CHAPTER TWO

TRADITIONAL MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES MACHINING:

Definition of Machining: Machining is an essential process of finishing by which jobs are produced to

the desired dimensions and surface finish by gradually removing the excess material from the preformed

blank in the form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved past the work surface(s).

Machining is the removal of the unwanted material (machining allowance) from the work piece (WP), so
as to obtain a finished product of the desired size, shape, and surface quality. The practice of removal of
machining allowance through cutting techniques was first adopted using simple handheld tools made from
bone, stick, or stone, which were replaced by bronze or iron tools.
These components are subjected to one or more number of machining operations in machine shops, to
obtain the desired shape and dimensional accuracy on flat and cylindrical jobs. Thus, the jobs undergoing
these operations are the roughly finished products received through primary shaping processes. The
process of removing the undesired or unwanted material from the work-piece or job or component to
produce a required shape using a cutting tool is known as machining. This can be done by a manual process
or by using a machine called machine tool (Traditional machines namely lathe, milling machine, drilling,
shaper, planner, and slotter). In many cases these operations are performed on rods, bars and flat surfaces
in machine shops.
2.1. MACHINING OPERATION: TURNING LATHES
Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the world. It is commonly known
as the mother of all other machine tool. The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from a job to give
it the required shape and size. The job is secure1y and rigid1y held in the chuck or in between centers on
the lathe machine and then turn it against a single point cutting tool which wi1l remove meta1 from the
job in the form of chips.
2.1.1. GENERAL PURPOSE MACHINE TOOLS OF COMMON USE
CLASSIFICATION OF LATHES: Lathes are very versatile of wide use and are classified according to
several aspects:
A. According to configuration:
• Horizontal: Most common for ergonomic conveniences
• Vertical: Occupies less floor space, only some large lathes are of this type.

1
The general configuration of center lathe. Its major parts are:
• Head stock: it holds the blank and through that power and rotation are transmitted to the job at
different speeds. It comprises of the headstock casting to accommodate all the parts within it
including gear train arrangement. The main spindle is adjusted in it, which possesses live center to
which the work can be attached. It supports the work and revolves with the work, fitted into the main
spindle of the headstock. The cone pulley is also attached with this arrangement, which is used to
get various spindle speed through electric motor. The back gear arrangement is used for obtaining a
wide range of slower speeds. Some gears called change wheels are used to produce different velocity
ratio required for thread cutting.
• Tailstock: supports longer blanks and often accommodates tools like drills, reamers etc for hole
making. The tail stock of central lathe, which is commonly used for the objective of primarily giving
an outer bearing and support the circular job being turned on centers. Tail stock can be easily set or
adjusted for alignment or non-alignment with respect to the spindle center and carries a center called
dead center for supporting one end of the work. Both live and dead centers have 60° conical points
to fit center holes in the circular job, the other end tapering to allow for good fitting into the spindles.
The dead center can be mounted in ball bearing so that it rotates with the job avoiding friction of the
job with dead center as it important to hold heavy jobs.
• Carriage: accommodates the tool holder which in turn holds the moving tools. It is mounted on the
outer guide ways of lathe bed and it can move in a direction parallel to the spindle axis. It comprises
of important parts such as apron, cross-slide, saddle, compound rest, and tool post. The cross-slide
is basically mounted on the carriage, which generally travels at right angles to the spindle axis. On
the cross-slide, a saddle is mounted in which the compound rest is adjusted which can rotate and fix
to any desired angle. The compound rest slide is actuated by a screw, which rotates in a nut fixed to
the saddle. The tool post is an important part of carriage, which fits in a tee-slot in the compound
rest and holds the tool holder in place by the tool post screw.
• Bed: headstock is fixed and tailstock is clamped on it. It is massive and rigid single piece casting
made to support other active parts of lathe. On left end of the bed, headstock of lathe machine is
located while on right side tailstock is located. The carriage of the machine rests over the bed and
slides on it. On the top of the bed there are two sets of guideways-inner ways and outer ways. The
inner ways provide sliding surfaces for the tailstock and the outer ways for the carriage. The
guideways of the lathe bed may be flat and inverted V shape. Generally cast iron alloyed with nickel
and chromium material is used for manufacturing of the lathe bed.
2
B. According to purpose of use:
• General purpose: Very versatile where almost all possible types of operations are carried out on
wide ranges of size, shape and materials of jobs; example: Centre lathes
• Single purpose: Only one (occasionally two) type of operation is done on limited ranges of size and
material of jobs; example: facing lathe, roll turning lathe etc.
• Special purpose: Where a definite number and type of operations are done repeatedly over long
time on a specific type of blank; example: gear blank machining lathe etc.
C. According to size or capacity:
• Small (low duty): In such light duty lathes (up-to 1.1 kW), only small and medium size jobs of
generally soft and easily machinable materials are machined
• Medium (medium duty): These lathes of power nearly up-to 11 kW are most versatile and
commonly used
• Large (heavy duty)
• Mini or micro lathe: These are tiny table-top lathes used for extremely small size jobs and
precision work; example: Swiss type automatic lathe.
D. According to degree of automation:
• Non-automatic: Almost all the handling operations are done manually; example: center lathes
• Semi-automatic: Nearly half of the handling operations, irrespective of the processing operations,
are done automatically and rest manually; example: capstan lathe, turret lathe, copying lathe
relieving lathe etc.
• Automatic: Almost all the handling operations (and obviously all the processing operations) are
done automatically; example – single spindle automat (automatic lathe), Swiss type automatic
lathe, etc.
E. According to type of automation:
• Fixed automation: Conventional; example: single spindle automat, Swiss type automatic lathe etc.
• Flexible automation: Modern; example CNC lathe, turning center etc.
F. According to configuration of the jobs being handled:
• Bar type: Slender rod like jobs being held in collets
• Chucking type: Disc type jobs being held in chucks
• Housing type: Odd shape jobs, being held in face plate.
G. According to precision:
• Ordinary
• Precision (lathes): These sophisticated lathes meant for high accuracy and finish and are relatively
more expensive.
H. According to number of spindles:
• Single spindle: Common
• Multi-spindle (2, 4, 6 or 8 spindles): Such uncommon lathes are suitably used for fast and mass
production of small size and simple shaped jobs.

