1.

THE SELECTION OF CURRICULUM

CONTENTPRINCIPLES AND CRITERIA

1.1 The Need for Selection

As Romine pointed out, there are many factors which have resulted in an
increased need for the proper selection of curricular material and experiences. For
example. it is ilnpossible for anyone to master all of the accumulation of human
culture. What once were considered important aspects of knowledge for all educated
persons are no longer generally viewed in the same light. Also the concept of
education has broadened and, as the percentage of school-age children in schools
increases, there is a vowing need for a careful selection of curricular content, enabling
the learners to cope effectively with the complexities of modern living. Smilarly,
finding of latest research studies about the nature of the learner and the education
process bear on the selection of materials and experiences. The study of youth
provides many clues which are useful, and an understanding of the learner is
indispensable. As changes take place in our concept of learning, they operate to
produce changes in curricular content. Finally, for social continuity and national
integration it is important that the Islamic values and the ideology of Pakistan are
provided for boys and girls through selected content which prepares them to be true
Pakistanis and competent persons in their respective fields.
1.2 Principles for Selecting Curriculum Content
Within the context of our socio-cultural framework constitute some of the most
important general principles for select content.
(You will notice that some of these issues have already been raised in Unit-I ).
(a) Prontoting Islcnnic Ideology
The content should reflect and promote the Islamic ideology of Pakistan.
(b) Developing Social Understanding
A common body of educative experiences should be selected which develop
social understanding in judging different problems.
(c) Promoting Maximum Personal Development
The learning situatlons must be related to the unique characteristics of each
learner. Desirable personality traits and a wide range of special interest
opportunities should be promoted.
(d) Promoting Continuity of Experience
This principle indicates concern i-ör the maturity and learning sequence of each learner.
(e) Providing iör Educational Aims
The content should reflect the stated aims of the curriculum.
(f) Maintaining a Balance Arnong all the Goals
This is done through a balanced allocation of time and judicious requirelnents. (g)
Involving the Pupil in the learning experiences

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 There should be flexibility and democratic procedures. Pupil participation and
cooperation should be einphasized.
(h) Using Effective Learning Experiences
The experiences chosen must utilize the most appropriate situations for
promoting effective learning.
Although the particular learning experiences appropriate for attaining the
objectives will vary with the kind of objectives aimed at, there are certain general
principles which, according to Ralph Tyler, apply to the selection of learning
experiences, whatever the activities maybe.
These general principles of content selection are briefly described as under:
(a) For a given objective to be attained, a student must have experiences that give
him an opportunity to practice the kind of behaviour implied by the objective.
For example, if one of the objectives is to develop skill in problem-solving,
this cannot be attained unless the learning experiences give the student ample
opportunities to solve problems.
(b) The learning experiences must be such that the student obtains satisfaction in
carrying out the kind of behaviour implied by the objectives. For example, in
the case of learning experiences intended to develop skill in solving health
problems, it is important that the experience not only give the student an
opportunity to solve health problems, but also that effective solution of these
problems is satisfying to him. If the experiences are unsatisfying learning is
not likely to take place.
(c) The content should be such that reactions desired to be produced are within
the range of possibility for the students. That is to say the experiences should
be appropriate to the student present attainments, his predispositions, and the
like.
(d) The proposed content should help in achieving the specified objectives. No
part of the content should prove to be a hinderance in the achievement of an
objective while helping in the achievement of some other. objectives,
The content selected should ensure that the same learning experience will usually
bring about several outcomes. For example, while the student is solving field.
Problems about health, he is so also acquiring certain information about the
health field. He is also likely to be developing certain attitudes toward the
importance of public health procedures. In addition, he may be developing an
interest in or a dislike for work in the lied of health. Every experience is likely
to result in the achievement of more than one leaming objective.

