Birzeit University- Faculty of Engineering

Civil and Environmental Engineering Department

ENCE5347

SOLID WASTE

Instructor

Prof. Dr. Issam Al-Khatib

Spring Semester, 2020/2021

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1. Integrated Solid Waste Management
Solid waste in the Palestinian history

Legislation and Regulations

The Palestinian Environmental Quality Authority formulated the Palestinian Environmental Law
no. (7). The law was evaluated and approved by the Palestinian Legislative Council in 1999. It
defines a number of principle and guideline that form the basis for decisions and structures of the
environmental legislations. The principles are illustrated through several articles as follows:
(Ministry of Environmental Affairs, 1999).

Article (3): every Palestinian individual has the right to pursue the enforcement of the right to a
clean and healthy environment against any party; he/she may also obtain any official information
on the environmental impacts of any planning activity.

Article (4): the protection of the environment through collective and individual initiatives for
voluntary work shall be encouraged through environmental education in schools, universities,
institutions and clubs.

Article (5): every Palestinian individual has the right to a sound and clean environment and to the
best possible health care and social welfare where the protection of the country's natural
resources and the preservation of its historical heritage are maintained.

The environmental law outlines the rules and regulations related to a wide scope of
environmental issues. The first chapter of the second section of the law deal with issues related
to solid waste through several articles: (Ministry of Environmental Affairs, 1999).

Article (7) the ministry has to set up a comprehensive plan for the solid waste management on
the national level, leaving the responsibilities for the implementation of solid waste management
operational services to the local authorities.

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Article (8): the different specialized agencies have the right to take the proper requirements to
minimize solid waste generation and encourage solid waste reuse and recycling.

Article (9): the ministry in cooperation with other specialized agencies has to develop standards
for solid waste disposal sites.

Integrated Solid Waste Management

Materials Flow
We do not consume materials; we merely use them and ultimately return them, often in altered
state, to the environment.
The production of useful goods for eventual use by people requires an input of materials. These
materials originate from one of three sources:
 Raw materials, which are gleamed from the face of the earth and used for the
manufacture of products;
 Scrap materials produced in the manufacturing operation; and
 Materials recovered after the product has been used.
Industrial operations are not totally efficient, and thus produce some waste that must be disposed
of. The resulting processed goods are sold to the users of the products, who in turn, have three
options after use:
 to dispose of this material;
 to collect the materials in sufficient quantities either to use it for energy production or to
recycle it back into the industrial sector, or
 to reuse the material for the same or a different purpose without remanufacture.

This is a closed system, with only one input and one output, emphasizing again the finite nature
of our world. At steady state the materials injected into the process must equal the materials
disposal back into the environment. For example, the manufacture of aluminum beverage
containers.

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The interaction of materials flow with the environment is at the input of raw materials and the
deposition of wastes. These two interfaces are denoted by the letter A for raw materials and by
the letter B for the materials returned to the Environment.

 Advantages of large A and large B

Large (A) quantity of raw materials injected into the manufacturing process represents a high
rate of employment in the raw materials industry, and this can have a residual effect of creating
cheaper raw materials and reducing the cost of manufacturing.

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Large B component is also beneficial in the sense that the waste disposal industry has a key
interest in the quantity of materials that people dispose of. Thus large B component would mean
more jobs in this industry.

Disadvantages of large A and large B

However, large A and B components also have detrimental effects.
 A large raw material input means that great quantities of non-replenishable raw materials
are extracted.
 Similarly, large quantities of waste can have a significant detrimental effect, such as land
areas used for waste disposal, or air pollution from the burning of waste in combustors
 A high rate of raw material extraction can eventually lead to a problem in the depletion of
natural resources.

The feasible options for achieving reduced material use and waste generation are known as the
four Rs:
 Reduction
 Reuse
 Recycling
 Recovery

Reduction
Waste reduction can be achieved in three basic ways:
 Reducing the amount of material used per product without sacrificing the utility of that
product,
 Increasing the lifetime of a product, and/or
 Eliminating the need for the product.

Waste reduction in industry is called pollution prevention.

An example of waste reduction in industry: automobile manufacturers for years painted new cars
using spray enamel paint. The cars were then dried in special ovens that gave them a glossy

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finish. Unfortunately, such operations produced large amounts of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) that had to be controlled, and control measures were increasingly expensive.

The manufacturers then developed a new method of painting, by using dry powders applied
under great pressure. Not only did this result in better finishes, but it all but eliminated the
problem with the VOCs. Pollution prevention is the process of changing the operation in such a
manner that pollutants are not even emitted.

