigits[+Sep] NumericLiteralSeparator HexDigit

HexDigit :: one of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a b c d e f A B C D E F

The SourceCharacter immediately following a NumericLiteral must not be an IdentifierStart or

DecimalDigit.

NOTE For example: 3in is an error and not the two input elements 3 and in.

A conforming implementation, when processing strict mode code, must not extend, as described in
B.1.1, the syntax of NumericLiteral to include LegacyOctalIntegerLiteral, nor extend the syntax of
DecimalIntegerLiteral to include NonOctalDecimalIntegerLiteral.

12.8.3.1 Static Semantics: MV

A numeric literal stands for a value of the Number type or the BigInt type.

The MV of NumericLiteral :: DecimalLiteral is the MV of DecimalLiteral.

The MV of NonDecimalIntegerLiteral :: BinaryIntegerLiteral is the MV of
BinaryIntegerLiteral.
The MV of NonDecimalIntegerLiteral :: OctalIntegerLiteral is the MV of
OctalIntegerLiteral.
The MV of NonDecimalIntegerLiteral :: HexIntegerLiteral is the MV of HexIntegerLiteral.
The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral . is the MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral.
The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral . DecimalDigits is the MV of
DecimalIntegerLiteral plus (the MV of DecimalDigits × 10-n), where n is the number of code
points in DecimalDigits, excluding all occurrences of NumericLiteralSeparator.
The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral . ExponentPart is the MV of
DecimalIntegerLiteral × 10e, where e is the MV of ExponentPart.
The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral . DecimalDigits ExponentPart is
(the MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral plus (the MV of DecimalDigits × 10-n)) × 10e, where n is
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the number of code points in DecimalDigits, excluding all occurrences of

NumericLiteralSeparator and e is the MV of ExponentPart.
The MV of DecimalLiteral :: . DecimalDigits is the MV of DecimalDigits × 10-n, where n
is the number of code points in DecimalDigits, excluding all occurrences of
NumericLiteralSeparator.
The MV of DecimalLiteral :: . DecimalDigits ExponentPart is the MV of DecimalDigits
× 10e - n, where n is the number of code points in DecimalDigits, excluding all occurrences of
NumericLiteralSeparator, and e is the MV of ExponentPart.
The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral is the MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral.
The MV of DecimalLiteral :: DecimalIntegerLiteral ExponentPart is the MV of
DecimalIntegerLiteral × 10e, where e is the MV of ExponentPart.
The MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral :: 0 is 0.
The MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral :: NonZeroDigit is the MV of NonZeroDigit.
The MV of DecimalIntegerLiteral :: NonZeroDigit NumericLiteralSeparatoropt
DecimalDigits is (the MV of NonZeroDigit × 10n) plus the MV of DecimalDigits, where n is
the number of code points in DecimalDigits, excluding all occurrences of
NumericLiteralSeparator.
The MV of DecimalDigits :: DecimalDigit is the MV of DecimalDigit.
The MV of DecimalDigits :: DecimalDigits DecimalDigit is (the MV of DecimalDigits ×
10) plus the MV of DecimalDigit.
The MV of DecimalDigits :: DecimalDigits NumericLiteralSeparator DecimalDigit is (the
MV of DecimalDigits × 10) plus the MV of DecimalDigit.
The MV of ExponentPart :: ExponentIndicator SignedInteger is the MV of SignedInteger.
The MV of SignedInteger :: DecimalDigits is the MV of DecimalDigits.
The MV of SignedInteger :: + DecimalDigits is the MV of DecimalDigits.
The MV of SignedInteger :: - DecimalDigits is the negative of the MV of DecimalDigits.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 0 or of HexDigit :: 0 or of OctalDigit :: 0 or of
BinaryDigit :: 0 is 0.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 1 or of NonZeroDigit :: 1 or of HexDigit :: 1 or of
OctalDigit :: 1 or of BinaryDigit :: 1 is 1.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 2 or of NonZeroDigit :: 2 or of HexDigit :: 2 or of
OctalDigit :: 2 is 2.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 3 or of NonZeroDigit :: 3 or of HexDigit :: 3 or of
OctalDigit :: 3 is 3.

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The MV of DecimalDigit :: 4 or of NonZeroDigit :: 4 or of HexDigit :: 4 or of

OctalDigit :: 4 is 4.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 5 or of NonZeroDigit :: 5 or of HexDigit :: 5 or of
OctalDigit :: 5 is 5.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 6 or of NonZeroDigit :: 6 or of HexDigit :: 6 or of
OctalDigit :: 6 is 6.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 7 or of NonZeroDigit :: 7 or of HexDigit :: 7 or of
OctalDigit :: 7 is 7.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 8 or of NonZeroDigit :: 8 or of HexDigit :: 8 is 8.
The MV of DecimalDigit :: 9 or of NonZeroDigit :: 9 or of HexDigit :: 9 is 9.
The MV of HexDigit :: a or of HexDigit :: A is 10.
The MV of HexDigit :: b or of HexDigit :: B is 11.
The MV of HexDigit :: c or of HexDigit :: C is 12.
The MV of HexDigit :: d or of HexDigit :: D is 13.
The MV of HexDigit :: e or of HexDigit :: E is 14.
The MV of HexDigit :: f or of HexDigit :: F is 15.
The MV of BinaryIntegerLiteral :: 0b BinaryDigits is the MV of BinaryDigits.
The MV of BinaryIntegerLiteral :: 0B BinaryDigits is the MV of BinaryDigits.
The MV of BinaryDigits :: BinaryDigit is the MV of BinaryDigit.
The MV of BinaryDigits :: BinaryDigits BinaryDigit is (the MV of BinaryDigits × 2) plus
the MV of BinaryDigit.
The MV of BinaryDigits :: BinaryDigits NumericLiteralSeparator BinaryDigit is (the MV
of BinaryDigits × 2) plus the MV of BinaryDigit.
The MV of OctalIntegerLiteral :: 0o OctalDigits is the MV of OctalDigits.
The MV of OctalIntegerLiteral :: 0O OctalDigits is the MV of OctalDigits.
The MV of OctalDigits :: OctalDigit is the MV of OctalDigit.
The MV of OctalDigits :: OctalDigits OctalDigit is (the MV of OctalDigits × 8) plus the
MV of OctalDigit.
The MV of OctalDigits :: OctalDigits NumericLiteralSeparator OctalDigit is (the MV of
OctalDigits × 8) plus the MV of OctalDigit.
The MV of HexIntegerLiteral :: 0x HexDigits is the MV of HexDigits.
The MV of HexIntegerLiteral :: 0X HexDigits is the MV of HexDigits.
The MV of HexDigits :: HexDigit is the MV of HexDigit.
The MV of HexDigits :: HexDigits HexDigit is (the MV of HexDigits × 16) plus the MV of
HexDigit.
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The MV of HexDigits :: HexDigits NumericLiteralSeparator HexDigit is (the MV of

HexDigits × 16) plus the MV of HexDigit.

12.8.3.2 Static Semantics: NumericValue

NumericLiteral :: DecimalLiteral

1. Return the Number value that results from rounding the MV of DecimalLiteral as described
below.

NumericLiteral :: NonDecimalIntegerLiteral

1. Return the Number value that results from rounding the MV of NonDecimalIntegerLiteral as
described below.

Once the exact MV for a numeric literal has been determined, it is then rounded to a value of the
Number type. If the MV is 0, then the rounded value is +0𝔽; otherwise, the rounded value must be
the Number value for the MV (as specified in 6.1.6.1), unless the literal is a DecimalLiteral and the
literal has more than 20 significant digits, in which case the Number value may be either the Number
value for the MV of a literal produced by replacing each significant digit after the 20th with a 0 digit
or the Number value for the MV of a literal produced by replacing each significant digit after the
20th with a 0 digit and then incrementing the literal at the 20th significant digit position. A digit is
significant if it is not part of an ExponentPart and

it is not 0; or
there is a non-zero digit to its left and there is a non-zero digit, not in the ExponentPart, to its
right.

NumericLiteral :: NonDecimalIntegerLiteral BigIntLiteralSuffix

1. Return the BigInt value that represents the MV of NonDecimalIntegerLiteral.

DecimalBigIntegerLiteral :: 0 BigIntLiteralSuffix

1. Return 0ℤ.

DecimalBigIntegerLiteral :: NonZeroDigit BigIntLiteralSuffix

1. Return the BigInt value that represents the MV of NonZeroDigit.

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DecimalBigIntegerLiteral ::
NonZeroDigit DecimalDigits BigIntLiteralSuffix
NonZeroDigit NumericLiteralSeparator DecimalDigits BigIntLiteralSuffix

1. Let n be the number of code points in DecimalDigits, excluding all occurrences of

NumericLiteralSeparator.
2. Let mv be (the MV of NonZeroDigit × 10) plus the MV of DecimalDigits.
3. Return ℤ(mv).

12.8.4 String Literals

NOTE 1 A string literal is 0 or more Unicode code points enclosed in single or double
quotes. Unicode code points may also be represented by an escape sequence. All
code points may appear literally in a string literal except for the closing quote code
points, U+005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS), U+000D (CARRIAGE RETURN), and
U+000A (LINE FEED). Any code points may appear in the form of an escape
sequence. String literals evaluate to ECMAScript String values. When generating
these String values Unicode code points are UTF-16 encoded as defined in 11.1.1.
Code points belonging to the Basic Multilingual Plane are encoded as a single code
unit element of the string. All other code points are encoded as two code unit
elements of the string.

Syntax

StringLiteral ::
" DoubleStringCharactersopt "
' SingleStringCharactersopt '

DoubleStringCharacters ::
DoubleStringCharacter DoubleStringCharactersopt

SingleStringCharacters ::
SingleStringCharacter SingleStringCharactersopt

DoubleStringCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not one of " or \ or LineTerminator
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<LS>
<PS>
\ EscapeSequence
LineContinuation

SingleStringCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not one of ' or \ or LineTerminator
<LS>
<PS>
\ EscapeSequence
LineContinuation

LineContinuation ::
\ LineTerminatorSequence

EscapeSequence ::
CharacterEscapeSequence
0 [lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]
HexEscapeSequence
UnicodeEscapeSequence

A conforming implementation, when processing strict mode code, must not extend the syntax of
EscapeSequence to include LegacyOctalEscapeSequence or NonOctalDecimalEscapeSequence as
described in B.1.2.

CharacterEscapeSequence ::
SingleEscapeCharacter
NonEscapeCharacter

SingleEscapeCharacter :: one of
' " \ b f n r t v

NonEscapeCharacter ::
SourceCharacter but not one of EscapeCharacter or LineTerminator

EscapeCharacter ::

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SingleEscapeCharacter
DecimalDigit
x
u

HexEscapeSequence ::
x HexDigit HexDigit

UnicodeEscapeSequence ::
u Hex4Digits
u{ CodePoint }

Hex4Digits ::
HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit

The definition of the nonterminal HexDigit is given in 12.8.3. SourceCharacter is defined in 11.1.

NOTE 2 <LF> and <CR> cannot appear in a string literal, except as part of a
LineContinuation to produce the empty code points sequence. The proper way to
include either in the String value of a string literal is to use an escape sequence such
as \n or \u000A.

12.8.4.1 Static Semantics: SV

A string literal stands for a value of the String type. The String value (SV) of the literal is described
in terms of String values contributed by the various parts of the string literal. As part of this process,
some Unicode code points within the string literal are interpreted as having a mathematical value
(MV), as described below or in 12.8.3.

The SV of StringLiteral :: " " is the empty String.

The SV of StringLiteral :: ' ' is the empty String.
The SV of DoubleStringCharacters :: DoubleStringCharacter DoubleStringCharacters is
the string-concatenation of the SV of DoubleStringCharacter and the SV of
DoubleStringCharacters.
The SV of SingleStringCharacters :: SingleStringCharacter SingleStringCharacters is the
string-concatenation of the SV of SingleStringCharacter and the SV of SingleStringCharacters
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.
The SV of DoubleStringCharacter :: SourceCharacter but not one of " or \ or
LineTerminator is the result of performing UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the code point value of
SourceCharacter.
The SV of DoubleStringCharacter :: <LS> is the String value consisting of the code unit
0x2028 (LINE SEPARATOR).
The SV of DoubleStringCharacter :: <PS> is the String value consisting of the code unit
0x2029 (PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR).
The SV of DoubleStringCharacter :: LineContinuation is the empty String.
The SV of SingleStringCharacter :: SourceCharacter but not one of ' or \ or
LineTerminator is the result of performing UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the code point value of
SourceCharacter.
The SV of SingleStringCharacter :: <LS> is the String value consisting of the code unit
0x2028 (LINE SEPARATOR).
The SV of SingleStringCharacter :: <PS> is the String value consisting of the code unit
0x2029 (PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR).
The SV of SingleStringCharacter :: LineContinuation is the empty String.
The SV of EscapeSequence :: 0 is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x0000
(NULL).
The SV of CharacterEscapeSequence :: SingleEscapeCharacter is the String value
consisting of the code unit whose value is determined by the SingleEscapeCharacter according
to Table 37.

Table 37: String Single Character Escape Sequences

Escape Sequence Code Unit Value Unicode Character Name Symbol

\b 0x0008 BACKSPACE <BS>

\t 0x0009 CHARACTER TABULATION <HT>

\n 0x000A LINE FEED (LF) <LF>

\v 0x000B LINE TABULATION <VT>

\f 0x000C FORM FEED (FF) <FF>

\r 0x000D CARRIAGE RETURN (CR) <CR>

\" 0x0022 QUOTATION MARK "

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\' 0x0027 APOSTROPHE '

\\ 0x005C REVERSE SOLIDUS \

The SV of NonEscapeCharacter :: SourceCharacter but not one of EscapeCharacter or

LineTerminator is the result of performing UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the code point value of
SourceCharacter.
The SV of HexEscapeSequence :: x HexDigit HexDigit is the String value consisting of the
code unit whose value is the MV of HexEscapeSequence.
The SV of Hex4Digits :: HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit is the String value
consisting of the code unit whose value is the MV of Hex4Digits.
The SV of UnicodeEscapeSequence :: u{ CodePoint } is the result of performing
UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the MV of CodePoint.

12.8.4.2 Static Semantics: MV

The MV of HexEscapeSequence :: x HexDigit HexDigit is (16 times the MV of the first

HexDigit) plus the MV of the second HexDigit.
The MV of Hex4Digits :: HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit is (0x1000 × the MV of
the first HexDigit) plus (0x100 × the MV of the second HexDigit) plus (0x10 × the MV of the
third HexDigit) plus the MV of the fourth HexDigit.

12.8.5 Regular Expression Literals

NOTE 1 A regular expression literal is an input element that is converted to a RegExp object
(see 22.2) each time the literal is evaluated. Two regular expression literals in a
program evaluate to regular expression objects that never compare as === to each
other even if the two literals' contents are identical. A RegExp object may also be
created at runtime by new RegExp or calling the RegExp constructor as a function
(see 22.2.3).

The productions below describe the syntax for a regular expression literal and are used by the input
element scanner to find the end of the regular expression literal. The source text comprising the

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RegularExpressionBody and the RegularExpressionFlags are subsequently parsed again using the
more stringent ECMAScript Regular Expression grammar (22.2.1).

An implementation may extend the ECMAScript Regular Expression grammar defined in 22.2.1, but
it must not extend the RegularExpressionBody and RegularExpressionFlags productions defined
below or the productions used by these productions.

Syntax

RegularExpressionLiteral ::
/ RegularExpressionBody / RegularExpressionFlags

RegularExpressionBody ::
RegularExpressionFirstChar RegularExpressionChars

RegularExpressionChars ::
[empty]
RegularExpressionChars RegularExpressionChar

RegularExpressionFirstChar ::
RegularExpressionNonTerminator but not one of * or \ or / or [
RegularExpressionBackslashSequence
RegularExpressionClass

RegularExpressionChar ::
RegularExpressionNonTerminator but not one of \ or / or [
RegularExpressionBackslashSequence
RegularExpressionClass

RegularExpressionBackslashSequence ::
\ RegularExpressionNonTerminator

RegularExpressionNonTerminator ::
SourceCharacter but not LineTerminator

RegularExpressionClass ::
[ RegularExpressionClassChars ]

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RegularExpressionClassChars ::
[empty]
RegularExpressionClassChars RegularExpressionClassChar

RegularExpressionClassChar ::
RegularExpressionNonTerminator but not one of ] or \
RegularExpressionBackslashSequence

RegularExpressionFlags ::
[empty]
RegularExpressionFlags IdentifierPart

NOTE 2 Regular expression literals may not be empty; instead of representing an empty
regular expression literal, the code unit sequence // starts a single-line comment.
To specify an empty regular expression, use: /(?:)/.

12.8.5.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

RegularExpressionFlags :: RegularExpressionFlags IdentifierPart

It is a Syntax Error if IdentifierPart contains a Unicode escape sequence.

12.8.5.2 Static Semantics: BodyText

RegularExpressionLiteral :: / RegularExpressionBody / RegularExpressionFlags

1. Return the source text that was recognized as RegularExpressionBody.

12.8.5.3 Static Semantics: FlagText

RegularExpressionLiteral :: / RegularExpressionBody / RegularExpressionFlags

1. Return the source text that was recognized as RegularExpressionFlags.

12.8.6 Template Literal Lexical Components

Syntax

Template ::
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NoSubstitutionTemplate
TemplateHead

NoSubstitutionTemplate ::
` TemplateCharactersopt `

TemplateHead ::
` TemplateCharactersopt ${

TemplateSubstitutionTail ::
TemplateMiddle
TemplateTail

TemplateMiddle ::
} TemplateCharactersopt ${

TemplateTail ::
} TemplateCharactersopt `

TemplateCharacters ::
TemplateCharacter TemplateCharactersopt

TemplateCharacter ::
$ [lookahead ≠ {]
\ EscapeSequence
\ NotEscapeSequence
LineContinuation
LineTerminatorSequence
SourceCharacter but not one of ` or \ or $ or LineTerminator

NotEscapeSequence ::
0 DecimalDigit
DecimalDigit but not 0
x [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
x HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]

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u [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] [lookahead ≠ {]

u HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u HexDigit HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u { [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u { NotCodePoint [lookahead ∉ HexDigit]
u { CodePoint [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] [lookahead ≠ }]

NotCodePoint ::
HexDigits[~Sep] but only if MV of HexDigits > 0x10FFFF

CodePoint ::
HexDigits[~Sep] but only if MV of HexDigits ≤ 0x10FFFF

A conforming implementation must not use the extended definition of EscapeSequence described in
B.1.2 when parsing a TemplateCharacter.

NOTE TemplateSubstitutionTail is used by the InputElementTemplateTail alternative lexical

goal.

12.8.6.1 Static Semantics: TV and TRV

A template literal component is interpreted as a sequence of Unicode code points. The Template
Value (TV) of a literal component is described in terms of String values (SV, 12.8.4) contributed by
the various parts of the template literal component. As part of this process, some Unicode code
points within the template component are interpreted as having a mathematical value (MV, 12.8.3).
In determining a TV, escape sequences are replaced by the UTF-16 code unit(s) of the Unicode code
point represented by the escape sequence. The Template Raw Value (TRV) is similar to a Template
Value with the difference that in TRVs escape sequences are interpreted literally.

The TV and TRV of NoSubstitutionTemplate :: ` ` is the empty String.

The TV and TRV of TemplateHead :: ` ${ is the empty String.
The TV and TRV of TemplateMiddle :: } ${ is the empty String.
The TV and TRV of TemplateTail :: } ` is the empty String.

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The TV of TemplateCharacters :: TemplateCharacter TemplateCharacters is undefined if

either the TV of TemplateCharacter is undefined or the TV of TemplateCharacters is
undefined. Otherwise, it is the string-concatenation of the TV of TemplateCharacter and the
TV of TemplateCharacters.
The TV of TemplateCharacter :: SourceCharacter but not one of ` or \ or $ or
LineTerminator is the result of performing UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the code point value of
SourceCharacter.
The TV of TemplateCharacter :: $ is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x0024
(DOLLAR SIGN).
The TV of TemplateCharacter :: \ EscapeSequence is the SV of EscapeSequence.
The TV of TemplateCharacter :: \ NotEscapeSequence is undefined.
The TV of TemplateCharacter :: LineTerminatorSequence is the TRV of
LineTerminatorSequence.
The TV of LineContinuation :: \ LineTerminatorSequence is the empty String.
The TRV of TemplateCharacters :: TemplateCharacter TemplateCharacters is the string-
concatenation of the TRV of TemplateCharacter and the TRV of TemplateCharacters.
The TRV of TemplateCharacter :: SourceCharacter but not one of ` or \ or $ or
LineTerminator is the result of performing UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the code point value of
SourceCharacter.
The TRV of TemplateCharacter :: $ is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x0024
(DOLLAR SIGN).
The TRV of TemplateCharacter :: \ EscapeSequence is the string-concatenation of the
code unit 0x005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS) and the TRV of EscapeSequence.
The TRV of TemplateCharacter :: \ NotEscapeSequence is the string-concatenation of the
code unit 0x005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS) and the TRV of NotEscapeSequence.
The TRV of EscapeSequence :: 0 is the String value consisting of the code unit 0x0030
(DIGIT ZERO).
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: 0 DecimalDigit is the string-concatenation of the code
unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO) and the TRV of DecimalDigit.
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: x [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] is the String value consisting
of the code unit 0x0078 (LATIN SMALL LETTER X).
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: x HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] is the string-
concatenation of the code unit 0x0078 (LATIN SMALL LETTER X) and the TRV of HexDigit.
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: u [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] [lookahead ≠ {] is the
String value consisting of the code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U).