1.3 Criteria for Content Selection

It is generally agreed that content selection should be based primarily on the
stated objective changes in objective required changes in the curriculum content it is

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 therefore, necessary to have valid criteria for content selection, so that the final
evaluation of the curriculum content can be carried out in a proper context. Below,
six standards for content selection are presented in question form:
1. Does the curriculum content reflect the basic principles of Islamic values and
teachings?
2. Does the content contribute to the growth and development of an Islamic society?
3. Is the content significant to an organized field of knowledge?
4. Does the content stand the test of survival?
5. Is the content useful?
6. Is the content interesting to the learner?
Perhaps you can suggest some other criteria. In thinking about this, look back at
the principles 'outlined earlier.
Ln addition to the above, the following four criteria, according to Nichol Is and
Nicholls, are also externally relevant and important:
G) The Criterion of Validity
It is important that content should be valid, i.e. appropriate for the
achievement of pre-detennined objectives. For example, if an objective is concerned
with the concept of the relationship between man's way of life and his environment,
and the content chosen for the achievement of this objective does not show this
relationship in a form which can be perceived by the pupils, it does not satisfy the
criterion of validity.
(ii) The Criterion of Significance
Schools have frequently been showing concern that pupils should leam large
bodies of facts. Yet facts ate the least significant or meaningful aspects of school
subjects and are only important insofar as they contribute to basic ideas; facts would
be leamed to illustrate these and would be included only insofar as they contributed to
an understanding of these. This would reduce the problem of learning large amounts
of factual information. This is linked with the question of breadth and depth in the
curriculum. The breadth of coverage and depth of understanding should be
appropriately balanced while Inaking curricular content selection.

Gii) The Criterion of Interest

To devise a curriculum solely on the basis of pupil interest, as is sometimes the case
in primary schools or with pupils in secondary schools, is likely to be found
restricting. On the other hand, to ignore pupils' interests is to lose a strong
motivational force and to run the risk of little or no learning taking place. However, it
is necessary to apply this criterion with caution.
W) The Criterion of Learnability

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 What is included in the curriculum should clearly be learnable ny the pupils;
but criterion of learnability, however, obvious it may be, is not always satisfied. The
main problem is that of the adjustment of material to the abilities of the pupils.
Content must be available in forms which are appropriate to individual pupils'
abilities and existing knowledge. It is also important that what is to be learned makes
a connection with something which the pupils have already learned; and again this
will vary from one pupil to another. This suggests the need for variety in the ways in
which content is made available and in the manner in which pupils are expected to
learn.
Ideally, the content selected should satisfy all the criteria (validity,
significance, interest and learnability); cenainly no one criterion should be applied in
isolation nor carried to an extreme, although under some circumstances some criteria
may carry more weight than others.
2. PROCEDURES OF CONTENT SELECTION
This issue has been discussed in detail by Smith, Stanley and Shores.
According to them, the procedures of content selection are (a) judynental (b)
experimental (c) analytical and (d) consensual.
2.1 The Judgmental Proceeds
Selection of subject-matter I the curriculum worker to answer the following
questions:

(i) What social and educational objective should be accepted?

(ii) What is the existing state of affairs in which these objectives are considered
desirable and appropriate, and in which they must be realised?
(iii) What subject matter best satisfies these objectives under the existing conditions?
The most objective, selection of content by this procedure requires that the
interests, knowledge and ideals of the curriculum worker rise above those of special
social vision and freedom from the restricting influences of personal rationalizations.
When the curriculum worker is collecting data to help determine objectives, or
when he is using these data to select content with the judgementai procedure, he is
not expected to make original social and historical investigations. The knowledge he
needs should be drawn from sch61arly work in cultural anthropology, sociology,
economics, political science, geography, history, psychology, and philosophy etc.
In addition, the judgemental procedure calls for extensive group discussion
and deliberation, in which gener91 points of view and personal and goup opinions are
critically evaluated and reconstucted in the process of agreeing upon social ideals and
goals. Curriculum content chosen on the basis of the prejudices and rationalizations
will not satisfy the conditions of the judgemental procedure. Nor will the selection of
such content improve the curriculum.