3
2.1.2. KINEMATIC SYSTEM AND WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LATHES
Amongst the various types of lathes, center lathes are the most versatile and commonly used

Fig: Schematic diagram of a center lathe.

For machining in machine tools the job and the cutting tool need to be moved relative to each other.
The tool-work motions are:
• Formative motions: cutting motion & feed motion
• Auxiliary motions: indexing motion & relieving motion etc
In lathes:
• Cutting motion is attained by rotating the job
• Feed motion by linear travel of the tool; either axially for longitudinal feed; or radially for cross feed
In general, from Figure: Schematic diagram of a center lathe.
• The job gets rotation (and power) from the motor through the belt-pulley, clutch and then the speed
gear box which splits the input speed into a number of speeds by operating the cluster gears.
• The cutting tool derives its automatic feed motion(s) from the rotation of the spindle via the gear
quadrant, feed gear box and then the appron mechanism where the rotation of the feed rod is
transmitted either to the pinion which being rolled along the rack provides the longitudinal feed or to
the screw of the cross slide for cross or transverse feed.
4
 • While cutting screw threads the half nuts are engaged with the rotating leadscrew to positively cause
travel of the carriage and hence the tool parallel to the lathe bed i.e., job axis.
• The feed-rate for both turning and threading is varied as needed by operating the Norton gear and the
Meander drive systems existing in the feed gear box (FGR). The range of feeds can be augmented by
changing the gear ratio in the gear quadrant connecting the FGB with the spindle
• As and when required, the tailstock is shifted along the lathe bed by operating the clamping bolt and
the tailstock quil is moved forward or backward or is kept locked in the desired location.
• The versatility or working range of the center lathes is augmented by using several attachments like
Taper turning attachment
Thread milling attachment
Copying attachment

2.1.3. MACHINING OPERATIONS DONE IN CENTER LATHES:

The machining operations generally carried out in center lathes are:
• Facing: The operation of a flat surface as the result of a tool is being fed across the end of the rotating
work piece & If both ends are to be faced, work is held on a mandrel
• Centering
• Rough and finish turning
• Chamfering, shouldering, grooving, recessing etc
• Axial drilling and reaming by holding the cutting tool in the tailstock barrel
• Taper turning by:
Off-setting the tailstock
Swiveling the compound slide
Using form tool with taper over short length
Using taper turning attachment if available
Combining longitudinal feed and cross feed, if feasible.