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The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: u HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] is the string-

concatenation of the code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U) and the TRV of HexDigit.
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: u HexDigit HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] is the
string-concatenation of the code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U), the TRV of the
first HexDigit, and the TRV of the second HexDigit.
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: u HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit [lookahead ∉ HexDigit
] is the string-concatenation of the code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U), the TRV
of the first HexDigit, the TRV of the second HexDigit, and the TRV of the third HexDigit.
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: u { [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] is the string-
concatenation of the code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U) and the code unit 0x007B
(LEFT CURLY BRACKET).
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: u { NotCodePoint [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] is the
string-concatenation of the code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U), the code unit
0x007B (LEFT CURLY BRACKET), and the TRV of NotCodePoint.
The TRV of NotEscapeSequence :: u { CodePoint [lookahead ∉ HexDigit] [lookahead ≠
}] is the string-concatenation of the code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U), the code
unit 0x007B (LEFT CURLY BRACKET), and the TRV of CodePoint.
The TRV of DecimalDigit :: one of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 is the result of performing
UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the single code point matched by this production.
The TRV of CharacterEscapeSequence :: NonEscapeCharacter is the SV of
NonEscapeCharacter.
The TRV of SingleEscapeCharacter :: one of ' " \ b f n r t v is the result of
performing UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the single code point matched by this production.
The TRV of HexEscapeSequence :: x HexDigit HexDigit is the string-concatenation of the
code unit 0x0078 (LATIN SMALL LETTER X), the TRV of the first HexDigit, and the TRV of
the second HexDigit.
The TRV of UnicodeEscapeSequence :: u Hex4Digits is the string-concatenation of the
code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U) and the TRV of Hex4Digits.
The TRV of UnicodeEscapeSequence :: u{ CodePoint } is the string-concatenation of the
code unit 0x0075 (LATIN SMALL LETTER U), the code unit 0x007B (LEFT CURLY
BRACKET), the TRV of CodePoint, and the code unit 0x007D (RIGHT CURLY BRACKET).
The TRV of Hex4Digits :: HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit HexDigit is the string-
concatenation of the TRV of the first HexDigit, the TRV of the second HexDigit, the TRV of
the third HexDigit, and the TRV of the fourth HexDigit.

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The TRV of HexDigits :: HexDigits HexDigit is the string-concatenation of the TRV of

HexDigits and the TRV of HexDigit.
The TRV of HexDigit :: one of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a b c d e f A B C D E
F is the result of performing UTF16EncodeCodePoint on the single code point matched by
this production.
The TRV of LineContinuation :: \ LineTerminatorSequence is the string-concatenation of
the code unit 0x005C (REVERSE SOLIDUS) and the TRV of LineTerminatorSequence.
The TRV of LineTerminatorSequence :: <LF> is the String value consisting of the code unit
0x000A (LINE FEED).
The TRV of LineTerminatorSequence :: <CR> is the String value consisting of the code unit
0x000A (LINE FEED).
The TRV of LineTerminatorSequence :: <LS> is the String value consisting of the code unit
0x2028 (LINE SEPARATOR).
The TRV of LineTerminatorSequence :: <PS> is the String value consisting of the code unit
0x2029 (PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR).
The TRV of LineTerminatorSequence :: <CR> <LF> is the String value consisting of the
code unit 0x000A (LINE FEED).

NOTE TV excludes the code units of LineContinuation while TRV includes them. <CR>
<LF> and <CR> LineTerminatorSequences are normalized to <LF> for both TV and
TRV. An explicit EscapeSequence is needed to include a <CR> or <CR><LF>
sequence.

12.9 Automatic Semicolon Insertion

Most ECMAScript statements and declarations must be terminated with a semicolon. Such
semicolons may always appear explicitly in the source text. For convenience, however, such
semicolons may be omitted from the source text in certain situations. These situations are described
by saying that semicolons are automatically inserted into the source code token stream in those
situations.

12.9.1 Rules of Automatic Semicolon Insertion

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In the following rules, “token” means the actual recognized lexical token determined using the
current lexical goal symbol as described in clause 12.

There are three basic rules of semicolon insertion:

1. When, as the source text is parsed from left to right, a token (called the offending token) is
encountered that is not allowed by any production of the grammar, then a semicolon is
automatically inserted before the offending token if one or more of the following conditions is
true:

The offending token is separated from the previous token by at least one LineTerminator.
The offending token is }.
The previous token is ) and the inserted semicolon would then be parsed as the
terminating semicolon of a do-while statement (14.7.2).
2. When, as the source text is parsed from left to right, the end of the input stream of tokens is
encountered and the parser is unable to parse the input token stream as a single instance of the
goal nonterminal, then a semicolon is automatically inserted at the end of the input stream.
3. When, as the source text is parsed from left to right, a token is encountered that is allowed by
some production of the grammar, but the production is a restricted production and the token
would be the first token for a terminal or nonterminal immediately following the annotation
“[no LineTerminator here]” within the restricted production (and therefore such a token is
called a restricted token), and the restricted token is separated from the previous token by at
least one LineTerminator, then a semicolon is automatically inserted before the restricted token.

However, there is an additional overriding condition on the preceding rules: a semicolon is never
inserted automatically if the semicolon would then be parsed as an empty statement or if that
semicolon would become one of the two semicolons in the header of a for statement (see 14.7.4).

NOTE The following are the only restricted productions in the grammar:

UpdateExpression[Yield, Await] :
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here]
++
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here]
--
ContinueStatement[Yield, Await] :
continue ;
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continue [no LineTerminator here] LabelIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]

;
BreakStatement[Yield, Await] :
break ;
break [no LineTerminator here] LabelIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ;
ReturnStatement[Yield, Await] :
return ;
return [no LineTerminator here] Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
;
ThrowStatement[Yield, Await] :
throw [no LineTerminator here] Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
;
ArrowFunction[In, Yield, Await] :
ArrowParameters[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here] =>
ConciseBody[?In]
YieldExpression[In, Await] :
yield
yield [no LineTerminator here]
AssignmentExpression[?In, +Yield, ?Await]
yield [no LineTerminator here] *
AssignmentExpression[?In, +Yield, ?Await]

The practical effect of these restricted productions is as follows:

When a ++ or -- token is encountered where the parser would treat it as a

postfix operator, and at least one LineTerminator occurred between the
preceding token and the ++ or -- token, then a semicolon is automatically
inserted before the ++ or -- token.
When a continue, break, return, throw, or yield token is
encountered and a LineTerminator is encountered before the next token, a
semicolon is automatically inserted after the continue, break, return,
throw, or yield token.

The resulting practical advice to ECMAScript programmers is:

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A postfix ++ or -- operator should appear on the same line as its operand.

An Expression in a return or throw statement or an AssignmentExpression
in a yield expression should start on the same line as the return, throw,
or yield token.
A LabelIdentifier in a break or continue statement should be on the same
line as the break or continue token.

12.9.2 Examples of Automatic Semicolon Insertion

This section is non-normative.

The source

{ 1 2 } 3

is not a valid sentence in the ECMAScript grammar, even with the automatic semicolon insertion
rules. In contrast, the source

{ 1
2 } 3

is also not a valid ECMAScript sentence, but is transformed by automatic semicolon insertion into
the following:

{ 1
;2 ;} 3;

which is a valid ECMAScript sentence.

The source

for (a; b
)

is not a valid ECMAScript sentence and is not altered by automatic semicolon insertion because the
semicolon is needed for the header of a for statement. Automatic semicolon insertion never inserts
one of the two semicolons in the header of a for statement.

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The source

return
a + b

is transformed by automatic semicolon insertion into the following:

return;
a + b;

NOTE 1 The expression a + b is not treated as a value to be returned by the return

statement, because a LineTerminator separates it from the token return.

The source

a = b
++c

is transformed by automatic semicolon insertion into the following:

a = b;
++c;

NOTE 2 The token ++ is not treated as a postfix operator applying to the variable b, because
a LineTerminator occurs between b and ++.

The source

if (a > b)
else c = d

is not a valid ECMAScript sentence and is not altered by automatic semicolon insertion before the
else token, even though no production of the grammar applies at that point, because an
automatically inserted semicolon would then be parsed as an empty statement.

The source

a = b + c
(d + e).print()
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is not transformed by automatic semicolon insertion, because the parenthesized expression that
begins the second line can be interpreted as an argument list for a function call:

a = b + c(d + e).print()

In the circumstance that an assignment statement must begin with a left parenthesis, it is a good idea
for the programmer to provide an explicit semicolon at the end of the preceding statement rather than
to rely on automatic semicolon insertion.

12.9.3 Interesting Cases of Automatic Semicolon Insertion

This section is non-normative.

ECMAScript programs can be written in a style with very few semicolons by relying on automatic
semicolon insertion. As described above, semicolons are not inserted at every newline, and
automatic semicolon insertion can depend on multiple tokens across line terminators.

As new syntactic features are added to ECMAScript, additional grammar productions could be added
that cause lines relying on automatic semicolon insertion preceding them to change grammar
productions when parsed.

For the purposes of this section, a case of automatic semicolon insertion is considered interesting if it
is a place where a semicolon may or may not be inserted, depending on the source text which
precedes it. The rest of this section describes a number of interesting cases of automatic semicolon
insertion in this version of ECMAScript.

12.9.3.1 Interesting Cases of Automatic Semicolon Insertion in Statement Lists

In a StatementList, many StatementListItems end in semicolons, which may be omitted using

automatic semicolon insertion. As a consequence of the rules above, at the end of a line ending an
expression, a semicolon is required if the following line begins with any of the following:

An opening parenthesis ((). Without a semicolon, the two lines together are treated as a
CallExpression.
An opening square bracket ([). Without a semicolon, the two lines together are treated as
property access, rather than an ArrayLiteral or ArrayAssignmentPattern.
A template literal (`). Without a semicolon, the two lines together are interpreted as a tagged
Template (13.3.11), with the previous expression as the MemberExpression.

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Unary + or -. Without a semicolon, the two lines together are interpreted as a usage of the
corresponding binary operator.
A RegExp literal. Without a semicolon, the two lines together may be parsed instead as the /
MultiplicativeOperator, for example if the RegExp has flags.

12.9.3.2 Cases of Automatic Semicolon Insertion and “[no LineTerminator here]”

This section is non-normative.

ECMAScript contains grammar productions which include “[no LineTerminator here]”. These
productions are sometimes a means to have optional operands in the grammar. Introducing a
LineTerminator in these locations would change the grammar production of a source text by using
the grammar production without the optional operand.

The rest of this section describes a number of productions using “[no LineTerminator here]” in this
version of ECMAScript.

12.9.3.2.1 List of Grammar Productions with Optional Operands and “[no LineTerminator
here]”

UpdateExpression.
ContinueStatement.
BreakStatement.
ReturnStatement.
YieldExpression.
Async Function Definitions (15.8) with relation to Function Definitions (15.2)

13 ECMAScript Language: Expressions

13.1 Identifiers
Syntax

IdentifierReference[Yield, Await] :
Identifier

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[~Yield] yield

[~Await] await

BindingIdentifier[Yield, Await] :
Identifier
yield
await

LabelIdentifier[Yield, Await] :
Identifier
[~Yield] yield

[~Await] await

Identifier :
IdentifierName but not ReservedWord

NOTE yield and await are permitted as BindingIdentifier in the grammar, and
prohibited with static semantics below, to prohibit automatic semicolon insertion in
cases such as

let
await 0;

13.1.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

BindingIdentifier : Identifier

It is a Syntax Error if the code matched by this production is contained in strict mode code and
the StringValue of Identifier is "arguments" or "eval".

IdentifierReference : yield
BindingIdentifier : yield
LabelIdentifier : yield

It is a Syntax Error if the code matched by this production is contained in strict mode code.

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IdentifierReference : await
BindingIdentifier : await
LabelIdentifier : await

It is a Syntax Error if the goal symbol of the syntactic grammar is Module.

BindingIdentifier[Yield, Await] : yield

It is a Syntax Error if this production has a [Yield] parameter.

BindingIdentifier[Yield, Await] : await

It is a Syntax Error if this production has an [Await] parameter.

IdentifierReference[Yield, Await] : Identifier

BindingIdentifier[Yield, Await] : Identifier
LabelIdentifier[Yield, Await] : Identifier

It is a Syntax Error if this production has a [Yield] parameter and StringValue of Identifier is
"yield".
It is a Syntax Error if this production has an [Await] parameter and StringValue of Identifier is
"await".

Identifier : IdentifierName but not ReservedWord

It is a Syntax Error if this phrase is contained in strict mode code and the StringValue of
IdentifierName is: "implements", "interface", "let", "package", "private", "protected",
"public", "static", or "yield".
It is a Syntax Error if the goal symbol of the syntactic grammar is Module and the StringValue
of IdentifierName is "await".
It is a Syntax Error if StringValue of IdentifierName is the same String value as the StringValue
of any ReservedWord except for yield or await.

NOTE StringValue of IdentifierName normalizes any Unicode escape sequences in

IdentifierName hence such escapes cannot be used to write an Identifier whose code
point sequence is the same as a ReservedWord.

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13.1.2 Static Semantics: StringValue

IdentifierName ::
IdentifierStart
IdentifierName IdentifierPart

1. Let idText be the source text matched by IdentifierName.

2. Let idTextUnescaped be the result of replacing any occurrences of \ UnicodeEscapeSequence
in idText with the code point represented by the UnicodeEscapeSequence.
3. Return ! CodePointsToString(idTextUnescaped).

IdentifierReference : yield
BindingIdentifier : yield
LabelIdentifier : yield

1. Return "yield".

IdentifierReference : await
BindingIdentifier : await
LabelIdentifier : await

1. Return "await".

Identifier : IdentifierName but not ReservedWord

1. Return the StringValue of IdentifierName.

13.1.3 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

IdentifierReference : Identifier

1. Return ? ResolveBinding(StringValue of Identifier).

IdentifierReference : yield

1. Return ? ResolveBinding("yield").

IdentifierReference : await

1. Return ? ResolveBinding("await").

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NOTE 1 The result of evaluating an IdentifierReference is always a value of type Reference.

NOTE 2 In non-strict code, the keyword yield may be used as an identifier. Evaluating the
IdentifierReference resolves the binding of yield as if it was an Identifier. Early
Error restriction ensures that such an evaluation only can occur for non-strict code.

13.2 Primary Expression

Syntax

PrimaryExpression[Yield, Await] :
this
IdentifierReference[?Yield, ?Await]
Literal
ArrayLiteral[?Yield, ?Await]
ObjectLiteral[?Yield, ?Await]
FunctionExpression
ClassExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
GeneratorExpression
AsyncFunctionExpression
AsyncGeneratorExpression
RegularExpressionLiteral
TemplateLiteral[?Yield, ?Await, ~Tagged]
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList[?Yield, ?Await]

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList[Yield, Await] :
( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] , )
( )
( ... BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] )
( ... BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] )

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( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] , ...

BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] )
( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] , ...
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] )

Supplemental Syntax

When processing an instance of the production

PrimaryExpression[Yield, Await] :
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList[?Yield, ?Await]
the interpretation of CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList is refined using the
following grammar:

ParenthesizedExpression[Yield, Await] :
( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )

13.2.1 The this Keyword

13.2.1.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

PrimaryExpression : this

1. Return ? ResolveThisBinding().

13.2.2 Identifier Reference

See 13.1 for IdentifierReference.

13.2.3 Literals
Syntax

Literal :
NullLiteral
BooleanLiteral
NumericLiteral
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StringLiteral

13.2.3.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

Literal : NullLiteral

1. Return null.

Literal : BooleanLiteral

1. If BooleanLiteral is the token false, return false.

2. If BooleanLiteral is the token true, return true.

Literal : NumericLiteral

1. Return the NumericValue of NumericLiteral as defined in 12.8.3.

Literal : StringLiteral

1. Return the SV of StringLiteral as defined in 12.8.4.1.

13.2.4 Array Initializer

NOTE An ArrayLiteral is an expression describing the initialization of an Array object,

using a list, of zero or more expressions each of which represents an array element,
enclosed in square brackets. The elements need not be literals; they are evaluated
each time the array initializer is evaluated.

Array elements may be elided at the beginning, middle or end of the element list. Whenever a
comma in the element list is not preceded by an AssignmentExpression (i.e., a comma at the
beginning or after another comma), the missing array element contributes to the length of the Array
and increases the index of subsequent elements. Elided array elements are not defined. If an element
is elided at the end of an array, that element does not contribute to the length of the Array.

Syntax

ArrayLiteral[Yield, Await] :
[ Elisionopt ]

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[ ElementList[?Yield, ?Await] ]
[ ElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , Elisionopt ]

ElementList[Yield, Await] :
Elisionopt AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
Elisionopt SpreadElement[?Yield, ?Await]
ElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , Elisionopt
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
ElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , Elisionopt
SpreadElement[?Yield, ?Await]

Elision :
,
Elision ,

SpreadElement[Yield, Await] :
... AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

13.2.4.1 Runtime Semantics: ArrayAccumulation

With parameters array and nextIndex.

Elision : ,

1. Let len be nextIndex + 1.

2. Perform ? Set(array, "length", 𝔽(len), true).
3. NOTE: The above Set throws if len exceeds 232-1.
4. Return len.

Elision : Elision ,

1. Return the result of performing ArrayAccumulation for Elision with arguments array and
nextIndex + 1.

ElementList : Elisionopt AssignmentExpression

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1. If Elision is present, then

a. Set nextIndex to the result of performing ArrayAccumulation for Elision with arguments
array and nextIndex.
b. ReturnIfAbrupt(nextIndex).
2. Let initResult be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.
3. Let initValue be ? GetValue(initResult).
4. Let created be ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(array, ! ToString(𝔽(nextIndex)), initValue).
5. Return nextIndex + 1.

ElementList : Elisionopt SpreadElement

1. If Elision is present, then

a. Set nextIndex to the result of performing ArrayAccumulation for Elision with arguments
array and nextIndex.
b. ReturnIfAbrupt(nextIndex).
2. Return the result of performing ArrayAccumulation for SpreadElement with arguments array
and nextIndex.

ElementList : ElementList , Elisionopt AssignmentExpression

1. Set nextIndex to the result of performing ArrayAccumulation for ElementList with arguments
array and nextIndex.
2. ReturnIfAbrupt(nextIndex).
3. If Elision is present, then
a. Set nextIndex to the result of performing ArrayAccumulation for Elision with arguments
array and nextIndex.
b. ReturnIfAbrupt(nextIndex).
4. Let initResult be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.
5. Let initValue be ? GetValue(initResult).
6. Let created be ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(array, ! ToString(𝔽(nextIndex)), initValue).
7. Return nextIndex + 1.

ElementList : ElementList , Elisionopt SpreadElement

1. Set nextIndex to the result of performing ArrayAccumulation for ElementList with arguments
array and nextIndex.
2. ReturnIfAbrupt(nextIndex).
3. If Elision is present, then
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a. Set nextIndex to the result of performing ArrayAccumulation for Elision with arguments
array and nextIndex.
b. ReturnIfAbrupt(nextIndex).
4. Return the result of performing ArrayAccumulation for SpreadElement with arguments array
and nextIndex.

SpreadElement : ... AssignmentExpression

1. Let spreadRef be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.

2. Let spreadObj be ? GetValue(spreadRef).
3. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(spreadObj).
4. Repeat,
a. Let next be ? IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is false, return nextIndex.
c. Let nextValue be ? IteratorValue(next).
d. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(array, ! ToString(𝔽(nextIndex)), nextValue).
e. Set nextIndex to nextIndex + 1.

NOTE CreateDataPropertyOrThrow is used to ensure that own properties are defined for
the array even if the standard built-in Array prototype object has been modified in a
manner that would preclude the creation of new own properties using [[Set]].

13.2.4.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ArrayLiteral : [ Elisionopt ]

1. Let array be ! ArrayCreate(0).

2. If Elision is present, then
a. Let len be the result of performing ArrayAccumulation for Elision with arguments array
and 0.
b. ReturnIfAbrupt(len).
3. Return array.

ArrayLiteral : [ ElementList ]

1. Let array be ! ArrayCreate(0).

2. Let len be the result of performing ArrayAccumulation for ElementList with arguments array
and 0.
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3. ReturnIfAbrupt(len).
4. Return array.

ArrayLiteral : [ ElementList , Elisionopt ]

1. Let array be ! ArrayCreate(0).

2. Let nextIndex be the result of performing ArrayAccumulation for ElementList with arguments
array and 0.
3. ReturnIfAbrupt(nextIndex).
4. If Elision is present, then
a. Let len be the result of performing ArrayAccumulation for Elision with arguments array
and nextIndex.
b. ReturnIfAbrupt(len).
5. Return array.

13.2.5 Object Initializer

NOTE 1 An object initializer is an expression describing the initialization of an Object,

written in a form resembling a literal. It is a list of zero or more pairs of property
keys and associated values, enclosed in curly brackets. The values need not be
literals; they are evaluated each time the object initializer is evaluated.

Syntax

ObjectLiteral[Yield, Await] :
{ }
{ PropertyDefinitionList[?Yield, ?Await] }
{ PropertyDefinitionList[?Yield, ?Await] , }

PropertyDefinitionList[Yield, Await] :
PropertyDefinition[?Yield, ?Await]
PropertyDefinitionList[?Yield, ?Await] ,
PropertyDefinition[?Yield, ?Await]

PropertyDefinition[Yield, Await] :

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IdentifierReference[?Yield, ?Await]
CoverInitializedName[?Yield, ?Await]
PropertyName[?Yield, ?Await] :
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
MethodDefinition[?Yield, ?Await]
... AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

PropertyName[Yield, Await] :
LiteralPropertyName
ComputedPropertyName[?Yield, ?Await]

LiteralPropertyName :
IdentifierName
StringLiteral
NumericLiteral

ComputedPropertyName[Yield, Await] :
[ AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]

CoverInitializedName[Yield, Await] :
IdentifierReference[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

Initializer[In, Yield, Await] :

= AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

NOTE 2 MethodDefinition is defined in 15.4.

NOTE 3 In certain contexts, ObjectLiteral is used as a cover grammar for a more restricted
secondary grammar. The CoverInitializedName production is necessary to fully
cover these secondary grammars. However, use of this production results in an early
Syntax Error in normal contexts where an actual ObjectLiteral is expected.

13.2.5.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

PropertyDefinition : MethodDefinition
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It is a Syntax Error if HasDirectSuper of MethodDefinition is true.

In addition to describing an actual object initializer the ObjectLiteral productions are also used as a
cover grammar for ObjectAssignmentPattern and may be recognized as part of a
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList. When ObjectLiteral appears in a context
where ObjectAssignmentPattern is required the following Early Error rules are not applied. In
addition, they are not applied when initially parsing a
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList or
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead.

PropertyDefinition : CoverInitializedName

Always throw a Syntax Error if code matches this production.

NOTE This production exists so that ObjectLiteral can serve as a cover grammar for
ObjectAssignmentPattern. It cannot occur in an actual object initializer.