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 The judgemental procedure is best demonstrated when the criterion of social
reconstruction is the primary basis of subject-matter selection. This principle makes
social development a primary basis of content selection. It should not be assumed,
however, that this is merely a matter of personal choice. On the contrary,-the test of
the judgement is the extent to which other persons accepting the same ideals, facing
the same facts and possessing the same social understanding would themselves select
the same subject-matter or agree with its selection. sugcpssful implementation
requires critical, informed, and judicious persons a? gurfic%lmm 'FormlatorS. in the
hands of such people, it can be one of the most dependable methods •f content
selection. But the curriculum worker cannot neglect any of its phases without the risk
of serious misjudgment.
2.2 The Experimental Procedures
The experimental procedure of content selection tries to determine by actual
testing whether or not subject-matter a particular criterion. It answers such questions
as: Is the subject-matter interesting'? [s the subject-matter suitable for the adults
keeping in view their needs and problems etc. The tryout of the subject-matter must,
of course, be done under prescribed conditions and by techniques that make the
procedure as rigorious as possible. Errors due to personal or group prej Lid ices,
misjudgement and outside conditions are to be reduced to a minimum. The
experimental procedure of content selection takes the following form:
(a) Tentatively selecting subject-matter in accordance with a criterion.
(b) Hypothesising that the tentatively selected subject-matter meets conditions of the
criterion (that it is interesting or usefut)
(c) Prescribing conditions for the tryout (description of the characteristics of the
children, the teacher, the classroom, the materials to le used and other facts affecting
the experiment).
(d) Checking the results against the hypothesis to find whether or not the subjectmatter
satisfies the criterion.
This procedure has not yet been used extensively, but its findings have been
generally respected. However, it is open to the objection that all factors cannot be
controlled: and that its findings, therefore, are not entirely dependable. Another
criticism is that the experimental procedures assume an unchanging curriculum in all
the aspects related to the one under investigation. If this is not the case, the
experimenter cannot know whether his results were due to the conditions of the
experilnent or to some outside conditions that changed without measurement or
control. However, in spite of all the criticisms this procedure remains one of the most
promising means of selecting the subject-matter.
2.3 The Analytical Procedure
The analytical procedure is one of the most widely known methods of
content selection. It has been closely identified with the criterion of utility. In general,

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it consists of an analysis of the things people do in order to discover the subject-
matter involved in these activities.
Illere are three forms of the analytical procedure, each following more or less
the same pattern. Their brief description is as follows:

(D Activity analysis
The purpose of this analysis is to discover the general activities of people of
a given national group or region. This analysis helps in identifying relevant activities
to be selected for the curriculum.
(ii) Job analysis
This analysis is applied to vocational operations. To determine what should be
taught in Professional Preparation of Teachers" course, for example, an analysis of their
work would come the basis of the teacher education programmes.
(iii) Knowledge analvsis
If the problem is to find what elements of written expression are in general
use. one procedure would be to analyse such relevant documentary materials as
newspapers. journals, and library materials. The content to be included in a course on
grammar might be determined by studying the grammatical forms found in the
correspondence of people in general or of a selected group. The analytical procedure
of content selections therefore consists of the application of certain techniques of
fact-finding to the activities under investigation.
The analytical procedure can involve the use of the following techniques:
(i) Interviewing
The interviewer requests a person on the job ,or one who performs certain
activities, to name the duties for which he is responsible or the ideas and skills he
employs. From these interviews, a composite list of duties is drawn up.
GD Working on the Job
The investigator Works on the job, studying the operations required and
making a list of them.
Gii) Analysis of the Job or Activity by the Worker
A person who has become familiar with ajob or activity is asked to list his
duties or the operations he perfonns.
(iv) Questionnaires
The duties or operations involved in a job or activity are sought by means of an
inquiry blank sent to the workers or persons whose activities are under investigation.
(v) Documentary Analysis
The investigator makes an analysis of magazines, correspondence. public records and
the like and tabulates the information, skills, or principles found in these documents. These

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 findings throw light on what will be needed by persons who use these documents or who are
involved in activities from which they results.
(vi) Observing the Performance of People
The curriculum worker, or a group of persons under his direction, observe
and tabulate their observations and findings. This may be concerned with the daily
activities of people or it may involve analysis of individuals ot groups in certain
specific situations.
The main criticism on the analytical procedure is that it breaks operations,
skills, and knowledge into such small elements that the reaLidentity of the original
process or knowledge is lost. Although this criticism may be valid when analysis has
been carried to extremes, it can hardly be held to be justifiabte in most instances.
Analysis is always essential, and there is no justification for wholesale criticism on it.
The pertinent questions should always be these: What is the analysis for? Is it
sufficient for the purpose? A second criticism is that the process of analysis yields
static results. An analysis of present conditions indicates nothing about what they
should be. Hence, the discovery of what is actually done on a job, or the knowledge
and skills that people actually use in their various activities, offers no basis for
improving performance.

