ASSIGNMENT#03

STUDENT NAME:BILAL LATEEF

STUDENT ID:BEEM-F19-024
SUBJECT: Principles of Power System
DEPARTMENT: ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED TO: Mr. Waheed Aftab
CONTENTS: Mechanical Design of overhand Lines
 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF OVERHEAD LINES

Over head lines:

Definition:
An overhead power line is a structure used in electric power transmission and
distribution to transmit electrical energy across large distances.

Main components of over head lines:

The main components fo overhead lines contain :
i) Conductors: which carry electric power from the sending end station to the receiving
end station.
(ii)Supports: which may be poles or towers and keep the conductors at a suitable level
above the ground.
(iii) Insulators :which are attached to supports and insulate the conductors from the
ground.
(iv) Cross arms :which provide support to the insulators.
(v)Miscellaneous items: such as phase plates, danger plates, lightning arrestors, anti-
climbing wires etc.

Conductor maaterial of over head lines:

The proper choice of material and size of conductor is of considerable importance.The
conductor material used for transmission and distribution of electric power should have
the following properties:
(i) High electrical conductivity.
(ii) Hgh tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses.
(iii) Low cost so that it can be used for long distances.
(iv) Low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume is small.

Commonly used conductor materials:

In stranded conductors, there is generally one central wire and round this, successive
layers of wires containing 6, 12, 18, 24 ...... wires. Thus, if there are n layers, the total
number of individual wires is 3n(n + 1) + 1.
Details of conductor materials are :
1. Copper. Copper is an ideal material for overhead lines owing to its high electrical
conductivity and greater tensile strength. It is always used in the hard drawn form as
stranded conductor.Copper has high current density.
Advantages :
1 Smaller X-sectional area of conductor is required.
2 The area offered by the conductor to wind loads is reduced.

2. Aluminium. Aluminium is cheap and light as compared to copper but it has much
smaller conductivity and tensile strength.
Comparison of Aluminium and copper :
(i) The conductivity of aluminium is 60% that of copper. For the same resistance, the
diameter of aluminium conductor is about 1·26 times the diameter of copper
conductor.
(ii) The specific gravity of aluminium (2·71 gm/cc) is lower than that of copper (8·9
gm/cc).Therefore, an aluminium conductor has almost one-half the weight of
equivalent copper conductor.
(iii) Aluminium conductor being light, is liable to greater swings and hence larger
cross-arms are required.
(iv) Due to lower tensile strength and higher co-efficient of linear expansion of
aluminium, the sag is greater in aluminium conductors.

3. Steel cored aluminium: Due to low tensile strength, aluminium conductors produce
greater sag. In order to increase the tensile strength, the aluminium conductor is
reinforced with a core of galvanised steel wires. The composite conductor thus obtained
is known as steel cored aluminium and is abbreviated as A.C.S.R. (aluminium
conductor steel reinforced).

Advantages:
(i) The reinforcement with steel increases the tensile strength but at the same time
keeps the composite conductor light. Therefore, steel cored aluminium conductors will
produce smaller sag .
(ii) Due to smaller sag with steel cored aluminium conductors, towers of smaller heights
can be used.
4. Galvanised steel.: Steel has very high tensile strength. Therefore, galvanised steel
conductors can be used for extremely long spans or for short line sections exposed to
abnormally high stresses due to climatic conditions.Due to poor conductivity and high
resistance of steel, such conductors are not suitable for transmitting large power over a
long distance.
Advantage:
They can be used to advantage for transmitting a small power over a small distance
where the size of copper conductor would be too small.
5. Cadmium copper: The conductor material now being employed in certain cases is
copper alloyed with cadmium. An addition of 1% or 2% cadmium to copper increases
the tensile strength by about 50% and the conductivity is only reduced by 15% below
that of pure copper.
Advantage:
cadmium copper conductor can be useful for exceptionally long spans.

Line Supports:

Definition:
The supporting structures for overhead line conductors are various types of poles and
towers called line supports.
Explanation:
In general, the line supports should have the following properties :
(i) High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors and wind loads etc.
(ii) Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength.
(iii) Cheap in cost and economical to maintain.
(iv) Longer life.
(v) Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance.
Types of line supports:
The choice of supporting structure for a particular case depends upon the line span, X-
sectional area, line voltage, cost and local conditions.