Fig: Taper turning by swiveling compound rest set-up

5
 • Boring (internal turning); straight and taper; The operation employed for machining internal surfaces,
it is called internal turning; Holes produced by casting, forging and drilling require subsequent
machining to bring them to the exact required size by boring operation; It is operation of enlarging
existing holes; Boring mills are used for large work pieces; Holes can be bored up to 20M if needed.
• Forming; external and internal
• Cutting helical threads; external and internal; the operation generates a helix on the work-piece; it is
obtained by setting the gears that drive the lead screw to give the required pitch of the machined
threads.
• Parting off: The operation by which one section of a work piece is severed from the remainder by
means of a cut off tools.
• Knurling: The operation of producing indentations, knurls on the job; a special tool, knurling tool is
used & the tool consists of one or two knurling wheels in its front, and these wheels are made of
hardened tool steel and carry teeth on the outer surfaces.

In addition to the aforesaid regular machining operations, some more operations are also occasionally
done, if desired, in center lathes by mounting suitable attachments available in the market, such as,
• Grinding, both external and internal by mounting a grinding attachment on the saddle
• Copying (profiles) by using hydraulic copying attachment
• Machining long and large threads for leadscrews, power-screws, worms etc. by using thread milling
attachment.

6
 Fig: Lathe operation

2.1.4. KINEMATICS OF MACHINE TOOL OPERATIONS:

Cutting Speed: is given in surface feet per minute (sfpm) & the speed at which the metal is removed by
the tool from the work piece, expressed in meters per minute.
V = πDN;
V = πDN / 1000 for the metric units.
Feed: the distance, the tool advances for each revolution
of the work piece, measured in the direction of the feed
motion, it is expressed in mm/rev.
Depth of cut: It is the penetration of the cutting tool into
the work-piece in a single cut in mm
The cutting speed at the tool corner is given by:
Maximum cutting speed = Vmax = π dm nw
Minimum cutting speed = Vmin = π dw nw
Mean cutting speed = Vav = π nw(dw +dm)/2
Where: nw, is the rotational frequency of the work-piece, &
dm, is the diameter of the machined surface.
dw is the diameter of the work surface.

7
 Vav, is the average or mean cutting speed.

The Metal removal rate:

Zw = Ac Vav
Zw = πafaenw (dw +dm)/2
Zw = πafaenw (dm +ap)
Where: Zw, is the rotational frequency of the work-piece,
Ac, is the cross sectional area of the chip
af, is the uncut chip width.
ae is the Uncut chip thickness (depth of cut).

The power Pm & the power efficiency Ps required to perform any machining operation:
Pm = ps Zw;
Pe = pm /m
Where: Pm, is the power required,
Ps is the specific power.
, is the efficiency of the motor

Example1: Determine the cutting speed of a turning operation if the rotational frequency is 75 rpm & the
diameter of the machined surface is 90 mm.
Solution: V = π dm nw /1000
V= π 75rpm*90mm/1000
V = 21.2 m/min

Example2: Calculate the rotational frequency RPM setting for a Lathe machine to turn Ø 50mm. Grey
C.I work-piece with throwaway carbide insert tool. The feed is 0.38mm/rev. The depth of cut is 3.8mm &
the recommended cutting speed is 60 m/min.
Solution: RPM setting (Rotational Frequency):
V = π dm nw /1000
60m/mim = π*50mm*nw /1000
nw = (1000*60)/(π *50)
= 381.8 rpm

Example3: Determine the time required to machine the part. In a turning operation of 100mm length
cylindrical part, the feed is 0.38 mm/rev, the rpm of the spindle is 380. Assume 1.5mm approach & 1.5
mm over travel allowances.
Solution: tm = lw/fnw lw =100+1.5 +1.5 =103mm
= 103mm/(0.38mm/rev*380rpm)
= 0.713 min = 42.79 sec

8
Example4: Determine the power required to cut a cylindrical shaft Ø 50 mm on lathe when the cutting
conditions are as follows; cutting speed =18 m/min, feed =0.26 mm/rev, depth of cut =0.058 cm, specific
power ps= 3.7 kw for removing one cubic cm per min, efficiency of motor η = 80%)
Solution: Rotational frequency V = π dm nw /1000
nw = (1000*18)/(π *50) =114.65 rpm
Metal removal rate: Zw = πfaenw (dm +ae)
= π*0.026*0.058*114.65*(5+0.058)
= 2.7cm3/min
Power required at the tool: Pm =Ps *Zw
=3.7kw*2.7cm3/min
=10 KW
Motor power required: Pe = pm /m
= 10/0.8
= 12.5HP