2.4 The Consensual Procedure

The consensual procedure is a way of collecting people's opinions about what they
believe the curriculum should be. The results of the consensual procedure are expressed in
terms of the number of persons. or percentage or persons. of a particular
community or group who believe that such and such should be taught in the schools.
The selection of persons whose opinions are to be sought is the first step. Such
person$ are usually selected because they are:
(i) Outstanding leaders in the fields of education industry, business, agriculture, labour, and
in the social life of the community.
Experts and-specialists such as physicians, engineers, teachers, and artists or
(iii) Representatives of the population of a community or region.
The next phase is the development of method for collecting opinions. Usually
a questionnaire is used. In some cases, interviews or small goup conferences are
employed. The final stage of the consensual procedure is the tabulation and
interpretation of the responses. This procedure is perhaps most dependable when it is
used along with the judgemental procedure. But it too is subject to the objection that
people's replies are too often dictated by vested interests, unexamined prejudices and
occupational basis. It is also apparent that this procedure results not in consensus but in a
tabulation of votes.
2.5 Activity
Interview some of the members of National Curriculum Committee in a subject and
level of .your choice about the procedures used in content selection.

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2.6 . Romine's Classification of Procedures
It is difficult to separate "selection" from organization, particularity at the actual point
of making choices within the overall framework of the curriculum. For that reason, the
procedures dealt with above apply in varying degrees to bomb selection and organizatiOn
of curricular experiences, suggesting means of establishing courses and other aspects of the
total curriculum. A number of suggestions may be found in educational literature dealing
with this task of curricular construction, Some-authors discuss one or more of the procedures
in terms of determining the scope of the curriculum, others in terms of the selection of
curricular materials and experiences. Some of the procedures are more applicable on a broad
basis, while others are more pertinent to course of study, units, projects and related classroom
activities.

Stephen Romine has discussed some procedures which can be used in

selecting and organizing curricular experiences: analysis of text books surveys of
opinions, the study of errors, the study of the curricula, analyses of adult activities,
analyses of social functions, and study and analysis of youth interests and needs.
Although some of these

have, to some degree, been discussed under the above four procedures, it would be interesting to
discuss them further.
CD The Textbook Procedure
This self-explanatory procedure is the most cornmonly employed of all for
selecting and organizing curricular experiences. The content of a course or a
cuniculum based on this approach is determined in large part, if not entirely, by the
selected textbook (or textbooks). Essentially, it assumes that the of texts are
sufficiently expert to know what is appropriate for the youth who are to pursue given
curricular experiences and use the textual materials in so doing. While such persons
generally have access to such basic data and do a real service in bringing together and
organizing materials, it is doubt full whether they are capable of accurately diagnosing
pupils background and needs as they are found in the thousands of classrooms over
the nation. Yet in the hands of many teachers, the text serves as the prescription for all
pupils, regardless of individual differences amongst them.
GD The Survey of Opinions Procedure
This procedure has several variations and is spoken of as the consensual or
expert-opinion procedure. Subject-matter committees, for example, make
pronouncements based upon the study and opinions of the members. These decisions
frequently are based upon considerable studies and deliberations and are worth careful
consideration. On other occasions, the recommended ideas or practices may be
nothing more than unstudied opinion. The value of the procedure is likely to be
greatest in restricted areas of the curriculum, as in some special subject field, or in
dealing with special problems. In this procedure live groups of persons may be
involved individually or collectively: (a) experts in a given field, including teachers,

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 (b) specialists in professional education (c) lay leaders, (d) the general public and (e)
pupils. Opinions may be solicited through the committees established to study given
problems.
(üi) The Study of Errors Procedure