1. Wooden poles: These are made of seasoned wood (sal or chir) and are suitable for
lines of moderate X-sectional area and of relatively shorter spans, say upto 50
metres.Such supports are cheap, easily available.
The wooden poles generally tend to rot below the ground level, causing foundation
failure. In order to prevent this, the portion of the pole below the ground level is
impregnated with preservative compounds like creosote oil.
Objections:
(i) Tendency to rot below the ground level.
(ii) Comparatively smaller life (20-25 years) .
(iii) Cannot be used for voltages higher than 20 kV.
(iv) Less mechanical strength
(v) require periodical inspection
Double pole structure of A and H are used :
2. Steel poles. The steel poles are often used as a substitute for wooden poles. They
possess greater mechanical strength, longer life and permit longer spans to be used. s.
This type of supports need to be galvanised or painted in order to prolong its life. The
steel poles are of three types:
(i) Rail poles
(ii) Tubular poles
(iii) Rolled steel joints

3. RCC poles: The reinforced concrete poles have become very popular as line
supports in recent years. They have greater mechanical strength, longer life and permit
longer spans than steel poles. Moreover, they give good outlook, require little
maintenance and have good insulating properties.
Disadvantage:
The main difficulty with the use of these poles is the high cost of transport owing to their
heavy weight. Therefore, such poles are often manufactured at the site in order to avoid
heavy cost of transportation.
4. Steel tower: In practice, wooden, steel and reinforced concrete poles are used for
distribution purposes at low voltages, say upto 11 kV. However, for long distance
transmission at higher voltage, steel towers are invariably employed. Steel towers have
greater mechanical strength, longer life and can withstand more severe climate
conditions.They are in the form of single circuit tower and double circuit tower.

Insulator:
Definition:
A substance or device which does not readily conduct electricity.
Properties:
(i) High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind load etc.
(ii) High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to avoid leakage currents to
earth.
(iii) High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that dielectric strength is high.
(iv) The insulator material should be non-porous, free from impurities and cracks
otherwise the permittivity will be lowered.
(v) High ratio of puncture strength to flashover.

Types of Insulator:

1- Pin type insulators:

The part section of a pin type insulator is shown in figure:

As the name suggests, the pin type insulator is secured to the cross-arm on the pole.
There is a groove on the upper end of the insulator for housing the conductor.
Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric power at
voltages upto 33 kV.

Causes of insulator failure:

Insulators are required to withstand both mechanical and electrical stresses. The
electrical breakdown of the insulator can occur either by flash-over or puncture.
In flash over , An arc occurs between the line conductor and insulator pin (i.e., earth)
and the discharge jumps across the air gaps, following shortest distance. Figure shows
the arcing distance (i.e. a + b + c) for the insulator.
In case of flash over, the insulator will continue to act in its proper capacity unless
extreme heat produced by the arc destroys the insulator.
In case of puncture, the discharge occurs from conductor to pin through the body of the
insulator. When such breakdown is involved, the insulator is permanently destroyed due
to excessive heat.
Safety factor of insulator:
Safety factor of insulator = Puncture strength / Flash - over voltage
For pin type insulator, the value of safety factor is 10.

String efficiency:

Definition:
“ The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the
voltage across the disc nearest to the conductor is known as string efficiency”. i.e.,
String efficiency = Voltage across the string / n × Voltage across disc nearest to
conductor
where n = number of discs in the string.

Explanation:
String efficiency is an important consideration since it decides the potential distribution
along the string.Although it is impossible to achieve 100% string efficiency, yet efforts
should be made to improve it
as close to this value as possible.
Mathematical expression:
Figure shows the equivalent circuit for a 3-disc string. Let us suppose that self
capacitance of each disc is C. Let us further assume that shunt capacitance C 1 is some
fraction K of selfcapacitance i.e., C 1 = KC. Starting from the cross-arm or tower, the
voltage across each unit is V1,V2 and V3 respectively as shown
 .
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node A, we get,
I2 = I1 + i1
Or V2ω C= V1ω C + V1ω C1
Or V 2ω C = V 1ω C + V 1ω K C