Quiz:
1. Determine the rotational frequency as well as the metal removal rate of machining for turning
operation with the following conditions; Cutting speed = 50 m/min; Diameter to be turned = 75
mm; Depth of cut = 2.5 mm; Feed = 0.25 mm/rev.
2. Estimate the time required for a single cut to turn Ø25mm, 100 mm long work-piece with a cutting
speed of 30 m/min, & a feed of 0.25 mm/rev.
3. Determine the total production time for a batch of 400 components to be turned one at a time in
an engine lathe given that; Diameter of the work-piece: Ø 50 mm, Length of the work-piece: 100
mm, Rotational frequency: 380 rpm, Approach: 1.5 mm, Over run: 1.5 mm, Feed: 0.25 mm/rev.
4. A mild steel rod of Ø 60 mm is machined on a lathe with a single point cutting tool. Find the motor
power using the following data. Cutting Speed = 90 m/min, Feed = 0.5 mm/rev, Depth of Cut =
2.54 mm, specific power ps= 3.7 kw for removing one cubic cm per min, Efficiency of motor η =
50%.

9
2.2. MACHINING OPERATION: MILLING:
A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed against a rotating multipoint
cutter. The milling cutter rotates at high speed and it removes metal at a very fast rate with the help of
multiple cutting edges. One or more number of cutters can be mounted simultaneously on the arbor of
milling machine. This is the reason that a milling machine finds wide application in production work.
Milling machine is used for machining flat surfaces, contoured surfaces, surfaces of revolution, external
and internal threads, and helical surfaces of various cross-sections.
In rare cases, a tool with one cutting edge, called a fly-cutter, is used. The axis of rotation of the cutting
tool is perpendicular to the direction of feed. The cutting tool in milling is called a milling cutter and the
cutting edges are called teeth.

2.2.1. BASIC FUNCTIONS AND PURPOSES OF USING MILLING MACHINES

The basic function of milling machines is to produce flat surfaces in any orientation as well as surfaces of
revolution, helical surfaces and contoured surfaces of various configurations. Such functions are
accomplished by slowly feeding the work-piece into the equispaced multi-edge circular cutting tool
rotating at moderately high speed. Up-milling needs stronger holding of the job and down-milling needs
backlash free screw-nut systems for feeding.

2.2.2. CLASSIFICATION OF MILLING MACHINES

According to nature of purposes of use:

 General purpose: most versatile commonly used mainly for piece or small lot production.
 Single purpose: e.g., thread milling machines, cam milling machines and slitting machine which
are generally used for batch or lot production.
 Special purpose: these are used for lot or mass production, e.g., duplicating mills, die sinkers,
short thread milling etc.

According to configuration and motion of the work-holding table / bed:

 Knee type: In such small and medium duty machines the table with the job/work travels over the
bed (guides) in horizontal (X) and transverse (Y) directions and the bed with the table and job on
it moves vertically (Z) up and down.
 Bed type: Usually of larger size and capacity; the vertical feed is given to the milling head instead
of the knee type bed
 Planer type: These heavy duty large machines, called plano-miller, look like planing machine
where the single point tools are replaced by one or a number of milling heads; generally used for
machining a number of longitudinal flat surfaces simultaneously, viz., lathe beds, table and bed of
planning machine etc.
 Rotary table type: Such open or closed ended high production milling machines possess one large
rotary work-table and one or two vertical spindles; the positions of the job(s) and the milling head
are adjusted according to the size and shape of the job.

10
 The milling machine may be classified in several forms, but the choice of any particular machine is
determined primarily by the size of the work-piece to be undertaken and operations to be performed.
A horizontal milling machine has a horizontal spindle, and this design is well suited for performing
peripheral milling (e.g., slab milling, slotting, side and straddle milling) on work parts that are roughly
cube shaped.
A vertical milling machine has a vertical spindle, and this orientation is appropriate for face milling, end
milling, surface contouring, and die sinking on relatively flat work parts.