The idea behind this procedure is that of identifying errors and shortcomings as a
basis for incorporation into the curriculum such content as will assist in removing these
weaknesses, This is a form of analysis which concentrates on incorrect or improper
behaviour, judged in terms of given criteria of values. In the field of social studies, for
example, a study might be directed at determining the reasons why different racial groups in a
community were not getting along well. On the basis of the findings, a series of curricular
experiences should be outlined and materials selected to help promote better understanding and
more cooperative relationships. In mathematics, a teacher may study pupil perfonnance,
determining weaknesses in several respects. Remedial work may then be implemented. For the
purposes of diagnosis at the beginning of courses, a more extensive analysis may be made of
both the strengths and weaknesses of pupils. This may serve as a partial basis for structuring
the course, particularly with regard to an introductory unit aimed at developing desired
understandings and basic skills.
(iv) The Study of Other Curricula Procedure
Sometimes identified as the "sciessors and paste" method, this procedure entails the
study of curriculum guides, courses of study and similar materials prepared by other schools and
agencies. The general idea is to determine from such study what others are doing which may be useful
in one's own school situation. In this way a teacher, or a school, may rely heavily on another for the
substance ofcurricular content. A teacher, may, for example, simples look. over a course of study in
science which is used in another school and adopt it exactly as it is for use in his own class. This
danger must be avoided if the procedure is to serve any good purpose. In Pakistan we have
prescribed content, a teacher may. however,
come to know about methods ofteaching as prescribed in other schools.
(v) The Analysis of Adult Activities Procedure
Activity analysis in not a new procedure, but it still has value in dealing with
curricular content. Broadly conceived it involves the study of life activities
citizenship, vocations, and so to discover significant activities concerning which
youth should be taught to be proficient. It is more commonly recognized and utilized,
however, in relation to vocational education, wherein analysis is directed towards the
identification of specific skills. Once such identification has been accomplished,
curricular experiences are set up to teach the skill involved.
(vi) The Social Functions Procedure
Related to the activity analysis approach, but-broader in point of view, is
what may be called the social åinctions procedure. This procedure has its basis in the
concept of education as social process, and, as a primary step, involves an analysis of
the social fimctions which adult citizens should be capable of performing. Because it
requires a broad grasp of the total environment and deals with, larger areas of living.

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This approach is more applicable to such larger areas of the curriculum as, for
example, the whole social studies programme. It may, however, lead to more detailed
selection and organization as an outgrowth of the larger planning which is done
initially. This procedure entails comprehensive study of social, political, economic,
and related conditions, influences, and trends and these may be approached through
surveys, study of literature, research and other such methods. A general appraisal of
the total situation, the forces and factors influencing it, and what it all means in terms
of the social fimctions and the school is essential.
(vii) The Youth Interests and Needs Procedure
Certain similarities exist between the social functions procedure and that of
youth interests and needs. The former takes its scope from the functions of adult-
living, ordinarily classified into a number of large areas of persistent life problems.
Its sequence preferably is based upon the background, maturity, interests and needs of
boys and girls, it may be chronological and logical. The youth interests and
needs procedure' involves consideration of persistent problems too, but both its scope
and sequence are based upon youth. It involves the personal and social functions of
boys and girls rather than of adults. It does not avoid preparing for adult living: in
fact, it contributes Inuch to this. But its primary focus is on the here-and-now, young
today and the things which concern them.
3. PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION
The principles suggested for use in selecting educational content are also
useful in considering organization and may be modified slightly to become more
applicable for such a purpose. The pattem of the curriculum with its sub-divisions
should be planned and structured with due regard to the bases which have been
suggested as underlying the operation of the school the purposes of education, the
needs and abilities of the leamers and the educative process.
(a) Provide for scope and sequence with flexibility
(b)
Provide a common body of educative experiences, plus those which are essential in meeting
special interests and needs.
(c) Be consonant with the manner in which learning takes place.
(d) Implement the attainment of stated objectives, and encourage the evaluation of pupil
growth and development in terms of these objectives.
(e) Give consideration to the individual learners, and involve them in cooperative
curriculum planning an active learning ventures.
(D Relate to the total educational picture in away so as to affect favorably the learning
climate in the school and in the community.