V2 = V1 (1 + K) …… (i)
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node B, we get,
I3 = I2 + i2
Or V3 ω C = V2ω C + (V1 + V2) ω C1
Or V3 ω C = V2ω C + (V1 + V2) ω K C
Or V3 = V2+ (V1 + V2)K
= KV1 + V2 (1 + K)
= KV1 + V1 (1 + K)2
∴ [ V2 = V1 (1 + K)]
2
= V1 [K + (1 + K) ]
V3 = V1[1 + 3K + K2] …..(ii)

Voltage between conductor and earth (i.e., tower) is

V = V1+ V2 + V3
= V1 + V1(1 + K) + V1(1 + 3K + K2)
= V1 (3 + 4K + K2)

V = V1(1 + K) (3 + K)]
So we get ,
Voltage across top unit , V1 = V / (1+ K)(3+ K)
Voltage across second unit from top, V2 =V1(1 + K)
Voltage across third unit from top, V3 =V1[1 + 3K + K2 ]
% age String efficiency =Voltage across string x 100 / n × Voltage across disc nearest
to conductor
= V x 100 / 3 x V3
Points to be noted:
(i)If K = 0·2 (Say), then from exp. (iv), we get, V 2 = 1·2 V1 and V3 = 1·64 V1. This clearly
shows that disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it.
(ii) The greater the value of K (= C1/C), the more non-uniform is the potential across the
discs and lesser is the string efficiency.
(iii) The inequality in voltage distribution increases with the increase of number of discs
in thestring Therefore, shorter string has more efficiency than the larger ones

Methods of improving string efficiency:

The method of improving string efficiency are :
(i) By using the long cross-arms:
The value of string efficiency depends on K(ratio of shunt cap. to mutual cap).So lesser
the value of K greater the string efficiency. To reduce the shunt capacitance, long cross
arms are used to increase string efficiency.

(ii) By grading the insulators.

In this method, insulators of different dimensions have different capacitance. The
insulators are capacitance gradedSince voltage is inversely proportional to capacitance,
this method tends to equalise the potential distribution across the units in the string.

(iii) By using a guard ring:

A guard ring or grading ring is basically a metal ring which is electrically connected to
the conductor surrounding the bottom unit of the string insulator. As a result, nearly
same charging current flows through each disc and, hence, improving the string
efficiency.

important points related to string efficiency:

(i) The maximum voltage appears across the disc nearest to the conductror (i.e., line
conductor).
(ii) The voltage across the string is equal to phase voltage i.e.,
Voltage across string = Voltage between line and earth = Phase Voltage
(iv) Line Voltage = √3 × Voltage across string

Problem # 01
Given:
In a 33 kV overhead line, there are three units in the string of insulators. If the
capacitance between each insulator pin and earth is 11% of self-capacitance of each
insulator, find
(i) the distribution of voltage over 3 insulators and
(ii) string efficiency.
Solution:
Let V1, V2 and V3 be the voltage across top, middle and bottom unit respectively. If C is
the self-capacitance of each unit, then KC will be the shunt
capacitance.

K = Shunt Capacitance / Self - capacitance = 0.11

Voltage across string, V = 33 / √3 = 19·05 kV
At Junction A
I2 = I1 + i1
Or V2 ω C = V1 ω C + V1K ω C
Or V2 = V1 (1 + K) = V1 (1 + 0·11)
Or V2 = 1·11 V1 ...(i)
At Junction B
I3 = I2 + i2
Or V3 ω C = V2 ω C + (V1 + V2) K ω C
Or V3 = V2 + (V1 + V2) K
= 1·11V1 + (V1 + 1·11 V1) 0·11

V3 = 1·342 V1
(1) Voltage across the whole string:

V = V1 + V2 + V3 = V1 + 1·11 V1 + 1·342 V1 = 3·452 V1

Or 19·05 = 3·452 V1
Voltage across top unit,V1 = 19·05/3·452 = 5·52 kV
Voltage across middle unit, V2 = 1·11 V1 = 1·11 × 5·52 = 6.13 kV
Voltage across bottom unit, V3 = 1·342 V1 = 1·342 × 5·52 = 7.4 kV
(2) String efficiency
String efficiency= Voltage across string × 100/ No. of insulators × V3

