SENECA COLLEGE OF APPLIED ARTS AND TECHNOLOGY

Faculty of Applied Science and Technology

School of Electronics and Computer Engineering Technology

Concepts Review for

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

DC CIRCUITS

January 2011

I. Gabor
Room A4022
Ext. 2560
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ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS, MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTS

ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS
CHARGE - a basic concept to be added to the basic concepts of mass, length and time;
two types of charge are defined - positive and negative.

the presence of charge is made evident by the attractive or repulsive forces

that are observed to exist between charged objects.

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

ELECTRONS - by convention, electrons are assumed to have a negative charge.

Electrons are the primary charge carriers in nature.

THE ATOM - consists of the nucleus and of the electrons arranged in orbits, or, shells around the
nucleus. The nucleus contains neutrons which are electrically neutral and protons which
have a positive charge.

Since the number of protons in the nucleus equals the number of electrons in the shells,
the atom is electrically neutral, i.e., the positive charge of the nucleus balances the
negative charge of the electrons.

The outer shell is referred to as the valence shell and the electrons in the valence shell are
referred to as the valence electrons.

The valence electrons determine the chemical and electrical characteristics of the
particular atom.

Actually, since electrons have negative charge, positive charge is the result of the charged object loosing
electrons and negative charge is the result of the charged object gaining electrons.

Examples:

Positive charge is produced on glass when it is rubbed with silk  glass has lost electrons.

Negative charge is produced on ebonite when it is rubbed with fur  ebonite has gained electrons.
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CURRENT - a flow (motion) of charge. Except for semiconductors, current consists of a flow of electrons,
which carry negative charges. Therefore, the electrons are the charge carriers.
In semiconductors, the current consists of a flow of electrons and of other charge carriers.

VOLTAGE - the external pressure which produces current. The term 'external' refers to the
fact that this pressure originates outside the medium where the current exists.

RESISTANCE - the opposition to the current. Resistance is caused by the collisions which
occur between electrons and other electrons and between electrons and atoms.
Except for semiconductors, the resistance of materials increases with temperature.

current flows through a device and voltage is developed across a device

ELECTRICAL UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Current (represented by the letter I) is measured in Ampères (abbreviated as A)

Voltage (represented by the letter V) is measured in Volts (abbreviated as V)

Resistance (represented by the letter R) is measured in Ohms (abbreviated as )

CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

CONDUCTORS - materials with a very low opposition to current, i.e., very low resistance
the result is a very large current with the application of a very small voltage.

INSULATORS - materials with a very high opposition to current, i.e., very high resistance
the result is a very small current with the application of a very large voltage.

SEMICONDUCTORS - materials where the opposition to current is between the “opposition”

of conductors and the “opposition” of insulators.
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ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
1. Measuring Resistance
2. Measuring Voltage
3. Measuring Current

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS
1. Ohmmeter

2. Voltmeter

3. Ammeter

4. VOM (Volt-Ohmmeter)

5. DMM (Digital Multi-Meter)

Consider the Fluke 8010A DMM. The following table will assist in interpreting the readings:

Range  200 2 20 200 750V AC

Units  mV V V V 1000V DC
A mA mA mA 2000 10 A
 k k k mA/k 20 M
Zero
reading 00.0 .000 0.00 00.0 000 0.00
Example 149 mV .236 mA 2.68 k 31.8 V 150 V 5.58 M
reading
149.0 .236 2.68 31.8 150 5.58
6. Power Supply

7. Oscilloscope

8. Signal Generator

9. Resistor Decade Box

10. Transformers
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PREFIX (POWERS OF 10) ENGINEERING NOTATION

power of 10 prefix symbol power of 10 prefix symbol

10-3 milli m 103 kilo k
10-6 micro  106 mega M
10-9 nano n 109 giga G
10-12 pico p 1012 tera T

Examples: 2,700,000 ohms = 2.7 x 106  = 2.7 M

0.0023 ampères = 2.3 x 10-3 A = 2.3 mA

5700 volts = 5.7 x 103 V = 5.7 kV

We express current, voltage and resistance as numbers between one and 1000, and
the appropriate prefix.
Some exceptions are made for current, voltage and resistance values between zero
and one, see examples **