13.2.5.2 Static Semantics: IsComputedPropertyKey

PropertyName : LiteralPropertyName

1. Return false.

PropertyName : ComputedPropertyName

1. Return true.

13.2.5.3 Static Semantics: PropertyNameList

PropertyDefinitionList : PropertyDefinition

1. If PropName of PropertyDefinition is empty, return a new empty List.

2. Return a List whose sole element is PropName of PropertyDefinition.

PropertyDefinitionList : PropertyDefinitionList , PropertyDefinition

1. Let list be PropertyNameList of PropertyDefinitionList.

2. If PropName of PropertyDefinition is empty, return list.
3. Append PropName of PropertyDefinition to the end of list.
4. Return list.
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13.2.5.4 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ObjectLiteral : { }

1. Return ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(%Object.prototype%).

ObjectLiteral :
{ PropertyDefinitionList }
{ PropertyDefinitionList , }

1. Let obj be ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(%Object.prototype%).

2. Perform ? PropertyDefinitionEvaluation of PropertyDefinitionList with arguments obj and
true.
3. Return obj.

LiteralPropertyName : IdentifierName

1. Return StringValue of IdentifierName.

LiteralPropertyName : StringLiteral

1. Return the SV of StringLiteral.

LiteralPropertyName : NumericLiteral

1. Let nbr be the NumericValue of NumericLiteral.

2. Return ! ToString(nbr).

ComputedPropertyName : [ AssignmentExpression ]

1. Let exprValue be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.

2. Let propName be ? GetValue(exprValue).
3. Return ? ToPropertyKey(propName).

13.2.5.5 Runtime Semantics: PropertyDefinitionEvaluation

With parameters object and enumerable.

PropertyDefinitionList : PropertyDefinitionList , PropertyDefinition

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1. Perform ? PropertyDefinitionEvaluation of PropertyDefinitionList with arguments object and

enumerable.
2. Return the result of performing PropertyDefinitionEvaluation of PropertyDefinition with
arguments object and enumerable.

PropertyDefinition : ... AssignmentExpression

1. Let exprValue be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.

2. Let fromValue be ? GetValue(exprValue).
3. Let excludedNames be a new empty List.
4. Return ? CopyDataProperties(object, fromValue, excludedNames).

PropertyDefinition : IdentifierReference

1. Let propName be StringValue of IdentifierReference.

2. Let exprValue be the result of evaluating IdentifierReference.
3. Let propValue be ? GetValue(exprValue).
4. Assert: enumerable is true.
5. Assert: object is an ordinary, extensible object with no non-configurable properties.
6. Return ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(object, propName, propValue).

PropertyDefinition : PropertyName : AssignmentExpression

1. Let propKey be the result of evaluating PropertyName.

2. ReturnIfAbrupt(propKey).
3. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(AssignmentExpression) is true, then
a. Let propValue be ? NamedEvaluation of AssignmentExpression with argument propKey.
4. Else,
a. Let exprValueRef be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.
b. Let propValue be ? GetValue(exprValueRef).
5. Assert: enumerable is true.
6. Assert: object is an ordinary, extensible object with no non-configurable properties.
7. Return ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(object, propKey, propValue).

NOTE An alternative semantics for this production is given in B.3.1.

MethodDefinition :
PropertyName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
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get PropertyName ( ) { FunctionBody }

set PropertyName ( PropertySetParameterList ) { FunctionBody }

1. Return ? MethodDefinitionEvaluation of MethodDefinition with arguments object and

enumerable.

GeneratorMethod : * PropertyName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { GeneratorBody }

1. Return ? MethodDefinitionEvaluation of GeneratorMethod with arguments object and

enumerable.

AsyncGeneratorMethod : async * PropertyName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) {

AsyncGeneratorBody }

1. Return ? MethodDefinitionEvaluation of AsyncGeneratorMethod with arguments object and

enumerable.

AsyncMethod : async PropertyName ( UniqueFormalParameters ) { AsyncFunctionBody }

1. Return ? MethodDefinitionEvaluation of AsyncMethod with arguments object and enumerable.

13.2.6 Function Defining Expressions

See 15.2 for PrimaryExpression : FunctionExpression .

See 15.5 for PrimaryExpression : GeneratorExpression .

See 15.7 for PrimaryExpression : ClassExpression .

See 15.8 for PrimaryExpression : AsyncFunctionExpression .

See 15.6 for PrimaryExpression : AsyncGeneratorExpression .

13.2.7 Regular Expression Literals

Syntax

See 12.8.5.

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13.2.7.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

PrimaryExpression : RegularExpressionLiteral

It is a Syntax Error if IsValidRegularExpressionLiteral(RegularExpressionLiteral) is false.

13.2.7.2 Static Semantics: IsValidRegularExpressionLiteral ( literal )

The abstract operation IsValidRegularExpressionLiteral takes argument literal. It determines if its

argument is a valid regular expression literal. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: literal is a RegularExpressionLiteral.

2. If FlagText of literal contains any code points other than g, i, m, s, u, or y, or if it contains the
same code point more than once, return false.
3. Let patternText be BodyText of literal.
4. If FlagText of literal contains u, let u be true; else let u be false.
5. If u is false, then
a. Let stringValue be CodePointsToString(patternText).
b. Set patternText to the sequence of code points resulting from interpreting each of the 16-
bit elements of stringValue as a Unicode BMP code point. UTF-16 decoding is not
applied to the elements.
6. Let parseResult be ParsePattern(patternText, u).
7. If parseResult is a Parse Node, return true; else return false.

13.2.7.3 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

PrimaryExpression : RegularExpressionLiteral

1. Let pattern be ! CodePointsToString(BodyText of RegularExpressionLiteral).

2. Let flags be ! CodePointsToString(FlagText of RegularExpressionLiteral).
3. Return RegExpCreate(pattern, flags).

13.2.8 Template Literals

Syntax

TemplateLiteral[Yield, Await, Tagged] :

NoSubstitutionTemplate
SubstitutionTemplate[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged]
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SubstitutionTemplate[Yield, Await, Tagged] :

TemplateHead Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
TemplateSpans[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged]

TemplateSpans[Yield, Await, Tagged] :

TemplateTail
TemplateMiddleList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged] TemplateTail

TemplateMiddleList[Yield, Await, Tagged] :

TemplateMiddle Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
TemplateMiddleList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged] TemplateMiddle
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

13.2.8.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

TemplateLiteral[Yield, Await, Tagged] : NoSubstitutionTemplate

It is a Syntax Error if the [Tagged] parameter was not set and NoSubstitutionTemplate Contains
NotEscapeSequence.

TemplateLiteral[Yield, Await, Tagged] :

SubstitutionTemplate[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged]

It is a Syntax Error if the number of elements in the result of TemplateStrings of

TemplateLiteral with argument false is greater than 232 - 1.

SubstitutionTemplate[Yield, Await, Tagged] : TemplateHead

Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] TemplateSpans[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged]

It is a Syntax Error if the [Tagged] parameter was not set and TemplateHead Contains
NotEscapeSequence.

TemplateSpans[Yield, Await, Tagged] : TemplateTail

It is a Syntax Error if the [Tagged] parameter was not set and TemplateTail Contains
NotEscapeSequence.

TemplateMiddleList[Yield, Await, Tagged] :

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TemplateMiddle Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

TemplateMiddleList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Tagged] TemplateMiddle
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

It is a Syntax Error if the [Tagged] parameter was not set and TemplateMiddle Contains
NotEscapeSequence.

13.2.8.2 Static Semantics: TemplateStrings

With parameter raw.

TemplateLiteral : NoSubstitutionTemplate

1. If raw is false, then

a. Let string be the TV of NoSubstitutionTemplate.
2. Else,
a. Let string be the TRV of NoSubstitutionTemplate.
3. Return a List whose sole element is string.

SubstitutionTemplate : TemplateHead Expression TemplateSpans

1. If raw is false, then

a. Let head be the TV of TemplateHead.
2. Else,
a. Let head be the TRV of TemplateHead.
3. Let tail be TemplateStrings of TemplateSpans with argument raw.
4. Return a List whose elements are head followed by the elements of tail.

TemplateSpans : TemplateTail

1. If raw is false, then

a. Let tail be the TV of TemplateTail.
2. Else,
a. Let tail be the TRV of TemplateTail.
3. Return a List whose sole element is tail.

TemplateSpans : TemplateMiddleList TemplateTail

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1. Let middle be TemplateStrings of TemplateMiddleList with argument raw.

2. If raw is false, then
a. Let tail be the TV of TemplateTail.
3. Else,
a. Let tail be the TRV of TemplateTail.
4. Return a List whose elements are the elements of middle followed by tail.

TemplateMiddleList : TemplateMiddle Expression

1. If raw is false, then

a. Let string be the TV of TemplateMiddle.
2. Else,
a. Let string be the TRV of TemplateMiddle.
3. Return a List whose sole element is string.

TemplateMiddleList : TemplateMiddleList TemplateMiddle Expression

1. Let front be TemplateStrings of TemplateMiddleList with argument raw.

2. If raw is false, then
a. Let last be the TV of TemplateMiddle.
3. Else,
a. Let last be the TRV of TemplateMiddle.
4. Append last as the last element of the List front.
5. Return front.

13.2.8.3 GetTemplateObject ( templateLiteral )

The abstract operation GetTemplateObject takes argument templateLiteral (a Parse Node). It

performs the following steps when called:

1. Let realm be the current Realm Record.

2. Let templateRegistry be realm.[[TemplateMap]].
3. For each element e of templateRegistry, do
a. If e.[[Site]] is the same Parse Node as templateLiteral, then
i. Return e.[[Array]].
4. Let rawStrings be TemplateStrings of templateLiteral with argument true.
5. Let cookedStrings be TemplateStrings of templateLiteral with argument false.
6. Let count be the number of elements in the List cookedStrings.
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7. Assert: count ≤ 232 - 1.

8. Let template be ! ArrayCreate(count).
9. Let rawObj be ! ArrayCreate(count).
10. Let index be 0.
11. Repeat, while index < count,
a. Let prop be ! ToString(𝔽(index)).
b. Let cookedValue be cookedStrings[index].
c. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(template, prop, PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]:
cookedValue, [[Writable]]: false, [[Enumerable]]: true, [[Configurable]]: false }).
d. Let rawValue be the String value rawStrings[index].
e. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(rawObj, prop, PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]:
rawValue, [[Writable]]: false, [[Enumerable]]: true, [[Configurable]]: false }).
f. Set index to index + 1.
12. Perform ! SetIntegrityLevel(rawObj, frozen).
13. Perform ! DefinePropertyOrThrow(template, "raw", PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: rawObj,
[[Writable]]: false, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: false }).
14. Perform ! SetIntegrityLevel(template, frozen).
15. Append the Record { [[Site]]: templateLiteral, [[Array]]: template } to templateRegistry.
16. Return template.

NOTE 1 The creation of a template object cannot result in an abrupt completion.

NOTE 2 Each TemplateLiteral in the program code of a realm is associated with a unique
template object that is used in the evaluation of tagged Templates (13.2.8.5). The
template objects are frozen and the same template object is used each time a specific
tagged Template is evaluated. Whether template objects are created lazily upon first
evaluation of the TemplateLiteral or eagerly prior to first evaluation is an
implementation choice that is not observable to ECMAScript code.

NOTE 3 Future editions of this specification may define additional non-enumerable

properties of template objects.

13.2.8.4 Runtime Semantics: SubstitutionEvaluation

TemplateSpans : TemplateTail

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1. Return a new empty List.

TemplateSpans : TemplateMiddleList TemplateTail

1. Return the result of SubstitutionEvaluation of TemplateMiddleList.

TemplateMiddleList : TemplateMiddle Expression

1. Let subRef be the result of evaluating Expression.

2. Let sub be ? GetValue(subRef).
3. Return a List whose sole element is sub.

TemplateMiddleList : TemplateMiddleList TemplateMiddle Expression

1. Let preceding be ? SubstitutionEvaluation of TemplateMiddleList.

2. Let nextRef be the result of evaluating Expression.
3. Let next be ? GetValue(nextRef).
4. Append next as the last element of the List preceding.
5. Return preceding.

13.2.8.5 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

TemplateLiteral : NoSubstitutionTemplate

1. Return the TV of NoSubstitutionTemplate as defined in 12.8.6.

SubstitutionTemplate : TemplateHead Expression TemplateSpans

1. Let head be the TV of TemplateHead as defined in 12.8.6.

2. Let subRef be the result of evaluating Expression.
3. Let sub be ? GetValue(subRef).
4. Let middle be ? ToString(sub).
5. Let tail be the result of evaluating TemplateSpans.
6. ReturnIfAbrupt(tail).
7. Return the string-concatenation of head, middle, and tail.

NOTE 1 The string conversion semantics applied to the Expression value are like
String.prototype.concat rather than the + operator.

TemplateSpans : TemplateTail
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1. Return the TV of TemplateTail as defined in 12.8.6.

TemplateSpans : TemplateMiddleList TemplateTail

1. Let head be the result of evaluating TemplateMiddleList.

2. ReturnIfAbrupt(head).
3. Let tail be the TV of TemplateTail as defined in 12.8.6.
4. Return the string-concatenation of head and tail.

TemplateMiddleList : TemplateMiddle Expression

1. Let head be the TV of TemplateMiddle as defined in 12.8.6.

2. Let subRef be the result of evaluating Expression.
3. Let sub be ? GetValue(subRef).
4. Let middle be ? ToString(sub).
5. Return the string-concatenation of head and middle.

NOTE 2 The string conversion semantics applied to the Expression value are like
String.prototype.concat rather than the + operator.

TemplateMiddleList : TemplateMiddleList TemplateMiddle Expression

1. Let rest be the result of evaluating TemplateMiddleList.

2. ReturnIfAbrupt(rest).
3. Let middle be the TV of TemplateMiddle as defined in 12.8.6.
4. Let subRef be the result of evaluating Expression.
5. Let sub be ? GetValue(subRef).
6. Let last be ? ToString(sub).
7. Return the string-concatenation of rest, middle, and last.

NOTE 3 The string conversion semantics applied to the Expression value are like
String.prototype.concat rather than the + operator.

13.2.9 The Grouping Operator

13.2.9.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

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PrimaryExpression : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

It is a Syntax Error if CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList is not covering a

ParenthesizedExpression.
All Early Error rules for ParenthesizedExpression and its derived productions also apply to the
ParenthesizedExpression that is covered by
CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.

13.2.9.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

PrimaryExpression : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let expr be the ParenthesizedExpression that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return the result of evaluating expr.

ParenthesizedExpression : ( Expression )

1. Return the result of evaluating Expression. This may be of type Reference.

NOTE This algorithm does not apply GetValue to the result of evaluating Expression. The
principal motivation for this is so that operators such as delete and typeof may
be applied to parenthesized expressions.

13.3 Left-Hand-Side Expressions

Syntax

MemberExpression[Yield, Await] :
PrimaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [ Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] . IdentifierName
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
TemplateLiteral[?Yield, ?Await, +Tagged]
SuperProperty[?Yield, ?Await]

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MetaProperty
new MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]

SuperProperty[Yield, Await] :
super [ Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
super . IdentifierName

MetaProperty :
NewTarget
ImportMeta

NewTarget :
new . target

ImportMeta :
import . meta

NewExpression[Yield, Await] :
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
new NewExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

CallExpression[Yield, Await] :
CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead[?Yield, ?Await]
SuperCall[?Yield, ?Await]
ImportCall[?Yield, ?Await]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [ Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] . IdentifierName
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] TemplateLiteral[?Yield, ?Await, +Tagged]

SuperCall[Yield, Await] :
super Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]

ImportCall[Yield, Await] :
import ( AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
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Arguments[Yield, Await] :
( )
( ArgumentList[?Yield, ?Await] )
( ArgumentList[?Yield, ?Await] , )

ArgumentList[Yield, Await] :
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
... AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
ArgumentList[?Yield, ?Await] ,
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]
ArgumentList[?Yield, ?Await] , ...
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

OptionalExpression[Yield, Await] :
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await] OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await]
OptionalExpression[?Yield, ?Await] OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await]

OptionalChain[Yield, Await] :
?. Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]
?. [ Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
?. IdentifierName
?. TemplateLiteral[?Yield, ?Await, +Tagged]
OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await] Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]
OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await] [ Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ]
OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await] . IdentifierName
OptionalChain[?Yield, ?Await] TemplateLiteral[?Yield, ?Await, +Tagged]

LeftHandSideExpression[Yield, Await] :
NewExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
CallExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
OptionalExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
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Supplemental Syntax

When processing an instance of the production

CallExpression : CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead
the interpretation of CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead is refined using the following
grammar:

CallMemberExpression[Yield, Await] :
MemberExpression[?Yield, ?Await] Arguments[?Yield, ?Await]

13.3.1 Static Semantics

13.3.1.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

OptionalChain :
?. TemplateLiteral
OptionalChain TemplateLiteral

It is a Syntax Error if any code matches this production.

NOTE This production exists in order to prevent automatic semicolon insertion rules (12.9)
from being applied to the following code:

a?.b
`c`

so that it would be interpreted as two valid statements. The purpose is to maintain

consistency with similar code without optional chaining:

a.b
`c`

which is a valid statement and where automatic semicolon insertion does not apply.

ImportMeta :
import . meta

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It is a Syntax Error if the syntactic goal symbol is not Module.

13.3.2 Property Accessors

NOTE Properties are accessed by name, using either the dot notation:

MemberExpression . IdentifierName
CallExpression . IdentifierName

or the bracket notation:

MemberExpression [ Expression ]
CallExpression [ Expression ]

The dot notation is explained by the following syntactic conversion:

MemberExpression . IdentifierName

is identical in its behaviour to

MemberExpression [ <identifier-name-string> ]

and similarly

CallExpression . IdentifierName

is identical in its behaviour to

CallExpression [ <identifier-name-string> ]

where <identifier-name-string> is the result of evaluating StringValue of

IdentifierName.

13.3.2.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

MemberExpression : MemberExpression [ Expression ]

1. Let baseReference be the result of evaluating MemberExpression.

2. Let baseValue be ? GetValue(baseReference).

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3. If the code matched by this MemberExpression is strict mode code, let strict be true; else let
strict be false.
4. Return ? EvaluatePropertyAccessWithExpressionKey(baseValue, Expression, strict).

MemberExpression : MemberExpression . IdentifierName

1. Let baseReference be the result of evaluating MemberExpression.

2. Let baseValue be ? GetValue(baseReference).
3. If the code matched by this MemberExpression is strict mode code, let strict be true; else let
strict be false.
4. Return ? EvaluatePropertyAccessWithIdentifierKey(baseValue, IdentifierName, strict).

CallExpression : CallExpression [ Expression ]

1. Let baseReference be the result of evaluating CallExpression.

2. Let baseValue be ? GetValue(baseReference).
3. If the code matched by this CallExpression is strict mode code, let strict be true; else let strict
be false.
4. Return ? EvaluatePropertyAccessWithExpressionKey(baseValue, Expression, strict).

CallExpression : CallExpression . IdentifierName

1. Let baseReference be the result of evaluating CallExpression.

2. Let baseValue be ? GetValue(baseReference).
3. If the code matched by this CallExpression is strict mode code, let strict be true; else let strict
be false.
4. Return ? EvaluatePropertyAccessWithIdentifierKey(baseValue, IdentifierName, strict).

13.3.3 EvaluatePropertyAccessWithExpressionKey ( baseValue, expression,

strict )
The abstract operation EvaluatePropertyAccessWithExpressionKey takes arguments baseValue (an
ECMAScript language value), expression (a Parse Node), and strict (a Boolean). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Let propertyNameReference be the result of evaluating expression.

2. Let propertyNameValue be ? GetValue(propertyNameReference).
3. Let bv be ? RequireObjectCoercible(baseValue).

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4. Let propertyKey be ? ToPropertyKey(propertyNameValue).

5. Return the Reference Record { [[Base]]: bv, [[ReferencedName]]: propertyKey, [[Strict]]:
strict, [[ThisValue]]: empty }.

13.3.4 EvaluatePropertyAccessWithIdentifierKey ( baseValue,

identifierName, strict )
The abstract operation EvaluatePropertyAccessWithIdentifierKey takes arguments baseValue (an
ECMAScript language value), identifierName (a Parse Node), and strict (a Boolean). It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: identifierName is an IdentifierName.

2. Let bv be ? RequireObjectCoercible(baseValue).
3. Let propertyNameString be StringValue of identifierName.
4. Return the Reference Record { [[Base]]: bv, [[ReferencedName]]: propertyNameString,
[[Strict]]: strict, [[ThisValue]]: empty }.

13.3.5 The new Operator

13.3.5.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

NewExpression : new NewExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateNew(NewExpression, empty).

MemberExpression : new MemberExpression Arguments

1. Return ? EvaluateNew(MemberExpression, Arguments).

13.3.5.1.1 EvaluateNew ( constructExpr, arguments )

The abstract operation EvaluateNew takes arguments constructExpr and arguments. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: constructExpr is either a NewExpression or a MemberExpression.

2. Assert: arguments is either empty or an Arguments.
3. Let ref be the result of evaluating constructExpr.
4. Let constructor be ? GetValue(ref).

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5. If arguments is empty, let argList be a new empty List.

6. Else,
a. Let argList be ? ArgumentListEvaluation of arguments.
7. If IsConstructor(constructor) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
8. Return ? Construct(constructor, argList).

13.3.6 Function Calls

13.3.6.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

CallExpression : CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead

1. Let expr be the CallMemberExpression that is covered by

CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead.
2. Let memberExpr be the MemberExpression of expr.
3. Let arguments be the Arguments of expr.
4. Let ref be the result of evaluating memberExpr.
5. Let func be ? GetValue(ref).
6. If ref is a Reference Record, IsPropertyReference(ref) is false, and ref.[[ReferencedName]] is
"eval", then
a. If SameValue(func, %eval%) is true, then
i. Let argList be ? ArgumentListEvaluation of arguments.
ii. If argList has no elements, return undefined.
iii. Let evalArg be the first element of argList.
iv. If the source code matching this CallExpression is strict mode code, let strictCaller
be true. Otherwise let strictCaller be false.
v. Let evalRealm be the current Realm Record.
vi. Return ? PerformEval(evalArg, evalRealm, strictCaller, true).
7. Let thisCall be this CallExpression.
8. Let tailCall be IsInTailPosition(thisCall).
9. Return ? EvaluateCall(func, ref, arguments, tailCall).