Fig: a. Horizontal milling machine b. Vertical milling machine

2.2.3. MAIN PARTS OF MILLING MACHINE

a. Base: It is a foundation member for all the other parts, which rest upon it. It carries the column at its one
end. In some machines, the base is hollow and serves as a reservoir for cutting fluid.
b. Column: The column is the main supporting member mounted vertically on the base. It is box shaped,
heavily ribbed inside and houses all the driving mechanism for the spindle and table feed. The front
vertical face of the column is accurately machined and is provided with dovetail guideway for supporting
the knee.
c. Knee: The knee is a rigid grey iron casting which slides up and down on the vertical ways of the column
face. An elevating screw mounted on the base is used to adjust the height of the knee and it also supports
the knee. The knee houses the feed mechanism of the table, and different controls to operate it.
d. Saddle: The saddle is placed on the top of the knee and it slides on guideways set exactly at 90° to the
column face. The top of the saddle provides guide-ways for the table.
e. Table: The table rests on ways on the saddle and travels longitudinally. A lead screw under the table
engages a nut on the saddle to move the table horizontally by hand or power. In universal machines, the
table may also be swiveled horizontally. For this purpose the table is mounted on a circular base. The top
of the table is accurately finished and T -slots are provided for clamping the work and other fixtures on it
f. Overhanging arm: It is mounted on the top of the column, which extends beyond the column face and
serves as a bearing support for the other end of the arbor.
g. Front brace: t is an extra support, which is fitted between the knee and the over-arm to ensure further
rigidity to the arbor and the knee.

11
h. Spindle: It is situated in the upper part of the column and receives power from the motor through belts,
gears and clutches and transmits it to the arbor.
i. Arbor: It is like an extension of the machine spindle on which milling cutters are securely mounted and
rotated. The arbors are made with taper shanks for proper alignment with the machine spindles having
taper holes at their nose. The draw bolt is used for managing for locking the arbor with the spindle and
the whole assembly.

Fig: (a) peripheral or plain milling and (b) face milling operations.

A. PERIPHERAL MILLING: In peripheral milling, also called plain milling, the axis of the tool is
parallel to the surface being machined, and the operation is performed by cutting edges on the outside
periphery of the cutter.
B. FACE MILLING: the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the surface being milled, and machining
is performed by cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of the cutter.

PERIPHERAL MILLING: HORIZONTAL, SLAB ON KNEE TYPE MILLING MACHINE:

The feed f, which is equal to the distance moved by the work-piece during one revolution of the tool, is
given by: f = Vf/Nt
Where: Nt, is the rotational frequency of the cutter,
Vf , is the feed speed of the work-piece.
d n
v c t
The cutting seed, 1000
Length for slab milling:

lw = length of work-piece + approach

ae dt  ae  +overrun
lw  ae d t  ae   overrun
tm 
vf
Machining time:
Z w  ae a f v f
Metal removal rate:
12
The power Pm & the power efficiency Pe required to perform any machining operation:
Pm = ps Zw;
Pe = pm /m
Where: Pm, is the power required,
Ps, is the specific power.
dt/2
, is the efficiency of the motor

Over travel/overrun

FACE MILLING: VERTICAL, FACE OR END MILLING MACHINE:

Length for slab milling: face milling: cutter ø larger than width of work-piece
lw = length of work-piece + ø

tm  w
l  dt 
vf
Machining time:
Z a a v
Metal removal rate: w e f f

Length for slab milling: face milling: cutter ø less than width of work-piece
2 ae d t  ae 
lw = length of work-piece +
lw  2 ae d t  ae 
tm 
vf
Machining time:
Z w  ae a f v f
Metal removal rate:

Example1: For a slab milling operation determine the rotational frequency setting for a 100 mm diameter
HSS cutter machining grey cast iron at a cutting speed of 15m/min & feed is 58 mm/min, depth of cut is
15mm, width of work-piece is 50mm, the cutter has 8 teeth. Determine feed/tooth & metal removal rate.
Solution: Rotational frequency: V = π dc nt /1000
15m/min = π * nt *100mm/1000
nt = 47.7 rpm
Feed per minute: 58mm/min
Feed per revolution: 58/47.7 = 1.2mm/rev
Feed per tooth: 1.2/8= 0.15mm/tooth
Metal removal rate: Zw = ae ap Vf
= ae ap *f * nt
=5cm*1.5cm*5.8*47.7 cm/min
= 2075cm3/min