Examples:
0.0453 A  45.3 mA; we usually do not write this as 45,300 A

2200   2.2 k; we usually do not write this as 0.0022 M

1,500,000   1.5 M; we usually do not write this as 1,500 k

0.0037 V  3.7 mV; we usually do not write this as 3,700 V

0.00004 V  40 V; we usually do not write this as 0.04 mV

750   750 ; we usually do not write this as 0.75 k

** 0.5 A  0.5 A or 500 mA; we usually do not write this as 500,000 A

** 0.3 V  0.3 V or 300 mV; we usually do not write this as 300,000 V

18,000 V  18 mV; we usually do not write this as 0.018 V

2.7 V  2.7 V; we usually do not write this as 2,700 mV or as 2,7000,000 V

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LAB No. 2 – RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT

Use the lowest range on the DMM to achieve the best possible resolution.

The resistance of a circuit component is always measured

with the component removed from the circuit.

Use the resistor color code to determine the nominal value of the resistors.

Questions

1. Why do we use the lowest practical range on the DMM for our measurements?

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

2. Why do resistor manufacturers specify a tolerance value?

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________
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LAB No. 3 – MEASURING CURRENT; OHM’S LAW; POWER

VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS CURRENT MEASUREMENTS

Voltage measurements are performed by Current measurements are performed by
connecting the voltmeter (in our case, the DMM connecting the ammeter (in our case, the DMM
set to measure voltage) across the component set to measure current) in line with the
whose voltage we want to measure. Therefore, component whose current we want to measure.
in order to measure voltage across a Therefore, in order to measure current through
component, we do not have to open the a component, we have to open the circuit in
circuit. order to insert the ammeter.

OHM’S LAW AND POWER

For any resistor,

V V
I= (Ampères , A) V = IR (Volts, V) R= (Ohms, )
R I

And the power dissipated by the resistor is:

P = I V = I2 R = V2/R , in watts, W

LABORATORY ASSIGNMENT

On your breadboard, construct the following circuit, including the connection of the two DMMs,
one to measure voltage across the resistor, and the second to measure the current through the
resistor. Complete the following table. Express the currents in A, mA or A, as appropriate,
and express power in W, mW or W, as appropriate.

E R V
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Questions

1. Why do we measure voltage across a component? ___________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

2. Why do we measure current in line with a component? _______________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

3. How can we use Ohm’s Law to determine the current in a component without “opening” the
circuit?
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

4. Explain the difference observed between the measured and the calculated current values.

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

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LAB No. 4 – SERIES CIRCUITS

SERIES CONNECTION OF CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

Two circuit components are connected in series if there is only one common point of contact
between them and no other current-carrying component is connected to that point of contact.
In the following circuit, the two components (e.g. resistors) are in series.

Three, or more, circuit components are connected in series if component no.1 is in series with
component no.2, and component no.2 is in series with component no.3, etc. In the following circuit,
three components (e.g. resistors) are in series.

In a resistive series circuit, the voltage across a resistor is proportional to the resistance of that
particular resistor:
R1 R2

R1 = 200  15V V1 = 2.0 V

R2 = 390  V2 = 3.9 V
R3 = 910  R3
V3 = 9.1 V
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KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW E = V

A R1 R2 C

E
R3

THE VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE Vx = E Rx/RT

A R1 B R2 C

E
R3

The Concept of “GROUND”

In electrical and electronic circuits the term “ground” has two implications:

1. Reference Point – the voltage at the “ground” of a circuit is assumed to be zero volts;
other voltages in the circuit are specified with respect to the “ground”.

2. Safety – the enclosures of electrical and electronic equipment are usually connected
to “ground”, the “zero volts” point, to prevent accidental electrical shock.

The ground “point” (or, reference) is shown by the following symbol:

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Questions

1. What can be said about the currents in the components of a series circuit?

__________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What can be said about the voltages across the components of a series circuit?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

3. How can we determine currents in resistors connected in series, without opening the circuit?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

4. Why do we have the restriction “no other current-carrying component connected …” in the
definition of series connection of components?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

5. What is one of the practical applications of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law? ___________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

6. Why is the Voltage Divider Rule so useful? ________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
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LAB No. 5 – PARALLEL CIRCUITS

PARALLEL CONNECTION OF CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

Two, or more, circuit components are connected in parallel if there are two common points
of contact between them. In the following circuit, the two resistors are in parallel.