19.05 × 100 / 3×7.4 = 85.8% answer

Problem # 02
Given:
A 3-phase transmission line is being supported by three disc insulators. The potentials
across top unit (i.e., near to the tower) and middle unit are 8 kV and 11 kV respectively.
Calculate (i) the ratio of capacitance between pin and earth to the self-capacitance of
each unit
(ii)the line voltage and (iii) string efficiency

Solution
(i) Let K be the ratio of capacitance between pin and earth to self capacitance. If C farad
is the self capacitance of each unit, then capacitance between pin and earth = KC.
Applying Kirchoff’s current law to Junction A,
I2 = I1 + i1
or V2 ω C = V1 ω C + V1 K ω C
or V2 = V1 (1 + K)
∴ K =( V2 − V1 ) / V1 = (11- 8) / 8 = 0·375
(ii) Applying Kirchoff’s current law to Junction B,
I3 = I2 + i2
Or V3 ω C = V2 ω C + (V1 + V2) K ω C
Or V3 = V2 + (V1 + V2) K = 11 + (8 + 11) × 0·375 = 18·12 kV
Voltage between line and earth = V1 + V2 + V3 = 8 + 11 + 18·12 = 37·12 kV
Line Voltage = √ 3 × 37·12 = 64·28 kV

(iii) String efficiency = voltage across string x 100 / no. of insulator x V 3

= 37.12 x 100 /3 x 18.12 = 68.28 % answer

Problem # 03
Given:
Each line of a 3-phase system is suspended by a string of 3 similar insulators. If
the voltage across the line unit is 17·5 kV, calculate the line to neutral voltage. Assume
that the shunt capacitance betwen each insulator and earth is 1/8th of the capacitance
of the insulator itself. Also find the string efficiency?

Solution:

Here , K = 1/8 = 0·125

Voltage across line unit, V3 = 17·5 kV
At Junction A:

I2 = I1 + i1 V2 ω C = V1 ω C + V1 K ω C
Or V2 = V1 (1 + K) = V1 (1 + 0.125)
∴ V2 = 1·125 V
At Junction B
I3 = I2 + i2
Or V3 ω C = V2 ω C + (V1 + V2) K ω C
or V3 = V2 + (V1 + V2) K
= 1·125 V1 + (V1 + 1·125 V1) × 0.125
∴ V3 = 1·39 V1
Voltage across top unit, V1 = V3/1·39 = 17·5/1·39 = 12·59 kV
Voltage across middle unit,V2 = 1·125 V1 = 1·125 × 12·59 = 14·16 kV
∴ Voltage between line and earth (i.e., line to neutral)
= V1 + V2 + V3 = 12·59 + 14·16 + 17·5 = 44.25 kV

String efficiency = 44.25 x 100 / 3 x 17.5 = 84.28 %answer.

Problem # 04

Given:
The three bus-bar conductors in an outdoor substation are supported by units of post
type insulators. Each unit consists of a stack of 3 pin type insulators fixed one on the top
of the other. The voltage across the lowest insulator is 13·1 kV and that across the next
unit is 11 kV. Find the bus-bar voltage of the station.

Solution:
It is given that
V3 = 13·1 kV and V2 = 11 kV
By kirchoff’s law
V2 = V1 (1 + K)
Or V 1 = V2 / 1 + K … 1
V3 = V2 + (V1 + V2) K … 2
Putting value of V2 in eq 2 we get:

V3 (1 + K) = V2 (1 + K) + [V2 + V2 (1 + K)] K
= V2 [(1 + K) + K + (K + K2)]
= V2 (1 + 3K + K2)
∴ 13·1 (1 + K) = 11[1 + 3K + K2]
Or 11 K2 + 19·9 K − 2·1 = 0
Solving this equation, we get, K = 0.1
V1 = V2 / 1 + K = 11 / 1 + 0.1 = 10 KV
Voltage between line and earth = V1 + V2 + V3 = 10 + 11 + 13·1 = 34·1 kV
∴ Voltage between bus-bars (i.e., line voltage)
= 34·1 ×√ 3 = 59 kV answer