A CallExpression evaluation that executes step 6.a.vi is a direct eval.

CallExpression : CallExpression Arguments

1. Let ref be the result of evaluating CallExpression.

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2. Let func be ? GetValue(ref).

3. Let thisCall be this CallExpression.
4. Let tailCall be IsInTailPosition(thisCall).
5. Return ? EvaluateCall(func, ref, Arguments, tailCall).

13.3.6.2 EvaluateCall ( func, ref, arguments, tailPosition )

The abstract operation EvaluateCall takes arguments func (an ECMAScript language value), ref (an
ECMAScript language value or a Reference Record), arguments (a Parse Node), and tailPosition (a
Boolean). It performs the following steps when called:

1. If ref is a Reference Record, then

a. If IsPropertyReference(ref) is true, then
i. Let thisValue be GetThisValue(ref).
b. Else,
i. Let refEnv be ref.[[Base]].
ii. Assert: refEnv is an Environment Record.
iii. Let thisValue be refEnv.WithBaseObject().
2. Else,
a. Let thisValue be undefined.
3. Let argList be ? ArgumentListEvaluation of arguments.
4. If Type(func) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
5. If IsCallable(func) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
6. If tailPosition is true, perform PrepareForTailCall().
7. Let result be Call(func, thisValue, argList).
8. Assert: If tailPosition is true, the above call will not return here, but instead evaluation will
continue as if the following return has already occurred.
9. Assert: If result is not an abrupt completion, then Type(result) is an ECMAScript language
type.
10. Return result.

13.3.7 The super Keyword

13.3.7.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

SuperProperty : super [ Expression ]

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1. Let env be GetThisEnvironment().

2. Let actualThis be ? env.GetThisBinding().
3. Let propertyNameReference be the result of evaluating Expression.
4. Let propertyNameValue be ? GetValue(propertyNameReference).
5. Let propertyKey be ? ToPropertyKey(propertyNameValue).
6. If the code matched by this SuperProperty is strict mode code, let strict be true; else let strict
be false.
7. Return ? MakeSuperPropertyReference(actualThis, propertyKey, strict).

SuperProperty : super . IdentifierName

1. Let env be GetThisEnvironment().

2. Let actualThis be ? env.GetThisBinding().
3. Let propertyKey be StringValue of IdentifierName.
4. If the code matched by this SuperProperty is strict mode code, let strict be true; else let strict
be false.
5. Return ? MakeSuperPropertyReference(actualThis, propertyKey, strict).

SuperCall : super Arguments

1. Let newTarget be GetNewTarget().

2. Assert: Type(newTarget) is Object.
3. Let func be ! GetSuperConstructor().
4. Let argList be ? ArgumentListEvaluation of Arguments.
5. If IsConstructor(func) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Let result be ? Construct(func, argList, newTarget).
7. Let thisER be GetThisEnvironment().
8. Return ? thisER.BindThisValue(result).

13.3.7.2 GetSuperConstructor ( )

The abstract operation GetSuperConstructor takes no arguments. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let envRec be GetThisEnvironment().

2. Assert: envRec is a function Environment Record.
3. Let activeFunction be envRec.[[FunctionObject]].
4. Assert: activeFunction is an ECMAScript function object.
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5. Let superConstructor be ! activeFunction.[[GetPrototypeOf]]().

6. Return superConstructor.

13.3.7.3 MakeSuperPropertyReference ( actualThis, propertyKey, strict )

The abstract operation MakeSuperPropertyReference takes arguments actualThis, propertyKey, and

strict. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let env be GetThisEnvironment().

2. Assert: env.HasSuperBinding() is true.
3. Let baseValue be ? env.GetSuperBase().
4. Let bv be ? RequireObjectCoercible(baseValue).
5. Return the Reference Record { [[Base]]: bv, [[ReferencedName]]: propertyKey, [[Strict]]:
strict, [[ThisValue]]: actualThis }.
6. NOTE: This returns a Super Reference Record.

13.3.8 Argument Lists

NOTE The evaluation of an argument list produces a List of values.

13.3.8.1 Runtime Semantics: ArgumentListEvaluation

Arguments : ( )

1. Return a new empty List.

ArgumentList : AssignmentExpression

1. Let ref be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.

2. Let arg be ? GetValue(ref).
3. Return a List whose sole element is arg.

ArgumentList : ... AssignmentExpression

1. Let list be a new empty List.

2. Let spreadRef be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.
3. Let spreadObj be ? GetValue(spreadRef).
4. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(spreadObj).
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5. Repeat,
a. Let next be ? IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is false, return list.
c. Let nextArg be ? IteratorValue(next).
d. Append nextArg as the last element of list.

ArgumentList : ArgumentList , AssignmentExpression

1. Let precedingArgs be ? ArgumentListEvaluation of ArgumentList.

2. Let ref be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.
3. Let arg be ? GetValue(ref).
4. Append arg to the end of precedingArgs.
5. Return precedingArgs.

ArgumentList : ArgumentList , ... AssignmentExpression

1. Let precedingArgs be ? ArgumentListEvaluation of ArgumentList.

2. Let spreadRef be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.
3. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(? GetValue(spreadRef)).
4. Repeat,
a. Let next be ? IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is false, return precedingArgs.
c. Let nextArg be ? IteratorValue(next).
d. Append nextArg as the last element of precedingArgs.

TemplateLiteral : NoSubstitutionTemplate

1. Let templateLiteral be this TemplateLiteral.

2. Let siteObj be GetTemplateObject(templateLiteral).
3. Return a List whose sole element is siteObj.

TemplateLiteral : SubstitutionTemplate

1. Let templateLiteral be this TemplateLiteral.

2. Let siteObj be GetTemplateObject(templateLiteral).
3. Let remaining be ? ArgumentListEvaluation of SubstitutionTemplate.
4. Return a List whose first element is siteObj and whose subsequent elements are the elements of
remaining.

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SubstitutionTemplate : TemplateHead Expression TemplateSpans

1. Let firstSubRef be the result of evaluating Expression.

2. Let firstSub be ? GetValue(firstSubRef).
3. Let restSub be ? SubstitutionEvaluation of TemplateSpans.
4. Assert: restSub is a List.
5. Return a List whose first element is firstSub and whose subsequent elements are the elements
of restSub. restSub may contain no elements.

13.3.9 Optional Chains

NOTE An optional chain is a chain of one or more property accesses and function calls, the
first of which begins with the token ?..

13.3.9.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

OptionalExpression :
MemberExpression OptionalChain

1. Let baseReference be the result of evaluating MemberExpression.

2. Let baseValue be ? GetValue(baseReference).
3. If baseValue is undefined or null, then
a. Return undefined.
4. Return the result of performing ChainEvaluation of OptionalChain with arguments baseValue
and baseReference.

OptionalExpression :
CallExpression OptionalChain

1. Let baseReference be the result of evaluating CallExpression.

2. Let baseValue be ? GetValue(baseReference).
3. If baseValue is undefined or null, then
a. Return undefined.
4. Return the result of performing ChainEvaluation of OptionalChain with arguments baseValue
and baseReference.

OptionalExpression :

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OptionalExpression OptionalChain

1. Let baseReference be the result of evaluating OptionalExpression.

2. Let baseValue be ? GetValue(baseReference).
3. If baseValue is undefined or null, then
a. Return undefined.
4. Return the result of performing ChainEvaluation of OptionalChain with arguments baseValue
and baseReference.

13.3.9.2 Runtime Semantics: ChainEvaluation

With parameters baseValue and baseReference.

OptionalChain : ?. Arguments

1. Let thisChain be this OptionalChain.

2. Let tailCall be IsInTailPosition(thisChain).
3. Return ? EvaluateCall(baseValue, baseReference, Arguments, tailCall).

OptionalChain : ?. [ Expression ]

1. If the code matched by this OptionalChain is strict mode code, let strict be true; else let strict
be false.
2. Return ? EvaluatePropertyAccessWithExpressionKey(baseValue, Expression, strict).

OptionalChain : ?. IdentifierName

1. If the code matched by this OptionalChain is strict mode code, let strict be true; else let strict
be false.
2. Return ? EvaluatePropertyAccessWithIdentifierKey(baseValue, IdentifierName, strict).

OptionalChain : OptionalChain Arguments

1. Let optionalChain be OptionalChain.

2. Let newReference be ? ChainEvaluation of optionalChain with arguments baseValue and
baseReference.
3. Let newValue be ? GetValue(newReference).
4. Let thisChain be this OptionalChain.
5. Let tailCall be IsInTailPosition(thisChain).
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6. Return ? EvaluateCall(newValue, newReference, Arguments, tailCall).

OptionalChain : OptionalChain [ Expression ]

1. Let optionalChain be OptionalChain.

2. Let newReference be ? ChainEvaluation of optionalChain with arguments baseValue and
baseReference.
3. Let newValue be ? GetValue(newReference).
4. If the code matched by this OptionalChain is strict mode code, let strict be true; else let strict
be false.
5. Return ? EvaluatePropertyAccessWithExpressionKey(newValue, Expression, strict).

OptionalChain : OptionalChain . IdentifierName

1. Let optionalChain be OptionalChain.

2. Let newReference be ? ChainEvaluation of optionalChain with arguments baseValue and
baseReference.
3. Let newValue be ? GetValue(newReference).
4. If the code matched by this OptionalChain is strict mode code, let strict be true; else let strict
be false.
5. Return ? EvaluatePropertyAccessWithIdentifierKey(newValue, IdentifierName, strict).

13.3.10 Import Calls

13.3.10.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ImportCall : import ( AssignmentExpression )

1. Let referencingScriptOrModule be ! GetActiveScriptOrModule().

2. Let argRef be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.
3. Let specifier be ? GetValue(argRef).
4. Let promiseCapability be ! NewPromiseCapability(%Promise%).
5. Let specifierString be ToString(specifier).
6. IfAbruptRejectPromise(specifierString, promiseCapability).
7. Perform ! HostImportModuleDynamically(referencingScriptOrModule, specifierString,
promiseCapability).
8. Return promiseCapability.[[Promise]].

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13.3.11 Tagged Templates

NOTE A tagged template is a function call where the arguments of the call are derived
from a TemplateLiteral (13.2.8). The actual arguments include a template object
(13.2.8.3) and the values produced by evaluating the expressions embedded within
the TemplateLiteral.

13.3.11.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

MemberExpression : MemberExpression TemplateLiteral

1. Let tagRef be the result of evaluating MemberExpression.

2. Let tagFunc be ? GetValue(tagRef).
3. Let thisCall be this MemberExpression.
4. Let tailCall be IsInTailPosition(thisCall).
5. Return ? EvaluateCall(tagFunc, tagRef, TemplateLiteral, tailCall).

CallExpression : CallExpression TemplateLiteral

1. Let tagRef be the result of evaluating CallExpression.

2. Let tagFunc be ? GetValue(tagRef).
3. Let thisCall be this CallExpression.
4. Let tailCall be IsInTailPosition(thisCall).
5. Return ? EvaluateCall(tagFunc, tagRef, TemplateLiteral, tailCall).

13.3.12 Meta Properties

13.3.12.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

NewTarget : new . target

1. Return GetNewTarget().

ImportMeta : import . meta

1. Let module be ! GetActiveScriptOrModule().

2. Assert: module is a Source Text Module Record.
3. Let importMeta be module.[[ImportMeta]].
4. If importMeta is empty, then
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a. Set importMeta to ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(null).

b. Let importMetaValues be ! HostGetImportMetaProperties(module).
c. For each Record { [[Key]], [[Value]] } p of importMetaValues, do
i. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(importMeta, p.[[Key]], p.[[Value]]).
d. Perform ! HostFinalizeImportMeta(importMeta, module).
e. Set module.[[ImportMeta]] to importMeta.
f. Return importMeta.
5. Else,
a. Assert: Type(importMeta) is Object.
b. Return importMeta.

13.3.12.1.1 HostGetImportMetaProperties ( moduleRecord )

The host-defined abstract operation HostGetImportMetaProperties takes argument moduleRecord (a

Module Record). It allows hosts to provide property keys and values for the object returned from
import.meta.

The implementation of HostGetImportMetaProperties must conform to the following requirements:

It must return a List, whose values are all Records with two fields, [[Key]] and [[Value]].
Each such Record's [[Key]] field must be a property key, i.e., IsPropertyKey must return true
when applied to it.
Each such Record's [[Value]] field must be an ECMAScript value.
It must always complete normally (i.e., not return an abrupt completion).

The default implementation of HostGetImportMetaProperties is to return a new empty List.

13.3.12.1.2 HostFinalizeImportMeta ( importMeta, moduleRecord )

The host-defined abstract operation HostFinalizeImportMeta takes arguments importMeta (an

Object) and moduleRecord (a Module Record). It allows hosts to perform any extraordinary
operations to prepare the object returned from import.meta.

Most hosts will be able to simply define HostGetImportMetaProperties, and leave

HostFinalizeImportMeta with its default behaviour. However, HostFinalizeImportMeta provides an
"escape hatch" for hosts which need to directly manipulate the object before it is exposed to
ECMAScript code.

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The implementation of HostFinalizeImportMeta must conform to the following requirements:

It must always complete normally (i.e., not return an abrupt completion).

The default implementation of HostFinalizeImportMeta is to return NormalCompletion(empty).

13.4 Update Expressions

Syntax

UpdateExpression[Yield, Await] :
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here] ++
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] [no LineTerminator here] --
++ UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
-- UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

13.4.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

UpdateExpression :
LeftHandSideExpression ++
LeftHandSideExpression --

It is an early Syntax Error if AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is not simple.

UpdateExpression :
++ UnaryExpression
-- UnaryExpression

It is an early Syntax Error if AssignmentTargetType of UnaryExpression is not simple.

13.4.2 Postfix Increment Operator

13.4.2.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UpdateExpression : LeftHandSideExpression ++
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1. Let lhs be the result of evaluating LeftHandSideExpression.

2. Let oldValue be ? ToNumeric(? GetValue(lhs)).
3. Let newValue be ! Type(oldValue)::add(oldValue, Type(oldValue)::unit).
4. Perform ? PutValue(lhs, newValue).
5. Return oldValue.

13.4.3 Postfix Decrement Operator

13.4.3.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UpdateExpression : LeftHandSideExpression --

1. Let lhs be the result of evaluating LeftHandSideExpression.

2. Let oldValue be ? ToNumeric(? GetValue(lhs)).
3. Let newValue be ! Type(oldValue)::subtract(oldValue, Type(oldValue)::unit).
4. Perform ? PutValue(lhs, newValue).
5. Return oldValue.

13.4.4 Prefix Increment Operator

13.4.4.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UpdateExpression : ++ UnaryExpression

1. Let expr be the result of evaluating UnaryExpression.

2. Let oldValue be ? ToNumeric(? GetValue(expr)).
3. Let newValue be ! Type(oldValue)::add(oldValue, Type(oldValue)::unit).
4. Perform ? PutValue(expr, newValue).
5. Return newValue.

13.4.5 Prefix Decrement Operator

13.4.5.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UpdateExpression : -- UnaryExpression

1. Let expr be the result of evaluating UnaryExpression.

2. Let oldValue be ? ToNumeric(? GetValue(expr)).
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3. Let newValue be ! Type(oldValue)::subtract(oldValue, Type(oldValue)::unit).

4. Perform ? PutValue(expr, newValue).
5. Return newValue.

13.5 Unary Operators

Syntax

UnaryExpression[Yield, Await] :
UpdateExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
delete UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
void UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
typeof UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
+ UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
- UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
~ UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
! UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
[+Await] AwaitExpression[?Yield]

13.5.1 The delete Operator

13.5.1.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

UnaryExpression : delete UnaryExpression

It is a Syntax Error if the UnaryExpression is contained in strict mode code and the derived
UnaryExpression is PrimaryExpression : IdentifierReference .

It is a Syntax Error if the derived UnaryExpression is

PrimaryExpression : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList
and CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList ultimately derives a phrase that, if
used in place of UnaryExpression, would produce a Syntax Error according to these rules. This
rule is recursively applied.

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NOTE
The last rule means that expressions such as delete (((foo))) produce early
errors because of recursive application of the first rule.

13.5.1.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UnaryExpression : delete UnaryExpression

1. Let ref be the result of evaluating UnaryExpression.

2. ReturnIfAbrupt(ref).
3. If ref is not a Reference Record, return true.
4. If IsUnresolvableReference(ref) is true, then
a. Assert: ref.[[Strict]] is false.
b. Return true.
5. If IsPropertyReference(ref) is true, then
a. If IsSuperReference(ref) is true, throw a ReferenceError exception.
b. Let baseObj be ! ToObject(ref.[[Base]]).
c. Let deleteStatus be ? baseObj.[[Delete]](ref.[[ReferencedName]]).
d. If deleteStatus is false and ref.[[Strict]] is true, throw a TypeError exception.
e. Return deleteStatus.
6. Else,
a. Let base be ref.[[Base]].
b. Assert: base is an Environment Record.
c. Return ? base.DeleteBinding(ref.[[ReferencedName]]).

NOTE 1 When a delete operator occurs within strict mode code, a SyntaxError exception
is thrown if its UnaryExpression is a direct reference to a variable, function
argument, or function name. In addition, if a delete operator occurs within strict
mode code and the property to be deleted has the attribute { [[Configurable]]: false
} (or otherwise cannot be deleted), a TypeError exception is thrown.

NOTE 2 The object that may be created in step 5.b is not accessible outside of the above
abstract operation and the ordinary object [[Delete]] internal method. An
implementation might choose to avoid the actual creation of that object.

13.5.2 The void Operator

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13.5.2.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UnaryExpression : void UnaryExpression

1. Let expr be the result of evaluating UnaryExpression.

2. Perform ? GetValue(expr).
3. Return undefined.

NOTE GetValue must be called even though its value is not used because it may have
observable side-effects.

13.5.3 The typeof Operator

13.5.3.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UnaryExpression : typeof UnaryExpression

1. Let val be the result of evaluating UnaryExpression.

2. If val is a Reference Record, then
a. If IsUnresolvableReference(val) is true, return "undefined".
3. Set val to ? GetValue(val).
4. Return a String according to Table 38.

Table 38: typeof Operator Results

Type of val Result

Undefined "undefined"

Null "object"

Boolean "boolean"

Number "number"

String "string"

Symbol "symbol"

BigInt "bigint"

Object (does not implement [[Call]]) "object"

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Object (implements [[Call]]) "function"

NOTE An additional entry related to [[IsHTMLDDA]] Internal Slot can be found in

B.3.7.3.

13.5.4 Unary + Operator

NOTE The unary + operator converts its operand to Number type.

13.5.4.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UnaryExpression : + UnaryExpression

1. Let expr be the result of evaluating UnaryExpression.

2. Return ? ToNumber(? GetValue(expr)).

13.5.5 Unary - Operator

NOTE The unary - operator converts its operand to Number type and then negates it.
Negating +0𝔽 produces -0𝔽, and negating -0𝔽 produces +0𝔽.

13.5.5.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UnaryExpression : - UnaryExpression

1. Let expr be the result of evaluating UnaryExpression.

2. Let oldValue be ? ToNumeric(? GetValue(expr)).
3. Let T be Type(oldValue).
4. Return ! T::unaryMinus(oldValue).

13.5.6 Bitwise NOT Operator ( ~ )

13.5.6.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

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UnaryExpression : ~ UnaryExpression

1. Let expr be the result of evaluating UnaryExpression.

2. Let oldValue be ? ToNumeric(? GetValue(expr)).
3. Let T be Type(oldValue).
4. Return ! T::bitwiseNOT(oldValue).

13.5.7 Logical NOT Operator ( ! )

13.5.7.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

UnaryExpression : ! UnaryExpression

1. Let expr be the result of evaluating UnaryExpression.

2. Let oldValue be ! ToBoolean(? GetValue(expr)).
3. If oldValue is true, return false.
4. Return true.

13.6 Exponentiation Operator

Syntax

ExponentiationExpression[Yield, Await] :
UnaryExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
UpdateExpression[?Yield, ?Await] **
ExponentiationExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

13.6.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ExponentiationExpression : UpdateExpression ** ExponentiationExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(UpdateExpression, **,

ExponentiationExpression).

13.7 Multiplicative Operators

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Syntax

MultiplicativeExpression[Yield, Await] :
ExponentiationExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
MultiplicativeExpression[?Yield, ?Await] MultiplicativeOperator
ExponentiationExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

MultiplicativeOperator : one of
* / %

NOTE
The * operator performs multiplication, producing the product of its operands.
The / operator performs division, producing the quotient of its operands.
The % operator yields the remainder of its operands from an implied division.

13.7.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

MultiplicativeExpression : MultiplicativeExpression MultiplicativeOperator
ExponentiationExpression

1. Let opText be the source text matched by MultiplicativeOperator.

2. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(MultiplicativeExpression, opText,
ExponentiationExpression).

13.8 Additive Operators

Syntax

AdditiveExpression[Yield, Await] :
MultiplicativeExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await] +
MultiplicativeExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await] -
MultiplicativeExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

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13.8.1 The Addition Operator ( + )

NOTE The addition operator either performs string concatenation or numeric addition.

13.8.1.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

AdditiveExpression : AdditiveExpression + MultiplicativeExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(AdditiveExpression, +,
MultiplicativeExpression).

13.8.2 The Subtraction Operator ( - )

NOTE The - operator performs subtraction, producing the difference of its operands.

13.8.2.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

AdditiveExpression : AdditiveExpression - MultiplicativeExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(AdditiveExpression, -,
MultiplicativeExpression).

13.9 Bitwise Shift Operators

Syntax

ShiftExpression[Yield, Await] :
AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await] << AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await] >> AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await] >>> AdditiveExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

13.9.1 The Left Shift Operator ( << )

Performs a bitwise left shift operation on the left operand by the amount specified
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NOTE
by the right operand.

13.9.1.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ShiftExpression : ShiftExpression << AdditiveExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(ShiftExpression, <<, AdditiveExpression

).

13.9.2 The Signed Right Shift Operator ( >> )

NOTE Performs a sign-filling bitwise right shift operation on the left operand by the
amount specified by the right operand.

13.9.2.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ShiftExpression : ShiftExpression >> AdditiveExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(ShiftExpression, >>, AdditiveExpression

).

13.9.3 The Unsigned Right Shift Operator ( >>> )

NOTE Performs a zero-filling bitwise right shift operation on the left operand by the
amount specified by the right operand.