In the following circuit, the four resistors are in parallel.

In a resistive parallel circuit, the voltages across the resistors are the same, and the currents
are inversely proportional to the resistance of that particular resistor:

R1 = 10  I1 = 1.0 A
R2 = 2  R1 R2 R3 I2 = 5.0 A
R3 = 5  I3 = 2.0 A
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KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW Iin = Iout

On your breadboard, construct the following circuit, including the connections of the DMMs, to
measure the currents through the resistors. Complete the following table using the correct units
and prefixes.
IS

R1 R2 R3

THE CURRENT DIVIDER RULE Ix = I RT/Rx = IS RT/Rx

R1 R2 R3
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Questions

1. What can be said about the voltages across the components of a parallel circuit?

___________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What can be said about the currents in the components of a parallel circuit?

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

3. How can we determine currents in resistors connected in parallel, without opening the circuit?

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

4. What is one of the practical applications of Kirchhoff’s Current Law?

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

5. Why is the Current Divider Rule so useful?__________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
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LAB No. 6 – SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS

SERIES-PARALLEL CONNECTION OF CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

The following circuit illustrates a simple series-parallel configuration.

The following circuit illustrates a more elaborate series-parallel configuration.

The following circuit illustrates a complex series-parallel configuration known as a ladder network
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Questions

1. How can Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law be applied to measurements in series-parallel circuits?

__________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

2. How can Kirchhoff’s Current Law be applied to measurements in series-parallel circuits?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

3. Can we measure the currents in resistors connected in series-parallel, without opening the
circuit? if YES, how?
__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

4. Can the Voltage Divider Rule be directly applied to the analysis of series-parallel circuits?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

5. Can the Current Divider Rule be directly applied to the analysis of series-parallel circuits?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________
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Review Material for Lab Test #1

YOU SHOULD BE PREPARED FOR THE FOLLOWING TOPICS:

1. knowing the resistor color code

2. identifying resistors using the color code

3. using the best DMM range for measurements

4. expressing measurement results in engineering notation with prefixes,

i.e., mA, A, k, etc.

5. measuring the resistance of a resistor

6. understanding the concepts of the “polarity” of a voltage and

the “direction” of a current

7. measuring the output voltage of a power supply

8. using your breadboard to construct series, parallel and series-parallel circuits,

with arrangements for measuring voltages and currents

9. measuring the total resistance, RT, of a circuit (before applying an external

voltage E)

10. applying a given external voltage, E, to the circuit

11. measuring the voltages across resistors in a circuit

12. measuring the currents through resistors in a circuit

13. measuring the voltages from given points, in a circuit, to ground

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LAB No. 8 – THE SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Construct the following circuits and measure the voltages and currents:
R1 R3

E1
R2

R5 R4

R1 R3

E2
R2

R5 R4

R1 R3

E1 E2
R2

R5 R4
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LAB No. 9 – THEVENIN’s Theorem, NORTON’s Theorem and

the MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER Theorem

Rth

Eth
IN
RL RN RL

Construct the following circuits and measure Rth, Eth, RN and IN.

Circuit A
R1 R3

E
R2 RL

R5 R4

Circuit B
R1 R3

E
R2 R6 RL

R5 R4
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Review Material for Lab Test #2

Bring all your resistors to the lab test

Superposition Theorem – Theory and Measurements

Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits – measuring Rth, Eth, RN and IN

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem – determining RL(max)

identifying resistors using the color code

using the best DMM range for measurements

expressing measurement results in engineering notation with prefixes,

i.e., mA, A, k, etc.

measuring the resistance of a resistor

understanding and applying the concepts of the “polarity” of a voltage between two
points in a circuit and accounting for the “direction” of a current

measuring the output voltage of a power supply

using your breadboard to construct series, parallel and series-parallel circuits,

with arrangements for measuring voltages and currents

measuring the total resistance, RT, of a circuit (before applying an external

voltage E)

applying a given external voltage, E, to the circuit

measuring the voltages across resistors in a circuit

measuring the currents through resistors in a circuit

measuring the voltages from given points, in a circuit, to ground