Reduction of waste on the household level is called waste reduction. Typical alternative actions
that result in a reduction of the amount of municipal solid waste being produced include:
 Bringing one's own bags to grocery stores,
 Using laundry detergent refills instead of purchasing new containers,
 Refusing bags at stores.

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Reuse
Reuse is an integral part of society. Many of our products are reused without much thought given
to ethical considerations. For example:
 Paper bags obtained in the supermarket are often used to pack refuse for transport from
the house to the trash container.
 Newspapers are rolled up to make fireplace logs, and
 Coffee cans are used to hold bolts and screws.
 Using durable coffee mugs.
 Using cloth napkins or towels.
 Donating old magazines or surplus equipment.
 Reusing boxes.
 Turning empty jars into containers for leftover food.
 Purchasing refillable pens and pencils.
 Refilling bottles.
 Participating in a paint collection and reuse program.

Recycling
The process of recycling requires that the owner of the waste material first separate out the useful
fraction so that it can be collected separately from the rest of the solid waste. Many of the
components of municipal solid waste can be recycled for remanufacturing and subsequent use.
The most important being paper, steel, aluminum, plastic, glass, and yard waste.

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Recycling involves:
 Separation and collection of waste materials.
 Preparation of these materials for reuse, reprocessing, and remanufacture.
 The reuse, reprocessing, and remanufacture of these materials.

Collection of Recyclables
Recyclables are collected in a variety of ways.
a) Curbside collection where residents place their recyclables in the curb for collection.
b) Drop-off centers are centralized locations where people take their recyclables to donate.
c) Buy-back centers are centralized locations where people take their recyclables to sell.
d) Many businesses also have recycling programs in which separated paper and other
materials are collected by the gatekeeper staff and placed in separate recycling containers at
the building’s loading dock.

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Curbside collection is by far the most common way to collect recyclables from homes.

Increase of the Recycling Rate

 For recycling rates to increase, participation in every phase of the recycling loop
(collection, sorting and processing, remanufacturing) must occur.
 Residents and businesses need to put all of their properly prepared recyclables out for
collection.
 All of us need to buy products made with recycled content.
 Local authorities need to improve the efficiency of collection programs, practice full cost
accounting, and identify opportunities to increase recycling rates.

What costs more – recycling or disposal?

Recycling Process
Step 1. Collection and Processing

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  Collecting recyclables varies from community to community. Regardless of the method
used to collect the recyclables, the next leg of their journey is usually the same.
Recyclables are sent to a materials recovery facility to be sorted and prepared into
marketable commodities for manufacturing. Recyclables are bought and sold just like any
other commodity, and prices for the materials change and fluctuate with the market.

Step 2. Manufacturing
 Once cleaned and separated, the recyclables are ready to undergo the second part of the
recycling loop. More and more of today's products are being manufactured with total or
partial recycled content. Common household items that contain recycled materials
include newspapers and paper towels; aluminum, plastic, and glass soft drink containers;
steel cans; and plastic laundry detergent bottles. Recycled materials also are used in
innovative applications such as recovered glass in roadway asphalt or recovered plastic in
carpeting, park benches, and pedestrian bridges.

Step 3. Purchasing Recycled Products

 Purchasing recycled products completes the recycling loop. By "buying recycled,"
governments, as well as businesses and individual consumers, each play an important role
in making the recycling process a success. As consumers demand more environmentally
sound products, manufacturers will continue to meet that demand by producing high
quality recycled products.

Benefits of Recycling
• Conserves resources for our children's future.
• Prevents emissions of many greenhouse gases and water pollutants.
• Saves energy.
• Supplies valuable raw materials to industry.
• Creates jobs.
• Stimulates the development of greener technologies.
• Reduces the need for new landfills and incinerators.

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Main obstacles for recycling:
 location of wastes
 low value of material
 uncertainty of supply
 administrative and institutional constraints
 uncertain markets

Resource Recovery
Recovery is defined as the process in which the refuse is collected without prior separation, and
the desired materials are separated at a central facility. A typical materials recovery facility is
shown in figure 1-5.