13.9.3.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ShiftExpression : ShiftExpression >>> AdditiveExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(ShiftExpression, >>>,

AdditiveExpression).

13.10 Relational Operators

The result of evaluating a relational operator is always of type Boolean, reflecting
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g p y yp , g
NOTE 1
whether the relationship named by the operator holds between its two operands.

Syntax

RelationalExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] <
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] >
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] <=
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] >=
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] instanceof
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]
[+In]RelationalExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] in
ShiftExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

NOTE 2 The [In] grammar parameter is needed to avoid confusing the in operator in a
relational expression with the in operator in a for statement.

13.10.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

RelationalExpression : RelationalExpression < ShiftExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating RelationalExpression.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let rref be the result of evaluating ShiftExpression.
4. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
5. Let r be the result of performing Abstract Relational Comparison lval < rval.
6. ReturnIfAbrupt(r).
7. If r is undefined, return false. Otherwise, return r.

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RelationalExpression : RelationalExpression > ShiftExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating RelationalExpression.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let rref be the result of evaluating ShiftExpression.
4. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
5. Let r be the result of performing Abstract Relational Comparison rval < lval with LeftFirst
equal to false.
6. ReturnIfAbrupt(r).
7. If r is undefined, return false. Otherwise, return r.

RelationalExpression : RelationalExpression <= ShiftExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating RelationalExpression.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let rref be the result of evaluating ShiftExpression.
4. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
5. Let r be the result of performing Abstract Relational Comparison rval < lval with LeftFirst
equal to false.
6. ReturnIfAbrupt(r).
7. If r is true or undefined, return false. Otherwise, return true.

RelationalExpression : RelationalExpression >= ShiftExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating RelationalExpression.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let rref be the result of evaluating ShiftExpression.
4. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
5. Let r be the result of performing Abstract Relational Comparison lval < rval.
6. ReturnIfAbrupt(r).
7. If r is true or undefined, return false. Otherwise, return true.

RelationalExpression : RelationalExpression instanceof ShiftExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating RelationalExpression.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let rref be the result of evaluating ShiftExpression.
4. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
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5. Return ? InstanceofOperator(lval, rval).

RelationalExpression : RelationalExpression in ShiftExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating RelationalExpression.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let rref be the result of evaluating ShiftExpression.
4. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
5. If Type(rval) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
6. Return ? HasProperty(rval, ? ToPropertyKey(lval)).

13.10.2 InstanceofOperator ( V, target )

The abstract operation InstanceofOperator takes arguments V (an ECMAScript language value) and
target (an ECMAScript language value). It implements the generic algorithm for determining if V is
an instance of target either by consulting target's @@hasInstance method or, if absent, determining
whether the value of target's "prototype" property is present in V's prototype chain. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. If Type(target) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.

2. Let instOfHandler be ? GetMethod(target, @@hasInstance).
3. If instOfHandler is not undefined, then
a. Return ! ToBoolean(? Call(instOfHandler, target, « V »)).
4. If IsCallable(target) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Return ? OrdinaryHasInstance(target, V).

NOTE Steps 4 and 5 provide compatibility with previous editions of ECMAScript that did
not use a @@hasInstance method to define the instanceof operator semantics.
If an object does not define or inherit @@hasInstance it uses the default
instanceof semantics.

13.11 Equality Operators

NOTE The result of evaluating an equality operator is always of type Boolean, reflecting
whether the relationship named by the operator holds between its two operands.
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Syntax

EqualityExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ==
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] !=
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ===
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] !==
RelationalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

13.11.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

EqualityExpression : EqualityExpression == RelationalExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating EqualityExpression.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let rref be the result of evaluating RelationalExpression.
4. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
5. Return the result of performing Abstract Equality Comparison rval == lval.

EqualityExpression : EqualityExpression != RelationalExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating EqualityExpression.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let rref be the result of evaluating RelationalExpression.
4. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
5. Let r be the result of performing Abstract Equality Comparison rval == lval.
6. ReturnIfAbrupt(r).
7. If r is true, return false. Otherwise, return true.

EqualityExpression : EqualityExpression === RelationalExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating EqualityExpression.

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2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).

3. Let rref be the result of evaluating RelationalExpression.
4. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
5. Return the result of performing Strict Equality Comparison rval === lval.

EqualityExpression : EqualityExpression !== RelationalExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating EqualityExpression.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let rref be the result of evaluating RelationalExpression.
4. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
5. Let r be the result of performing Strict Equality Comparison rval === lval.
6. Assert: r is a normal completion.
7. If r.[[Value]] is true, return false. Otherwise, return true.

NOTE 1 Given the above definition of equality:

String comparison can be forced by: `${a}` == `${b}`.

Numeric comparison can be forced by: +a == +b.
Boolean comparison can be forced by: !a == !b.

NOTE 2 The equality operators maintain the following invariants:

A != B is equivalent to !(A == B).

A == B is equivalent to B == A, except in the order of evaluation of A and
B.

NOTE 3 The equality operator is not always transitive. For example, there might be two
distinct String objects, each representing the same String value; each String object
would be considered equal to the String value by the == operator, but the two String
objects would not be equal to each other. For example:

new String("a") == "a" and "a" == new String("a") are

both true.
new String("a") == new String("a") is false.
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NOTE 4 Comparison of Strings uses a simple equality test on sequences of code unit values.
There is no attempt to use the more complex, semantically oriented definitions of
character or string equality and collating order defined in the Unicode specification.
Therefore Strings values that are canonically equal according to the Unicode
standard could test as unequal. In effect this algorithm assumes that both Strings are
already in normalized form.

13.12 Binary Bitwise Operators

Syntax

BitwiseANDExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] &
EqualityExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

BitwiseXORExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

BitwiseANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseXORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ^
BitwiseANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

BitwiseORExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

BitwiseXORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] |
BitwiseXORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

13.12.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

BitwiseANDExpression : BitwiseANDExpression & EqualityExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(BitwiseANDExpression, &,

EqualityExpression).

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BitwiseXORExpression : BitwiseXORExpression ^ BitwiseANDExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(BitwiseXORExpression, ^,
BitwiseANDExpression).

BitwiseORExpression : BitwiseORExpression | BitwiseXORExpression

1. Return ? EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression(BitwiseORExpression, |,
BitwiseXORExpression).

13.13 Binary Logical Operators

Syntax

LogicalANDExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LogicalANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] &&
BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

LogicalORExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

LogicalANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LogicalORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ||
LogicalANDExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

CoalesceExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

CoalesceExpressionHead[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ??
BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

CoalesceExpressionHead[In, Yield, Await] :

CoalesceExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BitwiseORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

ShortCircuitExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

LogicalORExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
CoalesceExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
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NOTE The value produced by a && or || operator is not necessarily of type Boolean. The
value produced will always be the value of one of the two operand expressions.

13.13.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

LogicalANDExpression : LogicalANDExpression && BitwiseORExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating LogicalANDExpression.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let lbool be ! ToBoolean(lval).
4. If lbool is false, return lval.
5. Let rref be the result of evaluating BitwiseORExpression.
6. Return ? GetValue(rref).

LogicalORExpression : LogicalORExpression || LogicalANDExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating LogicalORExpression.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let lbool be ! ToBoolean(lval).
4. If lbool is true, return lval.
5. Let rref be the result of evaluating LogicalANDExpression.
6. Return ? GetValue(rref).

CoalesceExpression : CoalesceExpressionHead ?? BitwiseORExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating CoalesceExpressionHead.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. If lval is undefined or null, then
a. Let rref be the result of evaluating BitwiseORExpression.
b. Return ? GetValue(rref).
4. Otherwise, return lval.

13.14 Conditional Operator ( ? : )

Syntax

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ConditionalExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

ShortCircuitExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
ShortCircuitExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ?
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] :
AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

NOTE The grammar for a ConditionalExpression in ECMAScript is slightly different from

that in C and Java, which each allow the second subexpression to be an Expression
but restrict the third expression to be a ConditionalExpression. The motivation for
this difference in ECMAScript is to allow an assignment expression to be governed
by either arm of a conditional and to eliminate the confusing and fairly useless case
of a comma expression as the centre expression.

13.14.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ConditionalExpression : ShortCircuitExpression ? AssignmentExpression :
AssignmentExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating ShortCircuitExpression.

2. Let lval be ! ToBoolean(? GetValue(lref)).
3. If lval is true, then
a. Let trueRef be the result of evaluating the first AssignmentExpression.
b. Return ? GetValue(trueRef).
4. Else,
a. Let falseRef be the result of evaluating the second AssignmentExpression.
b. Return ? GetValue(falseRef).

13.15 Assignment Operators

Syntax

AssignmentExpression[In, Yield, Await] :

ConditionalExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
[+Yield] YieldExpression[?In, ?Await]

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ArrowFunction[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

AsyncArrowFunction[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] =
AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] AssignmentOperator
AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] &&=
AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] ||=
AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] ??=
AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

AssignmentOperator : one of
*= /= %= += -= <<= >>= >>>= &= ^= |= **=

13.15.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression = AssignmentExpression

If LeftHandSideExpression is an ObjectLiteral or an ArrayLiteral, the following Early Error rules are

applied:

It is a Syntax Error if LeftHandSideExpression is not covering an AssignmentPattern.

All Early Error rules for AssignmentPattern and its derived productions also apply to the
AssignmentPattern that is covered by LeftHandSideExpression.

If LeftHandSideExpression is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, the following Early Error

rule is applied:

It is a Syntax Error if AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is not simple.

AssignmentExpression :
LeftHandSideExpression AssignmentOperator AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression &&= AssignmentExpression
LeftHandSideExpression ||= AssignmentExpression
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LeftHandSideExpression ??= AssignmentExpression

It is a Syntax Error if AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is not simple.

13.15.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression = AssignmentExpression

1. If LeftHandSideExpression is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, then

a. Let lref be the result of evaluating LeftHandSideExpression.
b. ReturnIfAbrupt(lref).
c. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(AssignmentExpression) and IsIdentifierRef of
LeftHandSideExpression are both true, then
i. Let rval be NamedEvaluation of AssignmentExpression with argument lref.
[[ReferencedName]].
d. Else,
i. Let rref be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.
ii. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
e. Perform ? PutValue(lref, rval).
f. Return rval.
2. Let assignmentPattern be the AssignmentPattern that is covered by LeftHandSideExpression.
3. Let rref be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.
4. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
5. Perform ? DestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of assignmentPattern using rval as the
argument.
6. Return rval.

AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression AssignmentOperator AssignmentExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating LeftHandSideExpression.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let rref be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.
4. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
5. Let assignmentOpText be the source text matched by AssignmentOperator.
6. Let opText be the sequence of Unicode code points associated with assignmentOpText in the
following table:

assignmentOpText opText
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**= **
*= *
/= /
%= %
+= +
-= -
<<= <<
>>= >>
>>>= >>>
&= &
^= ^
|= |

7. Let r be ApplyStringOrNumericBinaryOperator(lval, opText, rval).

8. Perform ? PutValue(lref, r).
9. Return r.

AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression &&= AssignmentExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating LeftHandSideExpression.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let lbool be ! ToBoolean(lval).
4. If lbool is false, return lval.
5. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(AssignmentExpression) is true and IsIdentifierRef of
LeftHandSideExpression is true, then
a. Let rval be NamedEvaluation of AssignmentExpression with argument lref.
[[ReferencedName]].
6. Else,
a. Let rref be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.
b. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
7. Perform ? PutValue(lref, rval).
8. Return rval.

AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression ||= AssignmentExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating LeftHandSideExpression.

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2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).

3. Let lbool be ! ToBoolean(lval).
4. If lbool is true, return lval.
5. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(AssignmentExpression) is true and IsIdentifierRef of
LeftHandSideExpression is true, then
a. Let rval be NamedEvaluation of AssignmentExpression with argument lref.
[[ReferencedName]].
6. Else,
a. Let rref be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.
b. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
7. Perform ? PutValue(lref, rval).
8. Return rval.

AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression ??= AssignmentExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating LeftHandSideExpression.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. If lval is neither undefined nor null, return lval.
4. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(AssignmentExpression) is true and IsIdentifierRef of
LeftHandSideExpression is true, then
a. Let rval be NamedEvaluation of AssignmentExpression with argument lref.
[[ReferencedName]].
5. Else,
a. Let rref be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.
b. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
6. Perform ? PutValue(lref, rval).
7. Return rval.

NOTE When this expression occurs within strict mode code, it is a runtime error if lref in
step 1.e, 2, 2, 2, 2 is an unresolvable reference. If it is, a ReferenceError exception
is thrown. Additionally, it is a runtime error if the lref in step 8, 7, 7, 6 is a reference
to a data property with the attribute value { [[Writable]]: false }, to an accessor
property with the attribute value { [[Set]]: undefined }, or to a non-existent
property of an object for which the IsExtensible predicate returns the value false. In
these cases a TypeError exception is thrown.

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13.15.3 ApplyStringOrNumericBinaryOperator ( lval, opText, rval )

The abstract operation ApplyStringOrNumericBinaryOperator takes arguments lval (an ECMAScript
language value), opText (a sequence of Unicode code points), and rval (an ECMAScript language
value). It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: opText is present in the table in step 8.

2. If opText is +, then
a. Let lprim be ? ToPrimitive(lval).
b. Let rprim be ? ToPrimitive(rval).
c. If Type(lprim) is String or Type(rprim) is String, then
i. Let lstr be ? ToString(lprim).
ii. Let rstr be ? ToString(rprim).
iii. Return the string-concatenation of lstr and rstr.
d. Set lval to lprim.
e. Set rval to rprim.
3. NOTE: At this point, it must be a numeric operation.
4. Let lnum be ? ToNumeric(lval).
5. Let rnum be ? ToNumeric(rval).
6. If Type(lnum) is different from Type(rnum), throw a TypeError exception.
7. Let T be Type(lnum).
8. Let operation be the abstract operation associated with opText in the following table:

opText operation
** T::exponentiate
* T::multiply
/ T::divide
% T::remainder
+ T::add
- T::subtract
<< T::leftShift
>> T::signedRightShift
>>> T::unsignedRightShift
& T::bitwiseAND
^ T::bitwiseXOR
| T::bitwiseOR

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9. Return ? operation(lnum, rnum).

NOTE 1 No hint is provided in the calls to ToPrimitive in steps 2.a and 2.b. All standard
objects except Date objects handle the absence of a hint as if number were given;
Date objects handle the absence of a hint as if string were given. Exotic objects may
handle the absence of a hint in some other manner.

NOTE 2 Step 2.c differs from step 3 of the Abstract Relational Comparison algorithm, by
using the logical-or operation instead of the logical-and operation.

13.15.4 EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression ( leftOperand, opText,

rightOperand )
The abstract operation EvaluateStringOrNumericBinaryExpression takes arguments leftOperand (a
Parse Node), opText (a sequence of Unicode code points), and rightOperand (a Parse Node). It
performs the following steps when called:

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating leftOperand.

2. Let lval be ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let rref be the result of evaluating rightOperand.
4. Let rval be ? GetValue(rref).
5. Return ? ApplyStringOrNumericBinaryOperator(lval, opText, rval).

13.15.5 Destructuring Assignment

Supplemental Syntax

In certain circumstances when processing an instance of the production

AssignmentExpression : LeftHandSideExpression = AssignmentExpression
the interpretation of LeftHandSideExpression is refined using the following grammar:

AssignmentPattern[Yield, Await] :
ObjectAssignmentPattern[?Yield, ?Await]
ArrayAssignmentPattern[?Yield, ?Await]

ObjectAssignmentPattern[Yield, Await] :
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{ }
{ AssignmentRestProperty[?Yield, ?Await] }
{ AssignmentPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] }
{ AssignmentPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] ,
AssignmentRestProperty[?Yield, ?Await] opt }

ArrayAssignmentPattern[Yield, Await] :
[ Elisionopt AssignmentRestElement[?Yield, ?Await] opt ]
[ AssignmentElementList[?Yield, ?Await] ]
[ AssignmentElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , Elisionopt
AssignmentRestElement[?Yield, ?Await] opt ]

AssignmentRestProperty[Yield, Await] :
... DestructuringAssignmentTarget[?Yield, ?Await]

AssignmentPropertyList[Yield, Await] :
AssignmentProperty[?Yield, ?Await]
AssignmentPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] ,
AssignmentProperty[?Yield, ?Await]

AssignmentElementList[Yield, Await] :
AssignmentElisionElement[?Yield, ?Await]
AssignmentElementList[?Yield, ?Await] ,
AssignmentElisionElement[?Yield, ?Await]

AssignmentElisionElement[Yield, Await] :
Elisionopt AssignmentElement[?Yield, ?Await]

AssignmentProperty[Yield, Await] :
IdentifierReference[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt
PropertyName[?Yield, ?Await] : AssignmentElement[?Yield, ?Await]

AssignmentElement[Yield, Await] :

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DestructuringAssignmentTarget[?Yield, ?Await]
Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt

AssignmentRestElement[Yield, Await] :
... DestructuringAssignmentTarget[?Yield, ?Await]

DestructuringAssignmentTarget[Yield, Await] :
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await]

13.15.5.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

AssignmentProperty : IdentifierReference Initializeropt

It is a Syntax Error if AssignmentTargetType of IdentifierReference is not simple.

AssignmentRestProperty : ... DestructuringAssignmentTarget

It is a Syntax Error if DestructuringAssignmentTarget is an ArrayLiteral or an ObjectLiteral.

DestructuringAssignmentTarget : LeftHandSideExpression

If LeftHandSideExpression is an ObjectLiteral or an ArrayLiteral, the following Early Error rules are

applied:

It is a Syntax Error if LeftHandSideExpression is not covering an AssignmentPattern.

All Early Error rules for AssignmentPattern and its derived productions also apply to the
AssignmentPattern that is covered by LeftHandSideExpression.

If LeftHandSideExpression is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, the following Early Error

rule is applied:

It is a Syntax Error if AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is not simple.

13.15.5.2 Runtime Semantics: DestructuringAssignmentEvaluation

With parameter value.

ObjectAssignmentPattern : { }

1. Perform ? RequireObjectCoercible(value).
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2. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

ObjectAssignmentPattern :
{ AssignmentPropertyList }
{ AssignmentPropertyList , }

1. Perform ? RequireObjectCoercible(value).
2. Perform ? PropertyDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation for AssignmentPropertyList using
value as the argument.
3. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

ArrayAssignmentPattern : [ ]

1. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(value).

2. Return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, NormalCompletion(empty)).

ArrayAssignmentPattern : [ Elision ]

1. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(value).

2. Let result be IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with argument
iteratorRecord.
3. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false, return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, result).
4. Return result.

ArrayAssignmentPattern : [ Elisionopt AssignmentRestElement ]

1. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(value).

2. If Elision is present, then
a. Let status be IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with argument
iteratorRecord.
b. If status is an abrupt completion, then
i. Assert: iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is true.
ii. Return Completion(status).
3. Let result be IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentRestElement with
argument iteratorRecord.
4. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false, return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, result).
5. Return result.

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ArrayAssignmentPattern : [ AssignmentElementList ]

1. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(value).

2. Let result be IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentElementList with
argument iteratorRecord.
3. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false, return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, result).
4. Return result.

ArrayAssignmentPattern : [ AssignmentElementList , Elisionopt

AssignmentRestElementopt ]

1. Let iteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(value).

2. Let status be IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentElementList with
argument iteratorRecord.
3. If status is an abrupt completion, then
a. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false, return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, status).
b. Return Completion(status).
4. If Elision is present, then
a. Set status to the result of performing IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of
Elision with iteratorRecord as the argument.
b. If status is an abrupt completion, then
i. Assert: iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is true.
ii. Return Completion(status).
5. If AssignmentRestElement is present, then
a. Set status to the result of performing IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of
AssignmentRestElement with iteratorRecord as the argument.
6. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false, return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, status).
7. Return Completion(status).

ObjectAssignmentPattern : { AssignmentRestProperty }

1. Perform ? RequireObjectCoercible(value).
2. Let excludedNames be a new empty List.
3. Return the result of performing RestDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of
AssignmentRestProperty with value and excludedNames as the arguments.

ObjectAssignmentPattern : { AssignmentPropertyList , AssignmentRestProperty }

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1. Perform ? RequireObjectCoercible(value).
2. Let excludedNames be ? PropertyDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of
AssignmentPropertyList with argument value.
3. Return the result of performing RestDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of
AssignmentRestProperty with arguments value and excludedNames.

13.15.5.3 Runtime Semantics: PropertyDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation

With parameter value.

NOTE The following operations collect a list of all destructured property names.

AssignmentPropertyList : AssignmentPropertyList , AssignmentProperty

1. Let propertyNames be ? PropertyDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of

AssignmentPropertyList with argument value.
2. Let nextNames be ? PropertyDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentProperty with
argument value.
3. Append each item in nextNames to the end of propertyNames.
4. Return propertyNames.

AssignmentProperty : IdentifierReference Initializeropt

1. Let P be StringValue of IdentifierReference.

2. Let lref be ? ResolveBinding(P).
3. Let v be ? GetV(value, P).
4. If Initializeropt is present and v is undefined, then
a. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Initializer) is true, then
i. Set v to the result of performing NamedEvaluation for Initializer with argument P.
b. Else,
i. Let defaultValue be the result of evaluating Initializer.
ii. Set v to ? GetValue(defaultValue).
5. Perform ? PutValue(lref, v).
6. Return a List whose sole element is P.

AssignmentProperty : PropertyName : AssignmentElement

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1. Let name be the result of evaluating PropertyName.

2. ReturnIfAbrupt(name).
3. Perform ? KeyedDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentElement with value and
name as the arguments.
4. Return a List whose sole element is name.

13.15.5.4 Runtime Semantics: RestDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation

With parameters value and excludedNames.

AssignmentRestProperty : ... DestructuringAssignmentTarget

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating DestructuringAssignmentTarget.

2. ReturnIfAbrupt(lref).
3. Let restObj be ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(%Object.prototype%).
4. Perform ? CopyDataProperties(restObj, value, excludedNames).
5. Return PutValue(lref, restObj).

13.15.5.5 Runtime Semantics: IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation

With parameter iteratorRecord.