3.1 What is Curriculum Organization?

According to Ralph Tyler, important changes in human behaviour are not
produced overnight. No learning experience has a very profound influence upon the

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learner. Changes in ways of thinking, in fundamental habits. in major operating
concepts, educational experiences in attitudes, in abiding interests and the like
develop slowly. It is only after months and years that we are able to see major
educational objectives taking marked concrete shape. In some respects, produce their
effects in the way water dripping upon a stone wears it away. Ln a day or a week or
month there is no appreciable change in the stone, but over a period of years definite
erosion is noted. Corespondingly, by the cumulation of educational experiences
profound changes are brought about in the learner. In order for educational
experiences to produce cumulative effects, they must be organized to reinforce each
other. Organization is thus seen as an important aspect of curriculum development
because it greatly influences the emciency of instruction and the degree to which
major educational changes are brought about in the leamers.
3.2 Criteria for Effective Curriculum Organization: Continuity, Sequence
and Integration
As discussed by Tyler in Basic Principles of Curriculum and -Instruction,
there are three major criteria to be met in building an effectively organized youp of.
learning experiences. These are continuity, sequence and integration. A summary of
Tyler's discussion is given below:
Continuity
This refers to the vertical reiteration of major cumiculum elements. For e•
if in social studies" the development of skills in reading social studies mater:
important objective, it is necessary to see that there is a recuring and cov
opportunity for these skills to be practiced and developed. This means that overtijn,•
same kinds of skills will be brought into continuing operation. in similar fashion. if an
objective in science is to develop a meaningful Concept of energy, it is important that
this concept be dealt with again and again in various parts of the science course.
Continuity is thus-seen to be a major factor in effective vertical organization of
curricular contents,
Sequence
This is related to continuity but goes beyond it. It is possible for a major
cuniculum element to occur again and against but merely at the same level, so that
there is no progressive, development of understanding or skill or attitude. Sequence as
a criterion emphasizes the importance of having each successive experience .built
upon the preceding one, but goes more broadly and deeply into the matters involved.
For example, sequence in the development-of reading skill in social, studies would
involve the provision of increasingly more complex social studies material, increased
breadth in the operation of the skill involved in reading these materials, and increased
depth of analysis so that the sixth-grade social studies programmes would not simply
reiterate the reading skill involved in the fifth-grade but would go into them more
broadly and deeply. Correspondingly, sequential development of a. concept of energy
in the natural science would require that each successive treatment of energy would'

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help the "energy". Sequence emphasizes not duplication but higher levels of treatment
with each successive learning experience.
(iii) Integration
This refer to the horizontal relationship of curriculum experiences. The
organization of these experiences should be such that they help the student
increasingly to get a unified view and to unify his behaviour in relation to the
elements being dealt with. For example, in developing skill in handling quantitative
problems in arithmetic, it is also important to consider the ways in which these skills
can be effectively utilized in social studies, in science, in business and other fields so
that they are not developed simply as isolated behaviours to be used in a single
course, but are increasingly part of the total capacities of the student to use in the
varied situations of his daily life. Correspondingly, in developing concepts in the
social studies, it is important to see, how these ideas can be related to work going on
in other subject fields so that increasingly there is unity in the studerits outlook, skills,
attitudes and the like.
3.3 Conclusion
The above discussion leads to the conclusion that the most important criterion
point for the selection of curriculum content is the Islamic society, which puts equal
emphasis upon the materialistic and spiritual development of the individual and
society.
Furthermore, the content should be selected and presented in such a way that
a balance between 'permanence' and 'change' is established. In other words, we have
to conserve the pennanent perennial values and also adopt innovations and change. A
balanced curriculum would, therefore, be one which takes care of the needs and
interests of the individuals as well as society. Further, selection of such content
should satisfy the criteria of validity, interest, d •learn ability.
In unit-4, you studied in detail aims, goals and objeetives and the importance
of stating these clearly as a first step in curriculum planning and evaluation was
stressed. In this unit, we have considered the next stage the selection of cumiculum
content. It is now time to look at the evaluation of the curriculum which is covered in
unit-6.

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