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Resource recovery means the obtaining of some economic benefit from material that someone
has regarded as waste. It includes:
 Reuse - being used for the same purpose again (such as refilling a soft drinks bottle);
 Recovery - processing material so that it can be used again as the same material, such as
the processing of waste paper to make pulp and then new paper;
 Conversion - processing the material to make something different (such as producing
padding for clothing and sleeping bags from plastic bottles, or producing compost from
food waste)
 Energy recovery - usually referring to the burning of waste so that the heat can be used
(for example, for heating swimming pools). Another method of energy recovery is to
collect the gas that is produced in very large sanitary landfills and use it as a fuel or to
generate electricity.

Another form of recycling is composting. Composting is the controlled biological

decomposition of organic matter, such as food and yard wastes, into humus, a soil-like
material. Composting is nature's way of recycling organic wastes into new soil used in
vegetable and flower gardens, landscaping, and many other applications. Leaves and grass
can also be placed into back yard piles for composting and grass can be left on the lawn after
mowing and “grass cycled”.

Benefits of Composting
 Keeps organic wastes out of landfills.
 Reduces the need for fertilizers and pesticides.
 Provides nutrients to the soil.
 Increases beneficial soil organisms (e.g., worms and centipedes).
 Protects soil from erosion.
 Suppresses certain plant diseases.
 Assists pollution remediation.

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Disposal of solid wastes in landfills
The placement of solid waste on land is called a dump. The dump is far the least expensive
means of solid waste disposal, and thus was the original method of choice. The operation of a
dump is simple and involves nothing more than making sure that the trucks empty at the proper
spot. Volume is often reduced by setting the dumps on fire, thus prolonging dump life.

Risks and Problems Associated with Solid Wastes

If solid wastes are not managed properly, there are many negative impacts that may result. Some
of the most important are mentioned in the following list. The relative importance of each
depends very much on local conditions.
 Uncollected wastes often end up in drains, causing blockages that result in flooding and
unsanitary conditions.
 Flies breed in some constituents of solid wastes, and flies are very effective vectors that
spread disease.
 Mosquitoes breed in blocked drains and in rainwater that is retained in discarded cans,
tyres and other objects. Mosquitoes spread disease, including malaria and dengue.
 Rats find shelter and food in waste dumps. Rats consume and spoil food, spread disease,
damage electrical cables and other materials and inflict unpleasant bites.
 The open burning of waste causes air pollution; the products of combustion include
dioxins which are particularly hazardous.
 Aerosols and dusts can spread fungi and pathogens from uncollected and decomposing
wastes.
 Uncollected waste degrades the urban environment, discouraging efforts to keep streets
and open spaces in a clean and attractive condition. Solid waste management is a clear
indicator of the effectiveness of a municipal administration - if the provision of this
service is inadequate large numbers of citizens (voters) are aware of it. Plastic bags are a
particular aesthetic nuisance and they cause the death of grazing animals which eat them.
 Waste collection workers face particular occupational hazards, including strains from
lifting, injuries from sharp objects and traffic accidents.
 Dumps of waste and abandoned vehicles block streets and other access ways.

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 Dangerous items (such as broken glass, razor blades, hypodermic needles and other
healthcare wastes, aerosol cans and potentially explosive containers and chemicals from
industries) may pose risks of injury or poisoning, particularly to children and people who
sort through the waste.
 Heavy refuse collection trucks can cause significant damage to the surfaces of roads that
were not designed for such weights.
 Waste items that are recycled without being cleaned effectively or sterilized can transmit
infection to later users. (Examples are bottles and medical supplies.)
 Polluted water (leachate) flowing from waste dumps and disposal sites can cause serious
pollution of water supplies. Chemical wastes (especially persistent organics) may be fatal
or have serious effects if ingested, inhaled or touched and can cause widespread pollution
of water supplies.
 Large quantities of waste that have not been placed according to good engineering
practice can slip and collapse, burying and killing people.
 Waste that is treated or disposed of in unsatisfactory ways can cause a severe aesthetic
nuisance in terms of smell and appearance.
 Liquids and fumes, escaping from deposits of chemical wastes (perhaps formed as a
result of chemical reactions between components in the wastes), can have fatal or other
serious effects.
 Landfill gas (which is produced by the decomposition of wastes) can be explosive if it is
allowed to accumulate in confined spaces (such as the cellars of buildings).
 Methane (one of the main components of landfill gas) is much more effective than carbon
dioxide as a greenhouse gas, leading to climate change.
 Fires on disposal sites can cause major air pollution, causing illness and reducing
visibility, making disposal sites dangerously unstable, causing explosions of cans, and
possibly spreading to adjacent property.
 Former disposal sites provide very poor foundation support for large buildings, so
buildings constructed on former sites are prone to collapse.

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