AssignmentElementList : AssignmentElisionElement

1. Return the result of performing IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of

AssignmentElisionElement using iteratorRecord as the argument.

AssignmentElementList : AssignmentElementList , AssignmentElisionElement

1. Perform ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of AssignmentElementList using

iteratorRecord as the argument.
2. Return the result of performing IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of
AssignmentElisionElement using iteratorRecord as the argument.

AssignmentElisionElement : AssignmentElement

1. Return the result of performing IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of

AssignmentElement with iteratorRecord as the argument.

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AssignmentElisionElement : Elision AssignmentElement

1. Perform ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with iteratorRecord as the

argument.
2. Return the result of performing IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of
AssignmentElement with iteratorRecord as the argument.

Elision : ,

1. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false, then

a. Let next be IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
c. ReturnIfAbrupt(next).
d. If next is false, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
2. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

Elision : Elision ,

1. Perform ? IteratorDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of Elision with iteratorRecord as the

argument.
2. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false, then
a. Let next be IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
c. ReturnIfAbrupt(next).
d. If next is false, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
3. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

AssignmentElement : DestructuringAssignmentTarget Initializeropt

1. If DestructuringAssignmentTarget is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, then

a. Let lref be the result of evaluating DestructuringAssignmentTarget.
b. ReturnIfAbrupt(lref).
2. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false, then
a. Let next be IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
c. ReturnIfAbrupt(next).
d. If next is false, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
e. Else,
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i. Let value be IteratorValue(next).

ii. If value is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
iii. ReturnIfAbrupt(value).
3. If iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is true, let value be undefined.
4. If Initializer is present and value is undefined, then
a. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Initializer) is true and IsIdentifierRef of
DestructuringAssignmentTarget is true, then
i. Let v be ? NamedEvaluation of Initializer with argument lref.[[ReferencedName]].
b. Else,
i. Let defaultValue be the result of evaluating Initializer.
ii. Let v be ? GetValue(defaultValue).
5. Else, let v be value.
6. If DestructuringAssignmentTarget is an ObjectLiteral or an ArrayLiteral, then
a. Let nestedAssignmentPattern be the AssignmentPattern that is covered by
DestructuringAssignmentTarget.
b. Return the result of performing DestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of
nestedAssignmentPattern with v as the argument.
7. Return ? PutValue(lref, v).

NOTE Left to right evaluation order is maintained by evaluating a

DestructuringAssignmentTarget that is not a destructuring pattern prior to accessing
the iterator or evaluating the Initializer.

AssignmentRestElement : ... DestructuringAssignmentTarget

1. If DestructuringAssignmentTarget is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, then

a. Let lref be the result of evaluating DestructuringAssignmentTarget.
b. ReturnIfAbrupt(lref).
2. Let A be ! ArrayCreate(0).
3. Let n be 0.
4. Repeat, while iteratorRecord.[[Done]] is false,
a. Let next be IteratorStep(iteratorRecord).
b. If next is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
c. ReturnIfAbrupt(next).
d. If next is false, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
e. Else,

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i. Let nextValue be IteratorValue(next).

ii. If nextValue is an abrupt completion, set iteratorRecord.[[Done]] to true.
iii. ReturnIfAbrupt(nextValue).
iv. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(A, ! ToString(𝔽(n)), nextValue).
v. Set n to n + 1.
5. If DestructuringAssignmentTarget is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, then
a. Return ? PutValue(lref, A).
6. Let nestedAssignmentPattern be the AssignmentPattern that is covered by
DestructuringAssignmentTarget.
7. Return the result of performing DestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of
nestedAssignmentPattern with A as the argument.

13.15.5.6 Runtime Semantics: KeyedDestructuringAssignmentEvaluation

With parameters value and propertyName.

AssignmentElement : DestructuringAssignmentTarget Initializeropt

1. If DestructuringAssignmentTarget is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, then

a. Let lref be the result of evaluating DestructuringAssignmentTarget.
b. ReturnIfAbrupt(lref).
2. Let v be ? GetV(value, propertyName).
3. If Initializer is present and v is undefined, then
a. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Initializer) and IsIdentifierRef of
DestructuringAssignmentTarget are both true, then
i. Let rhsValue be ? NamedEvaluation of Initializer with argument lref.
[[ReferencedName]].
b. Else,
i. Let defaultValue be the result of evaluating Initializer.
ii. Let rhsValue be ? GetValue(defaultValue).
4. Else, let rhsValue be v.
5. If DestructuringAssignmentTarget is an ObjectLiteral or an ArrayLiteral, then
a. Let assignmentPattern be the AssignmentPattern that is covered by
DestructuringAssignmentTarget.
b. Return the result of performing DestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of
assignmentPattern with rhsValue as the argument.
6. Return ? PutValue(lref, rhsValue).
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13.16 Comma Operator ( , )

Syntax

Expression[In, Yield, Await] :

AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
Expression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ,
AssignmentExpression[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

13.16.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

Expression : Expression , AssignmentExpression

1. Let lref be the result of evaluating Expression.

2. Perform ? GetValue(lref).
3. Let rref be the result of evaluating AssignmentExpression.
4. Return ? GetValue(rref).

NOTE GetValue must be called even though its value is not used because it may have
observable side-effects.

14 ECMAScript Language: Statements and

Declarations
Syntax
Statement[Yield, Await, Return] :
BlockStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
VariableStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
IfStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

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BreakableStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

ContinueStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
BreakStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
[+Return] ReturnStatement[?Yield, ?Await]

WithStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

LabelledStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
ThrowStatement[?Yield, ?Await]
TryStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
DebuggerStatement

Declaration[Yield, Await] :
HoistableDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default]
ClassDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default]
LexicalDeclaration[+In, ?Yield, ?Await]

HoistableDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :

FunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ?Default]
GeneratorDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ?Default]
AsyncFunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ?Default]
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ?Default]

BreakableStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

IterationStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
SwitchStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

14.1 Statement Semantics

14.1.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

HoistableDeclaration :
GeneratorDeclaration
AsyncFunctionDeclaration

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AsyncGeneratorDeclaration

1. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

HoistableDeclaration : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return the result of evaluating FunctionDeclaration.

BreakableStatement :
IterationStatement
SwitchStatement

1. Let newLabelSet be a new empty List.

2. Return the result of performing LabelledEvaluation of this BreakableStatement with argument
newLabelSet.

14.2 Block
Syntax

BlockStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

Block[Yield, Await, Return] :

{ StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt }

StatementList[Yield, Await, Return] :

StatementListItem[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
StatementListItem[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

StatementListItem[Yield, Await, Return] :

Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
Declaration[?Yield, ?Await]

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14.2.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

Block : { StatementList }

It is a Syntax Error if the LexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList contains any duplicate

entries.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of StatementList also occurs
in the VarDeclaredNames of StatementList.

14.2.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

Block : { }

1. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

Block : { StatementList }

1. Let oldEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.

2. Let blockEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(oldEnv).
3. Perform BlockDeclarationInstantiation(StatementList, blockEnv).
4. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to blockEnv.
5. Let blockValue be the result of evaluating StatementList.
6. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
7. Return blockValue.

NOTE 1 No matter how control leaves the Block the LexicalEnvironment is always restored
to its former state.

StatementList : StatementList StatementListItem

1. Let sl be the result of evaluating StatementList.

2. ReturnIfAbrupt(sl).
3. Let s be the result of evaluating StatementListItem.
4. Return Completion(UpdateEmpty(s, sl)).

NOTE 2 The value of a StatementList is the value of the last value-producing item in the
StatementList. For example, the following calls to the eval function all return the
value 1:

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eval("1;;;;;")
eval("1;{}")
eval("1;var a;")

14.2.3 BlockDeclarationInstantiation ( code, env )

NOTE When a Block or CaseBlock is evaluated a new declarative Environment Record is

created and bindings for each block scoped variable, constant, function, or class
declared in the block are instantiated in the Environment Record.

The abstract operation BlockDeclarationInstantiation takes arguments code (a Parse Node) and env
(an Environment Record). code is the Parse Node corresponding to the body of the block. env is the
Environment Record in which bindings are to be created. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. Assert: env is a declarative Environment Record.

2. Let declarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of code.
3. For each element d of declarations, do
a. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then
1. Perform ! env.CreateImmutableBinding(dn, true).
ii. Else,
1. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding(dn, false). NOTE: This step is replaced
in section B.3.3.6.
b. If d is a FunctionDeclaration, a GeneratorDeclaration, an AsyncFunctionDeclaration, or
an AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, then
i. Let fn be the sole element of the BoundNames of d.
ii. Let fo be InstantiateFunctionObject of d with argument env.
iii. Perform env.InitializeBinding(fn, fo). NOTE: This step is replaced in section
B.3.3.6.

14.3 Declarations and the Variable Statement

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14.3.1 Let and Const Declarations

NOTE let and const declarations define variables that are scoped to the running
execution context's LexicalEnvironment. The variables are created when their
containing Environment Record is instantiated but may not be accessed in any way
until the variable's LexicalBinding is evaluated. A variable defined by a
LexicalBinding with an Initializer is assigned the value of its Initializer's
AssignmentExpression when the LexicalBinding is evaluated, not when the variable
is created. If a LexicalBinding in a let declaration does not have an Initializer the
variable is assigned the value undefined when the LexicalBinding is evaluated.

Syntax

LexicalDeclaration[In, Yield, Await] :

LetOrConst BindingList[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;

LetOrConst :
let
const

BindingList[In, Yield, Await] :

LexicalBinding[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
BindingList[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] , LexicalBinding[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

LexicalBinding[In, Yield, Await] :

BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

14.3.1.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

LexicalDeclaration : LetOrConst BindingList ;

It is a Syntax Error if the BoundNames of BindingList contains "let".

It is a Syntax Error if the BoundNames of BindingList contains any duplicate entries.

LexicalBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializeropt

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It is a Syntax Error if Initializer is not present and IsConstantDeclaration of the

LexicalDeclaration containing this LexicalBinding is true.

14.3.1.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

LexicalDeclaration : LetOrConst BindingList ;

1. Let next be the result of evaluating BindingList.

2. ReturnIfAbrupt(next).
3. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

BindingList : BindingList , LexicalBinding

1. Let next be the result of evaluating BindingList.

2. ReturnIfAbrupt(next).
3. Return the result of evaluating LexicalBinding.

LexicalBinding : BindingIdentifier

1. Let lhs be ResolveBinding(StringValue of BindingIdentifier).

2. Return InitializeReferencedBinding(lhs, undefined).

NOTE A static semantics rule ensures that this form of LexicalBinding never occurs in a
const declaration.

LexicalBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializer

1. Let bindingId be StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Let lhs be ResolveBinding(bindingId).
3. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Initializer) is true, then
a. Let value be NamedEvaluation of Initializer with argument bindingId.
4. Else,
a. Let rhs be the result of evaluating Initializer.
b. Let value be ? GetValue(rhs).
5. Return InitializeReferencedBinding(lhs, value).

LexicalBinding : BindingPattern Initializer

1. Let rhs be the result of evaluating Initializer.

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2. Let value be ? GetValue(rhs).

3. Let env be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
4. Return the result of performing BindingInitialization for BindingPattern using value and env as
the arguments.

14.3.2 Variable Statement

NOTE A var statement declares variables that are scoped to the running execution
context's VariableEnvironment. Var variables are created when their containing
Environment Record is instantiated and are initialized to undefined when created.
Within the scope of any VariableEnvironment a common BindingIdentifier may
appear in more than one VariableDeclaration but those declarations collectively
define only one variable. A variable defined by a VariableDeclaration with an
Initializer is assigned the value of its Initializer's AssignmentExpression when the
VariableDeclaration is executed, not when the variable is created.

Syntax

VariableStatement[Yield, Await] :
var VariableDeclarationList[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;

VariableDeclarationList[In, Yield, Await] :

VariableDeclaration[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]
VariableDeclarationList[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] ,
VariableDeclaration[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

VariableDeclaration[In, Yield, Await] :

BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[?In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[?In, ?Yield, ?Await]

14.3.2.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

VariableStatement : var VariableDeclarationList ;

1. Let next be the result of evaluating VariableDeclarationList.

2. ReturnIfAbrupt(next).
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3. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

VariableDeclarationList : VariableDeclarationList , VariableDeclaration

1. Let next be the result of evaluating VariableDeclarationList.

2. ReturnIfAbrupt(next).
3. Return the result of evaluating VariableDeclaration.

VariableDeclaration : BindingIdentifier

1. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

VariableDeclaration : BindingIdentifier Initializer

1. Let bindingId be StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Let lhs be ? ResolveBinding(bindingId).
3. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Initializer) is true, then
a. Let value be NamedEvaluation of Initializer with argument bindingId.
4. Else,
a. Let rhs be the result of evaluating Initializer.
b. Let value be ? GetValue(rhs).
5. Return ? PutValue(lhs, value).

NOTE If a VariableDeclaration is nested within a with statement and the BindingIdentifier

in the VariableDeclaration is the same as a property name of the binding object of
the with statement's object Environment Record, then step 5 will assign value to the
property instead of assigning to the VariableEnvironment binding of the Identifier.

VariableDeclaration : BindingPattern Initializer

1. Let rhs be the result of evaluating Initializer.

2. Let rval be ? GetValue(rhs).
3. Return the result of performing BindingInitialization for BindingPattern passing rval and
undefined as arguments.

14.3.3 Destructuring Binding Patterns

Syntax
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BindingPattern[Yield, Await] :
ObjectBindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]
ArrayBindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]

ObjectBindingPattern[Yield, Await] :
{ }
{ BindingRestProperty[?Yield, ?Await] }
{ BindingPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] }
{ BindingPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] ,
BindingRestProperty[?Yield, ?Await] opt }

ArrayBindingPattern[Yield, Await] :
[ Elisionopt BindingRestElement[?Yield, ?Await] opt ]
[ BindingElementList[?Yield, ?Await] ]
[ BindingElementList[?Yield, ?Await] , Elisionopt
BindingRestElement[?Yield, ?Await] opt ]

BindingRestProperty[Yield, Await] :
... BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]

BindingPropertyList[Yield, Await] :
BindingProperty[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingPropertyList[?Yield, ?Await] , BindingProperty[?Yield, ?Await]

BindingElementList[Yield, Await] :
BindingElisionElement[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingElementList[?Yield, ?Await] ,
BindingElisionElement[?Yield, ?Await]

BindingElisionElement[Yield, Await] :
Elisionopt BindingElement[?Yield, ?Await]

BindingProperty[Yield, Await] :
SingleNameBinding[?Yield, ?Await]
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PropertyName[?Yield, ?Await] : BindingElement[?Yield, ?Await]

BindingElement[Yield, Await] :
SingleNameBinding[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt

SingleNameBinding[Yield, Await] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] Initializer[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt

BindingRestElement[Yield, Await] :
... BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]
... BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]

14.3.3.1 Runtime Semantics: PropertyBindingInitialization

With parameters value and environment.

NOTE These collect a list of all bound property names rather than just empty completion.

BindingPropertyList : BindingPropertyList , BindingProperty

1. Let boundNames be ? PropertyBindingInitialization of BindingPropertyList with arguments

value and environment.
2. Let nextNames be ? PropertyBindingInitialization of BindingProperty with arguments value
and environment.
3. Append each item in nextNames to the end of boundNames.
4. Return boundNames.

BindingProperty : SingleNameBinding

1. Let name be the string that is the only element of BoundNames of SingleNameBinding.
2. Perform ? KeyedBindingInitialization for SingleNameBinding using value, environment, and
name as the arguments.
3. Return a List whose sole element is name.

BindingProperty : PropertyName : BindingElement

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1. Let P be the result of evaluating PropertyName.

2. ReturnIfAbrupt(P).
3. Perform ? KeyedBindingInitialization of BindingElement with value, environment, and P as the
arguments.
4. Return a List whose sole element is P.

14.3.3.2 Runtime Semantics: RestBindingInitialization

With parameters value, environment, and excludedNames.

BindingRestProperty : ... BindingIdentifier

1. Let lhs be ? ResolveBinding(StringValue of BindingIdentifier, environment).

2. Let restObj be ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(%Object.prototype%).
3. Perform ? CopyDataProperties(restObj, value, excludedNames).
4. If environment is undefined, return PutValue(lhs, restObj).
5. Return InitializeReferencedBinding(lhs, restObj).

14.3.3.3 Runtime Semantics: KeyedBindingInitialization

With parameters value, environment, and propertyName.

NOTE When undefined is passed for environment it indicates that a PutValue operation
should be used to assign the initialization value. This is the case for formal
parameter lists of non-strict functions. In that case the formal parameter bindings are
preinitialized in order to deal with the possibility of multiple parameters with the
same name.

BindingElement : BindingPattern Initializeropt

1. Let v be ? GetV(value, propertyName).

2. If Initializer is present and v is undefined, then
a. Let defaultValue be the result of evaluating Initializer.
b. Set v to ? GetValue(defaultValue).
3. Return the result of performing BindingInitialization for BindingPattern passing v and
environment as arguments.

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SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializeropt

1. Let bindingId be StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Let lhs be ? ResolveBinding(bindingId, environment).
3. Let v be ? GetV(value, propertyName).
4. If Initializer is present and v is undefined, then
a. If IsAnonymousFunctionDefinition(Initializer) is true, then
i. Set v to the result of performing NamedEvaluation for Initializer with argument
bindingId.
b. Else,
i. Let defaultValue be the result of evaluating Initializer.
ii. Set v to ? GetValue(defaultValue).
5. If environment is undefined, return ? PutValue(lhs, v).
6. Return InitializeReferencedBinding(lhs, v).

14.4 Empty Statement

Syntax

EmptyStatement :
;

14.4.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

EmptyStatement : ;

1. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

14.5 Expression Statement

Syntax

ExpressionStatement[Yield, Await] :
[lookahead ∉ { { , function , async [no LineTerminator here] function ,
class , let [ }] Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;

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NOTE An ExpressionStatement cannot start with a U+007B (LEFT CURLY BRACKET)

because that might make it ambiguous with a Block. An ExpressionStatement cannot
start with the function or class keywords because that would make it
ambiguous with a FunctionDeclaration, a GeneratorDeclaration, or a
ClassDeclaration. An ExpressionStatement cannot start with async function
because that would make it ambiguous with an AsyncFunctionDeclaration or a
AsyncGeneratorDeclaration. An ExpressionStatement cannot start with the two
token sequence let [ because that would make it ambiguous with a let
LexicalDeclaration whose first LexicalBinding was an ArrayBindingPattern.

14.5.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ExpressionStatement : Expression ;

1. Let exprRef be the result of evaluating Expression.

2. Return ? GetValue(exprRef).

14.6 The if Statement

Syntax

IfStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

if ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] else
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
if ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] [lookahead ≠ else]

NOTE The lookahead-restriction [lookahead ≠ else] resolves the classic "dangling else"
problem in the usual way. That is, when the choice of associated if is otherwise
ambiguous, the else is associated with the nearest (innermost) of the candidate
ifs

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14.6.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(the first Statement) is true.

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(the second Statement) is true.

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(Statement) is true.

NOTE It is only necessary to apply this rule if the extension specified in B.3.2 is
implemented.

14.6.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement else Statement

1. Let exprRef be the result of evaluating Expression.

2. Let exprValue be ! ToBoolean(? GetValue(exprRef)).
3. If exprValue is true, then
a. Let stmtCompletion be the result of evaluating the first Statement.
4. Else,
a. Let stmtCompletion be the result of evaluating the second Statement.
5. Return Completion(UpdateEmpty(stmtCompletion, undefined)).

IfStatement : if ( Expression ) Statement

1. Let exprRef be the result of evaluating Expression.

2. Let exprValue be ! ToBoolean(? GetValue(exprRef)).
3. If exprValue is false, then
a. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).
4. Else,
a. Let stmtCompletion be the result of evaluating Statement.
b. Return Completion(UpdateEmpty(stmtCompletion, undefined)).

14.7 Iteration Statements

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Syntax

IterationStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

DoWhileStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
WhileStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
ForStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
ForInOfStatement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

14.7.1 Semantics

14.7.1.1 LoopContinues ( completion, labelSet )

The abstract operation LoopContinues takes arguments completion and labelSet. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. If completion.[[Type]] is normal, return true.

2. If completion.[[Type]] is not continue, return false.
3. If completion.[[Target]] is empty, return true.
4. If completion.[[Target]] is an element of labelSet, return true.
5. Return false.

NOTE Within the Statement part of an IterationStatement a ContinueStatement may be

used to begin a new iteration.

14.7.1.2 Runtime Semantics: LoopEvaluation

With parameter labelSet.

IterationStatement : DoWhileStatement

1. Return ? DoWhileLoopEvaluation of DoWhileStatement with argument labelSet.

IterationStatement : WhileStatement

1. Return ? WhileLoopEvaluation of WhileStatement with argument labelSet.

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IterationStatement : ForStatement

1. Return ? ForLoopEvaluation of ForStatement with argument labelSet.

IterationStatement : ForInOfStatement

1. Return ? ForInOfLoopEvaluation of ForInOfStatement with argument labelSet.

14.7.2 The do-while Statement

Syntax

DoWhileStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

do Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] while (
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ) ;

14.7.2.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

DoWhileStatement : do Statement while ( Expression ) ;

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(Statement) is true.

NOTE It is only necessary to apply this rule if the extension specified in B.3.2 is
implemented.

14.7.2.2 Runtime Semantics: DoWhileLoopEvaluation

With parameter labelSet.

DoWhileStatement : do Statement while ( Expression ) ;

1. Let V be undefined.
2. Repeat,
a. Let stmtResult be the result of evaluating Statement.
b. If LoopContinues(stmtResult, labelSet) is false, return
Completion(UpdateEmpty(stmtResult, V)).
c. If stmtResult.[[Value]] is not empty, set V to stmtResult.[[Value]].
d. Let exprRef be the result of evaluating Expression.
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e. Let exprValue be ? GetValue(exprRef).

f. If ! ToBoolean(exprValue) is false, return NormalCompletion(V).

14.7.3 The while Statement

Syntax

WhileStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

while ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

14.7.3.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

WhileStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(Statement) is true.

NOTE It is only necessary to apply this rule if the extension specified in B.3.2 is
implemented.

14.7.3.2 Runtime Semantics: WhileLoopEvaluation

With parameter labelSet.