13
Example2: A carbide face milling cutter of 75 mm diameter is used to take three cut across the face of a
block of aluminium which 200mm wide. The length of the block is 450 mm. If cutting speed 320m/min,
feed of 0.75 mm/rev & depth of cut is 1.2mm is used.
a. Calculate the time taken if the cutter dia. is 75 mm, depth of engagement is (ae) is 70 mm.
b. Calculate power required at the cutter & at the electric motor if the specific horse power is 0.03
HP/cm3/min & η = 70 %
Solution: Rotational frequency: V = π dc nt /1000
320m/min = π * nt *75mm/1000
nt = 1358.2 rpm
Feed per revolution: = Vf = f*nt = 0.75mm/rev*1358.2rpm
= 1018.5mm/min
450  2 7075  70
tm   0.47 min  28.7 sec
Machining time for first cut: ae = 70 mm; 0.75 *1358.2
Machining time for second cut: same =28.7sec
450  75
tm   0.45 min  26.5 sec
Machining time for third cut: cutter diameter is greater 0.75 *1358.2
Total Machining time: = 28.7*2+26.5 = 83.9 sec
Metal removal rate: =7*0.12*0.075*1358.2)*2 + (6*0.12*0.075*1358.2)
= 171.13 + 73.34
= 244.5 cm3/min
Power required at the tool= ps Zw; = 0.03*244.5= 7.33HP
Electrical motor power: Pe = pm /m = 7.33/0.7= 10.47HP

Quiz 2:
1. A carbide milling cutter 250 mm in diameter is used to cut a block of mild steel. The block is 500
mm long. If the feed is 0.5 mm/rev & depth of cut is 1.2 mm, determine the time taken to take one
cut. The over travel is 16 mm & the cutting speed is 80 m/min.
2. The feed of an 8-teeth face mill cutter is 0.325 mm per tooth at 200 rpm. If the depth of cut is 3
mm & width of cut is 100mm, calculate the power required at the cutter & at the motor. (Specific
power ps= 0.03 HP/cm3/min & η = 60 %).
3. Determine the power required for a milling cutter to take a cut 100 mm wide 3 mm deep at 75
mm/min feed for an ally steel. Cutter diameter is 100 mm & cutting speed is 15 m/min. (Specific
power ps= 0.03 HP/cm3/min & η = 60 %).
4. Calculate the milling cutter offset distance for a 100 mm diameter cutter that is to cut a slot of 25
mm deep. Also determine the time required to mill the slot in a work piece of 250 mm long with
a feed of 12mm/min. Assume 1.5 mm approach and over travel allowance.

14
2.3. MACHINING OPERATION: DRILLING:
DRILLING AND RELATED OPERATIONS:
Drilling is a machining operation used to create a round hole in a work-part. Drilling is usually performed
with a rotating cylindrical tool that has two cutting edges on its working end. The tool is called a drill or
drill bit. The most common drill bit is the twist drill. The rotating drill feeds into the stationary work-part
to form a hole whose diameter is equal to the drill diameter.

2.3.1. BASIC PURPOSES OF USE OF DRILLING MACHINES:

Drilling machines are generally or mainly used to originate through or blind straight cylindrical holes in
solid rigid bodies and/or enlarge (coaxially) existing (pre-machined) holes of different diameter and length
depending upon the requirement and the diameter of the drill.

2.3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF DRILLING MACHINES:

GENERAL PURPOSE DRILLING MACHINES OF COMMON USE:
a. Table top small sensitive drilling machine: these small capacity; single spindle drilling machines
are mounted (bolted) on rigid table and manually operated using usually small size.
b. Pillar drilling machine: are little larger size and higher capacity and are grouted on the floor
(foundation).
c. Column drilling machine: are much more strong, rigid and powerful drills. In column drills the
feed gear box enables automatic and power feed of the rotating drill at different feed rates as desired.
d. Radial drilling machine: usually large drilling machine possesses a radial arm which along with
the drilling head can swing and move vertically up and down
e. CNC column drilling machine: In these versatile and flexibly automatic drilling machine having
box-column type rigid structure the work table movements and spindle rotation are programmed and
accomplished by Computer Numerical Control (CNC).

a b c d
a. Table top small sensitive drilling machine. b. Pillar drilling machine.
c. Column drilling machine. d. Radial drilling machine
15
GENERAL PURPOSE DRILLING MACHINES WITH MORE SPECIFIC USE:
a. Hand drill: is a portable drilling device which is mostly held in hand and used at the locations where
holes have to be drilled.
b. Micro (or mini) drilling machine: This type of tiny drilling machine of height within around 200
mm is placed or clamped on a table and operated manually for drilling small holes of around 1 to 3
mm diameter in small work-pieces.
c. Gang drilling machine: In this almost single purpose and more productive machine a number (2 to
6) of spindles with drills (of same or different size) in a row are made to produce number of holes
progressively or simultaneously.
d. Turret (type) drilling machine: are structurally rigid column type but are more productive like gang
drill by having a pentagon or hexagon turret tool. The turret bearing a number of drills and similar
tools is indexed and moved up and down to perform quickly the desired series of operations
progressively. These drilling machines are available with varying degree of automation both fixed
and flexible type.
e. Multi-spindle drilling machine: The entire drilling head works repeatedly using the same jig for
batch or lot production of a particular job. The rotation of the drills are derived from the main spindle
and the central gear through a number of planetary gears in mesh with the central gear and the
corresponding flexible shafts. In some heavy duty multi-spindle drilling machines, the work-table is
raised to give feed motion instead of moving the heavy drilling head.