WhileStatement : while ( Expression ) Statement

1. Let V be undefined.
2. Repeat,
a. Let exprRef be the result of evaluating Expression.
b. Let exprValue be ? GetValue(exprRef).
c. If ! ToBoolean(exprValue) is false, return NormalCompletion(V).
d. Let stmtResult be the result of evaluating Statement.
e. If LoopContinues(stmtResult, labelSet) is false, return
Completion(UpdateEmpty(stmtResult, V)).
f. If stmtResult.[[Value]] is not empty, set V to stmtResult.[[Value]].

14.7.4 The for Statement

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Syntax

ForStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

for ( [lookahead ≠ let [] Expression[~In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ;
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ;
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( var VariableDeclarationList[~In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ;
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( LexicalDeclaration[~In, ?Yield, ?Await]
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt ;
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] opt )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

14.7.4.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

ForStatement :
for ( Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( var VariableDeclarationList ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement
for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(Statement) is true.

NOTE It is only necessary to apply this rule if the extension specified in B.3.2 is
implemented.

ForStatement : for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of LexicalDeclaration also occurs in the
VarDeclaredNames of Statement.

14.7.4.2 Runtime Semantics: ForLoopEvaluation

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With parameter labelSet.

ForStatement : for ( Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. If the first Expression is present, then

a. Let exprRef be the result of evaluating the first Expression.
b. Perform ? GetValue(exprRef).
2. Return ? ForBodyEvaluation(the second Expression, the third Expression, Statement, « »,
labelSet).

ForStatement : for ( var VariableDeclarationList ; Expressionopt ; Expressionopt )

Statement

1. Let varDcl be the result of evaluating VariableDeclarationList.

2. ReturnIfAbrupt(varDcl).
3. Return ? ForBodyEvaluation(the first Expression, the second Expression, Statement, « »,
labelSet).

ForStatement : for ( LexicalDeclaration Expressionopt ; Expressionopt ) Statement

1. Let oldEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.

2. Let loopEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(oldEnv).
3. Let isConst be IsConstantDeclaration of LexicalDeclaration.
4. Let boundNames be the BoundNames of LexicalDeclaration.
5. For each element dn of boundNames, do
a. If isConst is true, then
i. Perform ! loopEnv.CreateImmutableBinding(dn, true).
b. Else,
i. Perform ! loopEnv.CreateMutableBinding(dn, false).
6. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to loopEnv.
7. Let forDcl be the result of evaluating LexicalDeclaration.
8. If forDcl is an abrupt completion, then
a. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
b. Return Completion(forDcl).
9. If isConst is false, let perIterationLets be boundNames; otherwise let perIterationLets be « ».
10. Let bodyResult be ForBodyEvaluation(the first Expression, the second Expression, Statement,
perIterationLets, labelSet).

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11. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.

12. Return Completion(bodyResult).

14.7.4.3 ForBodyEvaluation ( test, increment, stmt, perIterationBindings, labelSet )

The abstract operation ForBodyEvaluation takes arguments test, increment, stmt,

perIterationBindings, and labelSet. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Let V be undefined.
2. Perform ? CreatePerIterationEnvironment(perIterationBindings).
3. Repeat,
a. If test is not [empty], then
i. Let testRef be the result of evaluating test.
ii. Let testValue be ? GetValue(testRef).
iii. If ! ToBoolean(testValue) is false, return NormalCompletion(V).
b. Let result be the result of evaluating stmt.
c. If LoopContinues(result, labelSet) is false, return Completion(UpdateEmpty(result, V)).
d. If result.[[Value]] is not empty, set V to result.[[Value]].
e. Perform ? CreatePerIterationEnvironment(perIterationBindings).
f. If increment is not [empty], then
i. Let incRef be the result of evaluating increment.
ii. Perform ? GetValue(incRef).

14.7.4.4 CreatePerIterationEnvironment ( perIterationBindings )

The abstract operation CreatePerIterationEnvironment takes argument perIterationBindings. It

performs the following steps when called:

1. If perIterationBindings has any elements, then

a. Let lastIterationEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
b. Let outer be lastIterationEnv.[[OuterEnv]].
c. Assert: outer is not null.
d. Let thisIterationEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(outer).
e. For each element bn of perIterationBindings, do
i. Perform ! thisIterationEnv.CreateMutableBinding(bn, false).
ii. Let lastValue be ? lastIterationEnv.GetBindingValue(bn, true).
iii. Perform thisIterationEnv.InitializeBinding(bn, lastValue).
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f. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to thisIterationEnv.

2. Return undefined.

14.7.5 The for-in, for-of, and for-await-of Statements

Syntax

ForInOfStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

for ( [lookahead ≠ let [] LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] in
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( var ForBinding[?Yield, ?Await] in
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( ForDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await] in
Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( [lookahead ∉ { let , async of }]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] of
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( var ForBinding[?Yield, ?Await] of
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
for ( ForDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await] of
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
[+Await] for await ( [lookahead ≠ let]
LeftHandSideExpression[?Yield, ?Await] of
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
[+Await]for await ( var ForBinding[?Yield, ?Await] of
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
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Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

[+Await]for await ( ForDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await] of
AssignmentExpression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

ForDeclaration[Yield, Await] :
LetOrConst ForBinding[?Yield, ?Await]

ForBinding[Yield, Await] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]
BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.6.

14.7.5.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

ForInOfStatement :
for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding in Expression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration in Expression ) Statement
for ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(Statement) is true.

NOTE It is only necessary to apply this rule if the extension specified in B.3.2 is
implemented.

ForInOfStatement :
for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement

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for ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

for await ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

If LeftHandSideExpression is either an ObjectLiteral or an ArrayLiteral, the following Early Error

rules are applied:

It is a Syntax Error if LeftHandSideExpression is not covering an AssignmentPattern.

All Early Error rules for AssignmentPattern and its derived productions also apply to the
AssignmentPattern that is covered by LeftHandSideExpression.

If LeftHandSideExpression is neither an ObjectLiteral nor an ArrayLiteral, the following Early Error

rule is applied:

It is a Syntax Error if AssignmentTargetType of LeftHandSideExpression is not simple.

ForInOfStatement :
for ( ForDeclaration in Expression ) Statement
for ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement
for await ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

It is a Syntax Error if the BoundNames of ForDeclaration contains "let".

It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of ForDeclaration also occurs in the
VarDeclaredNames of Statement.
It is a Syntax Error if the BoundNames of ForDeclaration contains any duplicate entries.

14.7.5.2 Static Semantics: IsDestructuring

MemberExpression : PrimaryExpression

1. If PrimaryExpression is either an ObjectLiteral or an ArrayLiteral, return true.

2. Return false.

MemberExpression :
MemberExpression [ Expression ]
MemberExpression . IdentifierName
MemberExpression TemplateLiteral
SuperProperty
MetaProperty
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new MemberExpression Arguments

NewExpression :
new NewExpression
LeftHandSideExpression :
CallExpression
OptionalExpression

1. Return false.

ForDeclaration : LetOrConst ForBinding

1. Return IsDestructuring of ForBinding.

ForBinding : BindingIdentifier

1. Return false.

ForBinding : BindingPattern

1. Return true.

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.6.

14.7.5.3 Runtime Semantics: ForDeclarationBindingInitialization

With parameters value and environment.

NOTE undefined is passed for environment to indicate that a PutValue operation should be
used to assign the initialization value. This is the case for var statements and the
formal parameter lists of some non-strict functions (see 10.2.10). In those cases a
lexical binding is hoisted and preinitialized prior to evaluation of its initializer.

ForDeclaration : LetOrConst ForBinding

1. Return the result of performing BindingInitialization for ForBinding passing value and
environment as the arguments.

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14.7.5.4 Runtime Semantics: ForDeclarationBindingInstantiation

With parameter environment.

ForDeclaration : LetOrConst ForBinding

1. Assert: environment is a declarative Environment Record.

2. For each element name of the BoundNames of ForBinding, do
a. If IsConstantDeclaration of LetOrConst is true, then
i. Perform ! environment.CreateImmutableBinding(name, true).
b. Else,
i. Perform ! environment.CreateMutableBinding(name, false).

14.7.5.5 Runtime Semantics: ForInOfLoopEvaluation

With parameter labelSet.

ForInOfStatement : for ( LeftHandSideExpression in Expression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(« », Expression, enumerate).

2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(LeftHandSideExpression, Statement, keyResult, enumerate,
assignment, labelSet).

ForInOfStatement : for ( var ForBinding in Expression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(« », Expression, enumerate).

2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(ForBinding, Statement, keyResult, enumerate, varBinding,
labelSet).

ForInOfStatement : for ( ForDeclaration in Expression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(BoundNames of ForDeclaration, Expression,

enumerate).
2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(ForDeclaration, Statement, keyResult, enumerate,
lexicalBinding, labelSet).

ForInOfStatement : for ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(« », AssignmentExpression, iterate).

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2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(LeftHandSideExpression, Statement, keyResult, iterate,

assignment, labelSet).

ForInOfStatement : for ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(« », AssignmentExpression, iterate).

2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(ForBinding, Statement, keyResult, iterate, varBinding,
labelSet).

ForInOfStatement : for ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(BoundNames of ForDeclaration,

AssignmentExpression, iterate).
2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(ForDeclaration, Statement, keyResult, iterate,
lexicalBinding, labelSet).

ForInOfStatement : for await ( LeftHandSideExpression of AssignmentExpression )

Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(« », AssignmentExpression, async-iterate).

2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(LeftHandSideExpression, Statement, keyResult, iterate,
assignment, labelSet, async).

ForInOfStatement : for await ( var ForBinding of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(« », AssignmentExpression, async-iterate).

2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(ForBinding, Statement, keyResult, iterate, varBinding,
labelSet, async).

ForInOfStatement : for await ( ForDeclaration of AssignmentExpression ) Statement

1. Let keyResult be ? ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation(BoundNames of ForDeclaration,

AssignmentExpression, async-iterate).
2. Return ? ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation(ForDeclaration, Statement, keyResult, iterate,
lexicalBinding, labelSet, async).

NOTE This section is extended by Annex B.3.6.

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14.7.5.6 ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation ( uninitializedBoundNames, expr, iterationKind )

The abstract operation ForIn/OfHeadEvaluation takes arguments uninitializedBoundNames, expr,

and iterationKind (either enumerate, iterate, or async-iterate). It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Let oldEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.

2. If uninitializedBoundNames is not an empty List, then
a. Assert: uninitializedBoundNames has no duplicate entries.
b. Let newEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(oldEnv).
c. For each String name of uninitializedBoundNames, do
i. Perform ! newEnv.CreateMutableBinding(name, false).
d. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to newEnv.
3. Let exprRef be the result of evaluating expr.
4. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
5. Let exprValue be ? GetValue(exprRef).
6. If iterationKind is enumerate, then
a. If exprValue is undefined or null, then
i. Return Completion { [[Type]]: break, [[Value]]: empty, [[Target]]: empty }.
b. Let obj be ! ToObject(exprValue).
c. Let iterator be ? EnumerateObjectProperties(obj).
d. Let nextMethod be ! GetV(iterator, "next").
e. Return the Record { [[Iterator]]: iterator, [[NextMethod]]: nextMethod, [[Done]]: false }.
7. Else,
a. Assert: iterationKind is iterate or async-iterate.
b. If iterationKind is async-iterate, let iteratorHint be async.
c. Else, let iteratorHint be sync.
d. Return ? GetIterator(exprValue, iteratorHint).

14.7.5.7 ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation ( lhs, stmt, iteratorRecord, iterationKind, lhsKind,

labelSet [ , iteratorKind ] )

The abstract operation ForIn/OfBodyEvaluation takes arguments lhs, stmt, iteratorRecord,

iterationKind, lhsKind (either assignment, varBinding or lexicalBinding), and labelSet and
optional argument iteratorKind (either sync or async). It performs the following steps when called:

1. If iteratorKind is not present, set iteratorKind to sync.

2. Let oldEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
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3. Let V be undefined.
4. Let destructuring be IsDestructuring of lhs.
5. If destructuring is true and if lhsKind is assignment, then
a. Assert: lhs is a LeftHandSideExpression.
b. Let assignmentPattern be the AssignmentPattern that is covered by lhs.
6. Repeat,
a. Let nextResult be ? Call(iteratorRecord.[[NextMethod]], iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]]).
b. If iteratorKind is async, set nextResult to ? Await(nextResult).
c. If Type(nextResult) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
d. Let done be ? IteratorComplete(nextResult).
e. If done is true, return NormalCompletion(V).
f. Let nextValue be ? IteratorValue(nextResult).
g. If lhsKind is either assignment or varBinding, then
i. If destructuring is false, then
1. Let lhsRef be the result of evaluating lhs. (It may be evaluated repeatedly.)
h. Else,
i. Assert: lhsKind is lexicalBinding.
ii. Assert: lhs is a ForDeclaration.
iii. Let iterationEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(oldEnv).
iv. Perform ForDeclarationBindingInstantiation for lhs passing iterationEnv as the
argument.
v. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to iterationEnv.
vi. If destructuring is false, then
1. Assert: lhs binds a single name.
2. Let lhsName be the sole element of BoundNames of lhs.
3. Let lhsRef be ! ResolveBinding(lhsName).
i. If destructuring is false, then
i. If lhsRef is an abrupt completion, then
1. Let status be lhsRef.
ii. Else if lhsKind is lexicalBinding, then
1. Let status be InitializeReferencedBinding(lhsRef, nextValue).
iii. Else,
1. Let status be PutValue(lhsRef, nextValue).
j. Else,
i. If lhsKind is assignment, then

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1. Let status be DestructuringAssignmentEvaluation of assignmentPattern with

argument nextValue.
ii. Else if lhsKind is varBinding, then
1. Assert: lhs is a ForBinding.
2. Let status be BindingInitialization of lhs with arguments nextValue and
undefined.
iii. Else,
1. Assert: lhsKind is lexicalBinding.
2. Assert: lhs is a ForDeclaration.
3. Let status be ForDeclarationBindingInitialization of lhs with arguments
nextValue and iterationEnv.
k. If status is an abrupt completion, then
i. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
ii. If iteratorKind is async, return ? AsyncIteratorClose(iteratorRecord, status).
iii. If iterationKind is enumerate, then
1. Return status.
iv. Else,
1. Assert: iterationKind is iterate.
2. Return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, status).
l. Let result be the result of evaluating stmt.
m. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
n. If LoopContinues(result, labelSet) is false, then
i. If iterationKind is enumerate, then
1. Return Completion(UpdateEmpty(result, V)).
ii. Else,
1. Assert: iterationKind is iterate.
2. Set status to UpdateEmpty(result, V).
3. If iteratorKind is async, return ? AsyncIteratorClose(iteratorRecord, status).
4. Return ? IteratorClose(iteratorRecord, status).
o. If result.[[Value]] is not empty, set V to result.[[Value]].

14.7.5.8 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ForBinding : BindingIdentifier

1. Let bindingId be StringValue of BindingIdentifier.

2. Return ? ResolveBinding(bindingId).
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14.7.5.9 EnumerateObjectProperties ( O )

The abstract operation EnumerateObjectProperties takes argument O. It performs the following steps
when called:

1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.

2. Return an Iterator object (27.1.1.2) whose next method iterates over all the String-valued
keys of enumerable properties of O. The iterator object is never directly accessible to
ECMAScript code. The mechanics and order of enumerating the properties is not specified but
must conform to the rules specified below.

The iterator's throw and return methods are null and are never invoked. The iterator's next
method processes object properties to determine whether the property key should be returned as an
iterator value. Returned property keys do not include keys that are Symbols. Properties of the target
object may be deleted during enumeration. A property that is deleted before it is processed by the
iterator's next method is ignored. If new properties are added to the target object during
enumeration, the newly added properties are not guaranteed to be processed in the active
enumeration. A property name will be returned by the iterator's next method at most once in any
enumeration.

Enumerating the properties of the target object includes enumerating properties of its prototype, and
the prototype of the prototype, and so on, recursively; but a property of a prototype is not processed
if it has the same name as a property that has already been processed by the iterator's next method.
The values of [[Enumerable]] attributes are not considered when determining if a property of a
prototype object has already been processed. The enumerable property names of prototype objects
must be obtained by invoking EnumerateObjectProperties passing the prototype object as the
argument. EnumerateObjectProperties must obtain the own property keys of the target object by
calling its [[OwnPropertyKeys]] internal method. Property attributes of the target object must be
obtained by calling its [[GetOwnProperty]] internal method.

In addition, if neither O nor any object in its prototype chain is a Proxy exotic object, Integer-
Indexed exotic object, module namespace exotic object, or implementation provided exotic object,
then the iterator must behave as would the iterator given by CreateForInIterator(O) until one of the
following occurs:

the value of the [[Prototype]] internal slot of O or an object in its prototype chain changes,
a property is removed from O or an object in its prototype chain,
a property is added to an object in O's prototype chain, or
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the value of the [[Enumerable]] attribute of a property of O or an object in its prototype chain
changes.

NOTE 1 ECMAScript implementations are not required to implement the algorithm in

14.7.5.10.2.1 directly. They may choose any implementation whose behaviour will
not deviate from that algorithm unless one of the constraints in the previous
paragraph is violated.

The following is an informative definition of an ECMAScript generator function

that conforms to these rules:

function* EnumerateObjectProperties(obj) {
const visited = new Set();
for (const key of Reflect.ownKeys(obj)) {
if (typeof key === "symbol") continue;
const desc = Reflect.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(obj, ke
if (desc) {
visited.add(key);
if (desc.enumerable) yield key;
}
}
const proto = Reflect.getPrototypeOf(obj);
if (proto === null) return;
for (const protoKey of EnumerateObjectProperties(proto)
if (!visited.has(protoKey)) yield protoKey;
}
}

NOTE 2 The list of exotic objects for which implementations are not required to match
CreateForInIterator was chosen because implementations historically differed in
behaviour for those cases, and agreed in all others.

14.7.5.10 For-In Iterator Objects

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A For-In Iterator is an object that represents a specific iteration over some specific object. For-In
Iterator objects are never directly accessible to ECMAScript code; they exist solely to illustrate the
behaviour of EnumerateObjectProperties.

14.7.5.10.1 CreateForInIterator ( object )

The abstract operation CreateForInIterator takes argument object. It is used to create a For-In Iterator
object which iterates over the own and inherited enumerable string properties of object in a specific
order. It performs the following steps when called:

1. Assert: Type(object) is Object.

2. Let iterator be ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(%ForInIteratorPrototype%, « [[Object]],
[[ObjectWasVisited]], [[VisitedKeys]], [[RemainingKeys]] »).
3. Set iterator.[[Object]] to object.
4. Set iterator.[[ObjectWasVisited]] to false.
5. Set iterator.[[VisitedKeys]] to a new empty List.
6. Set iterator.[[RemainingKeys]] to a new empty List.
7. Return iterator.

14.7.5.10.2 The %ForInIteratorPrototype% Object

The %ForInIteratorPrototype% object:

has properties that are inherited by all For-In Iterator Objects.

is an ordinary object.
has a [[Prototype]] internal slot whose value is %IteratorPrototype%.
is never directly accessible to ECMAScript code.
has the following properties:

14.7.5.10.2.1 %ForInIteratorPrototype%.next ( )

1. Let O be the this value.

2. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
3. Assert: O has all of the internal slots of a For-In Iterator Instance (14.7.5.10.3).
4. Let object be O.[[Object]].
5. Let visited be O.[[VisitedKeys]].
6. Let remaining be O.[[RemainingKeys]].
7. Repeat,
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a. If O.[[ObjectWasVisited]] is false, then

i. Let keys be ? object.[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
ii. For each element key of keys, do
1. If Type(key) is String, then
a. Append key to remaining.
iii. Set O.[[ObjectWasVisited]] to true.
b. Repeat, while remaining is not empty,
i. Let r be the first element of remaining.
ii. Remove the first element from remaining.
iii. If there does not exist an element v of visited such that SameValue(r, v) is true, then
1. Let desc be ? object.[[GetOwnProperty]](r).
2. If desc is not undefined, then
a. Append r to visited.
b. If desc.[[Enumerable]] is true, return CreateIterResultObject(r, false).
c. Set object to ? object.[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
d. Set O.[[Object]] to object.
e. Set O.[[ObjectWasVisited]] to false.
f. If object is null, return CreateIterResultObject(undefined, true).

14.7.5.10.3 Properties of For-In Iterator Instances

For-In Iterator instances are ordinary objects that inherit properties from the
%ForInIteratorPrototype% intrinsic object. For-In Iterator instances are initially created with the
internal slots listed in Table 39.

Table 39: Internal Slots of For-In Iterator Instances

Internal Slot Description

[[Object]] The Object value whose properties are being iterated.

[[ObjectWasVisited]] true if the iterator has invoked [[OwnPropertyKeys]] on [[Object]], false

otherwise.

[[VisitedKeys]] A list of String values which have been emitted by this iterator thus far.

[[RemainingKeys]] A list of String values remaining to be emitted for the current object,
before iterating the properties of its prototype (if its prototype is not null).

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14.8 The continue Statement

Syntax

ContinueStatement[Yield, Await] :
continue ;
continue [no LineTerminator here] LabelIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ;

14.8.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

ContinueStatement :
continue ;
continue LabelIdentifier ;

It is a Syntax Error if this ContinueStatement is not nested, directly or indirectly (but not
crossing function boundaries), within an IterationStatement.

14.8.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ContinueStatement : continue ;

1. Return Completion { [[Type]]: continue, [[Value]]: empty, [[Target]]: empty }.

ContinueStatement : continue LabelIdentifier ;

1. Let label be the StringValue of LabelIdentifier.

2. Return Completion { [[Type]]: continue, [[Value]]: empty, [[Target]]: label }.

14.9 The break Statement

Syntax

BreakStatement[Yield, Await] :
break ;
break [no LineTerminator here] LabelIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] ;

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14.9.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

BreakStatement : break ;

It is a Syntax Error if this BreakStatement is not nested, directly or indirectly (but not crossing
function boundaries), within an IterationStatement or a SwitchStatement.