a b c d e
a. Hand drill b. Micro (or mini) drilling machine c. Gang drilling machine
d. Turret (type) drilling machine e. Multi-spindle drilling machine:

2.3.3. APPLICATION OF DRILLING MACHINES:

Drilling machines of different capacity and configuration are basically used for originating cylindrical
holes and occasionally for enlarging the existing holes to full or partial depth.
But different types of drills are suitably used for various applications depending upon work material, tool
material, depth and diameter of the holes.

16
2.3.4. KINEMATIC SYSTEMS AND OPERATIONS OF DRILLING:
To set the desired cutting speed in drilling, it is necessary to determine the rotational speed of the drill.
Feed can be converted to feed rate using the same equation as for turning:
The machining time required to drill a through hole can be determined by the following formula:
The rate of metal removal in drilling is determined as the product of the drill cross-sectional area and the
feed rate:
V = DN ; Fr = Nf

Where: N = Spindle speed rev/min,

V = Cutting speed, mm/min (in/min)
D = Drill diameter, mm (in).
Fr = Feed rate, mm/min (in/min). .
f = Feed, mm/rev (in/rev).
Tm = Machining time, min
t = Work thickness, mm (in)
A = Approach allowance

ᶿ = Drill point angle

Rmr = Metal removal rate

Example: A drilling operation is to be performed with a 12.7-mm diameter twist drill in a steel work-part.
The hole is a blind hole at a depth of 60mm and the point angle is 1180. The cutting speed is 25 m/min
and the feed is 0.30 mm/rev. Determine
a. The cutting time to complete the drilling operation, and
b. Metal removal rate during the operation, after the drill bit reaches full diameter.

17
2.4. SHAPING AND PLANING:
Shaping and planning are similar operations both involving the use of a single-point cutting tool moved
linearly relative to the work-part. In conventional shaping and planing, a straight flat surface is created by
this action. The main functions of shaping machines are to produce flat surfaces in different planes.
The cutting motion provided by the linear forward motion of the reciprocating tool and the intermittent
feed motion provided by the slow transverse motion of the job along with the bed result in producing a
flat surface by gradual removal of excess material layer by layer in the form of chips. The vertical infeed
is given either by descending the tool holder or raising the bed or both. Straight grooves of various curved
sections are also made in shaping machines by using specific form tools. The single point straight or form
tool is clamped in the vertical slide which is mounted at the front face of the reciprocating ram whereas
the work-piece is directly or indirectly through a vice is mounted on the bed.
The components of the shaper include a ram, which moves relative to a column to provide the cutting
motion, and a worktable that holds the part and accomplishes the feed motion. The motion of the ram
consists of a forward stroke to achieve the cut, and a return stroke during which the tool is lifted slightly
to clear the work and then reset for the next pass. On completion of each return stroke, the worktable is
advanced laterally relative to the ram motion in order to feed the part.

Fig: Shaping machine

In planing, the speed motion is accomplished by moving the work-part. Cutting speed is achieved by a
reciprocating worktable that moves the part past the single-point cutting tool. The construction and motion
capability of a planer permit much larger parts to be machined than on a shaper.
Like shaping machines, planing machines are also basically used for producing flat surfaces in different
planes. However, the major differences between planing machines from shaping machines are:
Though in principle both shaping and planing machines produce flat surface in the same way by the
combined actions of the Generatrix and Directrix but in planing machine, instead of the tool, the work-
piece reciprocates giving the fast cutting motion and instead of the job, the tool(s) is given the slow feed
motion(s)
Compared to shaping machines, planing machines are much larger and more rugged and generally used
for large jobs with longer stroke length and heavy cuts. In planing machine, the work-piece is mounted on
18
the reciprocating table and the tool is mounted on the horizontal rail which, again, can move vertically up
and down along the vertical rails. Planing machines are more productive (than shaping machines) for
longer and faster stroke, heavy cuts (high feed and depth of cut) possible and simultaneous use of a number
of tools. Cutting tools used in shaping and planing are single-point tools.