14.9.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

BreakStatement : break ;

1. Return Completion { [[Type]]: break, [[Value]]: empty, [[Target]]: empty }.

BreakStatement : break LabelIdentifier ;

1. Let label be the StringValue of LabelIdentifier.

2. Return Completion { [[Type]]: break, [[Value]]: empty, [[Target]]: label }.

14.10 The return Statement

Syntax

ReturnStatement[Yield, Await] :
return ;
return [no LineTerminator here] Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;

NOTE A return statement causes a function to cease execution and, in most cases,
returns a value to the caller. If Expression is omitted, the return value is undefined.
Otherwise, the return value is the value of Expression. A return statement may
not actually return a value to the caller depending on surrounding context. For
example, in a try block, a return statement's completion record may be replaced
with another completion record during evaluation of the finally block.

14.10.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ReturnStatement : return ;

1. Return Completion { [[Type]]: return, [[Value]]: undefined, [[Target]]: empty }.

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ReturnStatement : return Expression ;

1. Let exprRef be the result of evaluating Expression.

2. Let exprValue be ? GetValue(exprRef).
3. If ! GetGeneratorKind() is async, set exprValue to ? Await(exprValue).
4. Return Completion { [[Type]]: return, [[Value]]: exprValue, [[Target]]: empty }.

14.11 The with Statement

Syntax

WithStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

with ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

NOTE The with statement adds an object Environment Record for a computed object to
the lexical environment of the running execution context. It then executes a
statement using this augmented lexical environment. Finally, it restores the original
lexical environment.

14.11.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement

It is a Syntax Error if the code that matches this production is contained in strict mode code.
It is a Syntax Error if IsLabelledFunction(Statement) is true.

NOTE It is only necessary to apply the second rule if the extension specified in B.3.2 is
implemented.

14.11.2 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

WithStatement : with ( Expression ) Statement

1. Let val be the result of evaluating Expression.

2. Let obj be ? ToObject(? GetValue(val)).
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3. Let oldEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.

4. Let newEnv be NewObjectEnvironment(obj, true, oldEnv).
5. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to newEnv.
6. Let C be the result of evaluating Statement.
7. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
8. Return Completion(UpdateEmpty(C, undefined)).

NOTE No matter how control leaves the embedded Statement, whether normally or by
some form of abrupt completion or exception, the LexicalEnvironment is always
restored to its former state.

14.12 The switch Statement

Syntax

SwitchStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

switch ( Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] )
CaseBlock[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

CaseBlock[Yield, Await, Return] :

{ CaseClauses[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt }
{ CaseClauses[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt
DefaultClause[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
CaseClauses[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt }

CaseClauses[Yield, Await, Return] :

CaseClause[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
CaseClauses[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
CaseClause[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

CaseClause[Yield, Await, Return] :

case Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] :
StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt

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DefaultClause[Yield, Await, Return] :

default : StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] opt

14.12.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

It is a Syntax Error if the LexicallyDeclaredNames of CaseBlock contains any duplicate entries.

It is a Syntax Error if any element of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of CaseBlock also occurs in
the VarDeclaredNames of CaseBlock.

14.12.2 Runtime Semantics: CaseBlockEvaluation

With parameter input.

CaseBlock : { }

1. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).

CaseBlock : { CaseClauses }

1. Let V be undefined.
2. Let A be the List of CaseClause items in CaseClauses, in source text order.
3. Let found be false.
4. For each CaseClause C of A, do
a. If found is false, then
i. Set found to ? CaseClauseIsSelected(C, input).
b. If found is true, then
i. Let R be the result of evaluating C.
ii. If R.[[Value]] is not empty, set V to R.[[Value]].
iii. If R is an abrupt completion, return Completion(UpdateEmpty(R, V)).
5. Return NormalCompletion(V).

CaseBlock : { CaseClausesopt DefaultClause CaseClausesopt }

1. Let V be undefined.
2. If the first CaseClauses is present, then
a. Let A be the List of CaseClause items in the first CaseClauses, in source text order.
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3. Else,
a. Let A be « ».
4. Let found be false.
5. For each CaseClause C of A, do
a. If found is false, then
i. Set found to ? CaseClauseIsSelected(C, input).
b. If found is true, then
i. Let R be the result of evaluating C.
ii. If R.[[Value]] is not empty, set V to R.[[Value]].
iii. If R is an abrupt completion, return Completion(UpdateEmpty(R, V)).
6. Let foundInB be false.
7. If the second CaseClauses is present, then
a. Let B be the List of CaseClause items in the second CaseClauses, in source text order.
8. Else,
a. Let B be « ».
9. If found is false, then
a. For each CaseClause C of B, do
i. If foundInB is false, then
1. Set foundInB to ? CaseClauseIsSelected(C, input).
ii. If foundInB is true, then
1. Let R be the result of evaluating CaseClause C.
2. If R.[[Value]] is not empty, set V to R.[[Value]].
3. If R is an abrupt completion, return Completion(UpdateEmpty(R, V)).
10. If foundInB is true, return NormalCompletion(V).
11. Let R be the result of evaluating DefaultClause.
12. If R.[[Value]] is not empty, set V to R.[[Value]].
13. If R is an abrupt completion, return Completion(UpdateEmpty(R, V)).
14. NOTE: The following is another complete iteration of the second CaseClauses.
15. For each CaseClause C of B, do
a. Let R be the result of evaluating CaseClause C.
b. If R.[[Value]] is not empty, set V to R.[[Value]].
c. If R is an abrupt completion, return Completion(UpdateEmpty(R, V)).
16. Return NormalCompletion(V).

14.12.3 CaseClauseIsSelected ( C, input )

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The abstract operation CaseClauseIsSelected takes arguments C (a Parse Node for CaseClause) and
input (an ECMAScript language value). It determines whether C matches input. It performs the
following steps when called:

1. Assert: C is an instance of the production CaseClause : case Expression :

StatementListopt .
2. Let exprRef be the result of evaluating the Expression of C.
3. Let clauseSelector be ? GetValue(exprRef).
4. Return the result of performing Strict Equality Comparison input === clauseSelector.

NOTE This operation does not execute C's StatementList (if any). The CaseBlock algorithm
uses its return value to determine which StatementList to start executing.

14.12.4 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

SwitchStatement : switch ( Expression ) CaseBlock

1. Let exprRef be the result of evaluating Expression.

2. Let switchValue be ? GetValue(exprRef).
3. Let oldEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.
4. Let blockEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(oldEnv).
5. Perform BlockDeclarationInstantiation(CaseBlock, blockEnv).
6. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to blockEnv.
7. Let R be CaseBlockEvaluation of CaseBlock with argument switchValue.
8. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
9. Return R.

NOTE No matter how control leaves the SwitchStatement the LexicalEnvironment is

always restored to its former state.

CaseClause : case Expression :

1. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

CaseClause : case Expression : StatementList

1. Return the result of evaluating StatementList.

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DefaultClause : default :

1. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

DefaultClause : default : StatementList

1. Return the result of evaluating StatementList.

14.13 Labelled Statements

Syntax

LabelledStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

LabelIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] : LabelledItem[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

LabelledItem[Yield, Await, Return] :

Statement[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
FunctionDeclaration[?Yield, ?Await, ~Default]

NOTE A Statement may be prefixed by a label. Labelled statements are only used in
conjunction with labelled break and continue statements. ECMAScript has no
goto statement. A Statement can be part of a LabelledStatement, which itself can
be part of a LabelledStatement, and so on. The labels introduced this way are
collectively referred to as the “current label set” when describing the semantics of
individual statements.

14.13.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

It is a Syntax Error if any source text matches this rule.

NOTE An alternative definition for this rule is provided in B.3.2.

14.13.2 Static Semantics: IsLabelledFunction ( stmt )

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The abstract operation IsLabelledFunction takes argument stmt. It performs the following steps when
called:

1. If stmt is not a LabelledStatement, return false.

2. Let item be the LabelledItem of stmt.
3. If item is LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration , return true.
4. Let subStmt be the Statement of item.
5. Return IsLabelledFunction(subStmt).

14.13.3 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Let newLabelSet be a new empty List.

2. Return LabelledEvaluation of this LabelledStatement with argument newLabelSet.

14.13.4 Runtime Semantics: LabelledEvaluation

With parameter labelSet.

BreakableStatement : IterationStatement

1. Let stmtResult be LoopEvaluation of IterationStatement with argument labelSet.

2. If stmtResult.[[Type]] is break, then
a. If stmtResult.[[Target]] is empty, then
i. If stmtResult.[[Value]] is empty, set stmtResult to NormalCompletion(undefined).
ii. Else, set stmtResult to NormalCompletion(stmtResult.[[Value]]).
3. Return Completion(stmtResult).

BreakableStatement : SwitchStatement

1. Let stmtResult be the result of evaluating SwitchStatement.

2. If stmtResult.[[Type]] is break, then
a. If stmtResult.[[Target]] is empty, then
i. If stmtResult.[[Value]] is empty, set stmtResult to NormalCompletion(undefined).
ii. Else, set stmtResult to NormalCompletion(stmtResult.[[Value]]).
3. Return Completion(stmtResult).

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NOTE 1 A BreakableStatement is one that can be exited via an unlabelled BreakStatement.

LabelledStatement : LabelIdentifier : LabelledItem

1. Let label be the StringValue of LabelIdentifier.

2. Append label as an element of labelSet.
3. Let stmtResult be LabelledEvaluation of LabelledItem with argument labelSet.
4. If stmtResult.[[Type]] is break and SameValue(stmtResult.[[Target]], label) is true, then
a. Set stmtResult to NormalCompletion(stmtResult.[[Value]]).
5. Return Completion(stmtResult).

LabelledItem : FunctionDeclaration

1. Return the result of evaluating FunctionDeclaration.

Statement :
BlockStatement
VariableStatement
EmptyStatement
ExpressionStatement
IfStatement
ContinueStatement
BreakStatement
ReturnStatement
WithStatement
ThrowStatement
TryStatement
DebuggerStatement

1. Return the result of evaluating Statement.

NOTE 2 The only two productions of Statement which have special semantics for
LabelledEvaluation are BreakableStatement and LabelledStatement.

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14.14 The throw Statement

Syntax

ThrowStatement[Yield, Await] :
throw [no LineTerminator here] Expression[+In, ?Yield, ?Await] ;

14.14.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

ThrowStatement : throw Expression ;

1. Let exprRef be the result of evaluating Expression.

2. Let exprValue be ? GetValue(exprRef).
3. Return ThrowCompletion(exprValue).

14.15 The try Statement

Syntax

TryStatement[Yield, Await, Return] :

try Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] Catch[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
try Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] Finally[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
try Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return] Catch[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
Finally[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

Catch[Yield, Await, Return] :

catch ( CatchParameter[?Yield, ?Await] )
Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]
catch Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

Finally[Yield, Await, Return] :

finally Block[?Yield, ?Await, ?Return]

CatchParameter[Yield, Await] :
BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await]

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BindingPattern[?Yield, ?Await]

NOTE The try statement encloses a block of code in which an exceptional condition can
occur, such as a runtime error or a throw statement. The catch clause provides
the exception-handling code. When a catch clause catches an exception, its
CatchParameter is bound to that exception.

14.15.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

It is a Syntax Error if BoundNames of CatchParameter contains any duplicate elements.

It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of CatchParameter also occurs in the
LexicallyDeclaredNames of Block.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of CatchParameter also occurs in the
VarDeclaredNames of Block.

NOTE An alternative static semantics for this production is given in B.3.5.

14.15.2 Runtime Semantics: CatchClauseEvaluation

With parameter thrownValue.

Catch : catch ( CatchParameter ) Block

1. Let oldEnv be the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment.

2. Let catchEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(oldEnv).
3. For each element argName of the BoundNames of CatchParameter, do
a. Perform ! catchEnv.CreateMutableBinding(argName, false).
4. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to catchEnv.
5. Let status be BindingInitialization of CatchParameter with arguments thrownValue and
catchEnv.
6. If status is an abrupt completion, then
a. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.
b. Return Completion(status).
7. Let B be the result of evaluating Block.

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8. Set the running execution context's LexicalEnvironment to oldEnv.

9. Return Completion(B).

Catch : catch Block

1. Return the result of evaluating Block.

NOTE No matter how control leaves the Block the LexicalEnvironment is always restored
to its former state.

14.15.3 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

TryStatement : try Block Catch

1. Let B be the result of evaluating Block.

2. If B.[[Type]] is throw, let C be CatchClauseEvaluation of Catch with argument B.[[Value]].
3. Else, let C be B.
4. Return Completion(UpdateEmpty(C, undefined)).

TryStatement : try Block Finally

1. Let B be the result of evaluating Block.

2. Let F be the result of evaluating Finally.
3. If F.[[Type]] is normal, set F to B.
4. Return Completion(UpdateEmpty(F, undefined)).

TryStatement : try Block Catch Finally

1. Let B be the result of evaluating Block.

2. If B.[[Type]] is throw, let C be CatchClauseEvaluation of Catch with argument B.[[Value]].
3. Else, let C be B.
4. Let F be the result of evaluating Finally.
5. If F.[[Type]] is normal, set F to C.
6. Return Completion(UpdateEmpty(F, undefined)).

14.16 The debugger Statement

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Syntax

DebuggerStatement :
debugger ;

14.16.1 Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

NOTE Evaluating a DebuggerStatement may allow an implementation to cause a

breakpoint when run under a debugger. If a debugger is not present or active this
statement has no observable effect.

DebuggerStatement : debugger ;

1. If an implementation-defined debugging facility is available and enabled, then

a. Perform an implementation-defined debugging action.
b. Let result be an implementation-defined Completion value.
2. Else,
a. Let result be NormalCompletion(empty).
3. Return result.

15 ECMAScript Language: Functions and

Classes
NOTE Various ECMAScript language elements cause the creation of ECMAScript function
objects (10.2). Evaluation of such functions starts with the execution of their [[Call]]
internal method (10.2.1).

15.1 Parameter Lists

Syntax

UniqueFormalParameters[Yield, Await] :

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FormalParameters[?Yield, ?Await]

FormalParameters[Yield, Await] :
[empty]
FunctionRestParameter[?Yield, ?Await]
FormalParameterList[?Yield, ?Await]
FormalParameterList[?Yield, ?Await] ,
FormalParameterList[?Yield, ?Await] ,
FunctionRestParameter[?Yield, ?Await]

FormalParameterList[Yield, Await] :
FormalParameter[?Yield, ?Await]
FormalParameterList[?Yield, ?Await] , FormalParameter[?Yield, ?Await]

FunctionRestParameter[Yield, Await] :
BindingRestElement[?Yield, ?Await]

FormalParameter[Yield, Await] :
BindingElement[?Yield, ?Await]

15.1.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

UniqueFormalParameters : FormalParameters

It is a Syntax Error if BoundNames of FormalParameters contains any duplicate elements.

FormalParameters : FormalParameterList

It is a Syntax Error if IsSimpleParameterList of FormalParameterList is false and

BoundNames of FormalParameterList contains any duplicate elements.

NOTE Multiple occurrences of the same BindingIdentifier in a FormalParameterList is

only allowed for functions which have simple parameter lists and which are not
defined in strict mode code.

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15.1.2 Static Semantics: ContainsExpression

ObjectBindingPattern :
{ }
{ BindingRestProperty }

1. Return false.

ObjectBindingPattern : { BindingPropertyList , BindingRestProperty }

1. Return ContainsExpression of BindingPropertyList.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ Elisionopt ]

1. Return false.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ Elisionopt BindingRestElement ]

1. Return ContainsExpression of BindingRestElement.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ BindingElementList , Elisionopt ]

1. Return ContainsExpression of BindingElementList.

ArrayBindingPattern : [ BindingElementList , Elisionopt BindingRestElement ]

1. Let has be ContainsExpression of BindingElementList.

2. If has is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsExpression of BindingRestElement.

BindingPropertyList : BindingPropertyList , BindingProperty

1. Let has be ContainsExpression of BindingPropertyList.

2. If has is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsExpression of BindingProperty.

BindingElementList : BindingElementList , BindingElisionElement

1. Let has be ContainsExpression of BindingElementList.

2. If has is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsExpression of BindingElisionElement.

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BindingElisionElement : Elisionopt BindingElement

1. Return ContainsExpression of BindingElement.

BindingProperty : PropertyName : BindingElement

1. Let has be IsComputedPropertyKey of PropertyName.

2. If has is true, return true.
3. Return ContainsExpression of BindingElement.

BindingElement : BindingPattern Initializer

1. Return true.

SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier

1. Return false.

SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializer

1. Return true.

BindingRestElement : ... BindingIdentifier

1. Return false.

BindingRestElement : ... BindingPattern

1. Return ContainsExpression of BindingPattern.

FormalParameters : [empty]

1. Return false.

FormalParameters : FormalParameterList , FunctionRestParameter

1. If ContainsExpression of FormalParameterList is true, return true.

2. Return ContainsExpression of FunctionRestParameter.

FormalParameterList : FormalParameterList , FormalParameter

1. If ContainsExpression of FormalParameterList is true, return true.

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2. Return ContainsExpression of FormalParameter.

ArrowParameters : BindingIdentifier

1. Return false.

ArrowParameters : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let formals be the ArrowFormalParameters that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return ContainsExpression of formals.

AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier : BindingIdentifier

1. Return false.

15.1.3 Static Semantics: IsSimpleParameterList

BindingElement : BindingPattern

1. Return false.

BindingElement : BindingPattern Initializer

1. Return false.

SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier

1. Return true.

SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializer

1. Return false.

FormalParameters : [empty]

1. Return true.

FormalParameters : FunctionRestParameter

1. Return false.

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FormalParameters : FormalParameterList , FunctionRestParameter

1. Return false.

FormalParameterList : FormalParameterList , FormalParameter

1. If IsSimpleParameterList of FormalParameterList is false, return false.

2. Return IsSimpleParameterList of FormalParameter.

FormalParameter : BindingElement

1. Return IsSimpleParameterList of BindingElement.

ArrowParameters : BindingIdentifier

1. Return true.

ArrowParameters : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let formals be the ArrowFormalParameters that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return IsSimpleParameterList of formals.

AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier[Yield] : BindingIdentifier[?Yield, +Await]

1. Return true.

CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead : MemberExpression Arguments

1. Let head be the AsyncArrowHead that is covered by

CoverCallExpressionAndAsyncArrowHead.
2. Return IsSimpleParameterList of head.

15.1.4 Static Semantics: HasInitializer

BindingElement : BindingPattern

1. Return false.

BindingElement : BindingPattern Initializer

1. Return true.
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SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier

1. Return false.

SingleNameBinding : BindingIdentifier Initializer

1. Return true.

FormalParameterList : FormalParameterList , FormalParameter

1. If HasInitializer of FormalParameterList is true, return true.

2. Return HasInitializer of FormalParameter.

15.1.5 Static Semantics: ExpectedArgumentCount

FormalParameters :
[empty]
FunctionRestParameter

1. Return 0.

FormalParameters : FormalParameterList , FunctionRestParameter

1. Return ExpectedArgumentCount of FormalParameterList.

NOTE The ExpectedArgumentCount of a FormalParameterList is the number of

FormalParameters to the left of either the rest parameter or the first
FormalParameter with an Initializer. A FormalParameter without an initializer is
allowed after the first parameter with an initializer but such parameters are
considered to be optional with undefined as their default value.

FormalParameterList : FormalParameter

1. If HasInitializer of FormalParameter is true, return 0.

2. Return 1.

FormalParameterList : FormalParameterList , FormalParameter

1. Let count be ExpectedArgumentCount of FormalParameterList.

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2. If HasInitializer of FormalParameterList is true or HasInitializer of FormalParameter is true,

return count.
3. Return count + 1.

ArrowParameters : BindingIdentifier

1. Return 1.

ArrowParameters : CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList

1. Let formals be the ArrowFormalParameters that is covered by

CoverParenthesizedExpressionAndArrowParameterList.
2. Return ExpectedArgumentCount of formals.

PropertySetParameterList : FormalParameter

1. If HasInitializer of FormalParameter is true, return 0.

2. Return 1.

AsyncArrowBindingIdentifier : BindingIdentifier

1. Return 1.

15.2 Function Definitions

Syntax

FunctionDeclaration[Yield, Await, Default] :

function BindingIdentifier[?Yield, ?Await] (
FormalParameters[~Yield, ~Await] ) { FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await]
}
function ( FormalParameters[~Yield, ~Await] ) {
[+Default]

FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await] }

FunctionExpression :
function BindingIdentifier[~Yield, ~Await] opt (
FormalParameters[~Yield, ~Await] ) { FunctionBody[~Yield, ~Await]

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FunctionBody[Yield, Await] :
FunctionStatementList[?Yield, ?Await]

FunctionStatementList[Yield, Await] :
StatementList[?Yield, ?Await, +Return] opt

15.2.1 Static Semantics: Early Errors

FunctionDeclaration :
function BindingIdentifier ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
function ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }
FunctionExpression :
function BindingIdentifieropt ( FormalParameters ) { FunctionBody }

If the source code matching FormalParameters is strict mode code, the Early Error rules for
UniqueFormalParameters : FormalParameters are applied.
If BindingIdentifier is present and the source code matching BindingIdentifier is strict mode
code, it is a Syntax Error if the StringValue of BindingIdentifier is "eval" or "arguments".
It is a Syntax Error if FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict of FunctionBody is true and
IsSimpleParameterList of FormalParameters is false.
It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of FormalParameters also occurs in the
LexicallyDeclaredNames of FunctionBody.
It is a Syntax Error if FormalParameters Contains SuperProperty is true.
It is a Syntax Error if FunctionBody Contains SuperProperty is true.
It is a Syntax Error if FormalParameters Contains SuperCall is true.
It is a Syntax Error if FunctionBody Contains SuperCall is true.

NOTE The LexicallyDeclaredNames of a FunctionBody does not include identifiers bound

using var or function declarations.

FunctionBody : FunctionStatementList

It is a Syntax Error if the LexicallyDeclaredNames of FunctionStatementList contains any

duplicate entries.

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It is a Syntax Error if any element of the LexicallyDeclaredNames of FunctionStatementList

also occurs in the VarDeclaredNames of FunctionStatementList.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsDuplicateLabels of FunctionStatementList with argument « » is
true.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsUndefinedBreakTarget of FunctionStatementList with argument
« » is true.
It is a Syntax Error if ContainsUndefinedContinueTarget of FunctionStatementList with
arguments « » and « » is true.

15.2.2 Static Semantics: FunctionBodyContainsUseStrict

FunctionBody : FunctionStatementList

1. If the Directive Prologue of FunctionBody contains a

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