Fig: Planing machine

2.5. SLOTTING MACHINE

The vertical slide holding the cutting tool is reciprocated by a crank and connecting rod mechanism, so
here quick return effect is absent. The job, to be machined, is mounted directly or in a vice on the work
table. In slotting machine the fast cutting motion is imparted to the tool and the feed motions to the job.
In slotting machine, in addition to the longitudinal and cross feeds, a rotary feed motion is also provided
in the work table. The intermittent rotation of the feed rod is derived from the driving shaft with the help
of a four bar linkage. The feed values are changed mainly by changing the amount of angular rotation of
the feed rod per stroke of the tool. The directions of the feeds are reversed simply by rotating the tapered
paul by 180o as done in shaping machines.

Fig: Slotting machine

19
2.6. BROACHING
Broaching is a machining process for removal of a layer of material of desired width and depth usually in
one stroke by a slender rod or bar type cutter having a series of cutting edges with gradually increased
protrusion. Broaching is performed using a multiple-teeth cutting tool by moving the tool linearly relative
to the work in the direction of the tool axis. The machine tool is called a broaching machine, and the
cutting tool is called a broach. In certain jobs for which broaching can be used, it is a highly productive
method of machining. Advantages include good surface finish, close tolerances, and a variety of work
shapes. Owing to the complicated and often custom shaped geometry of the broach, tooling is expensive.
There are two principal types of broaching: external (also called surface broaching) and internal. External
broaching is performed on the outside surface of the work to create a certain cross-sectional shape on the
surface. Internal broaching is accomplished on the internal surface of a hole in the part. Accordingly, a
starting hole must be present in the part so as to insert the broach at the beginning of the broaching stroke.

Fig: Broaching machine

The basic function of a broaching machine is to provide a precise linear motion of the tool past a stationary
work position, but there are various ways in which this can be done. Most broaching machines can be
classified as either vertical or horizontal machines. The vertical broaching machine is designed to move
the broach along a vertical path, while the horizontal broaching machine has a horizontal tool trajectory.
Most broaching machines pull the broach past the work. However, there are exceptions to this pull action.
One exception is a relatively simple type called a broaching press, used only for internal broaching, that
pushes the tool through the work-part. Another exception is the continuous broaching machine, in which
the work parts are fixture to an endless belt loop and moved past a stationary broach. Because of its
continuous operation, this machine can be used only for surface broaching.
Machining by broaching is preferably used for making straight through holes of various forms and sizes
of section, internal and external through straight or helical slots or grooves, external surfaces of different
shapes, teeth of external and internal splines and small spur gear. Broaching enables remove the whole
material in one stroke only by the gradually rising teeth of the cutter called broach. The amount of tooth
rise between the successive teeth of the broach is equivalent to the infeed given in shaping.
Both pull and push type broaches are made in the form of slender rods or bars of varying section having
along its length one or more rows of cutting teeth with increasing height (and width occasionally). Push
type broaches are subjected to compressive load and hence are made shorter in length to avoid buckling.
The general configuration of pull type broaches, which are widely used for enlarging and finishing
preformed holes. Broaching is used for mass production and at fast rate. The blanks are repeatedly
mounted one after another in an appropriate fixture where the blanks can be easily, quickly and accurately
located, supported and clamped. In broaching, generally the job remains fixed and the broach travels
providing cutting velocity.
20
2.7. GRINDING MACHINE:
MOUNTING OF JOB AND TOOL IN GRINDING MACHINES:
Grinding is the most common form of abrasive machining. It is a material cutting process which engages
an abrasive tool whose cutting elements are grains of abrasive material known as grit. These grits are
characterized by sharp cutting points, high hot hardness, chemical stability and wear resistance. The grits
are held together by a suitable bonding material to give shape of an abrasive tool. Grinding is a finishing
process in which material is removed by the large number of a tiny tool like abrasive particles dispersed
or embedded in a softer matrix or on a metallic substrate respectively. In grinding, the cutting tool, i.e.,
the wheel rotates about its axis at high speed imparting the cutting velocity and the job or work-piece
moves slowly against the wheel imparting the desired feed motion.

a b c d
(a) Cylindrical grinding (b) Surface grinding (c) horizontal spindle (d) vertical spindle

Grinding is a combination of rubbing, ploughing and cutting (actual chip formation) with contribution of
each being highly governed by grit geometry, work material characteristics, grinding loop stiffness and
the grinding velocity. It is evident that specific energy in sliding or ploughing is more than that required
in cutting or chip formation. It is the common experience in grinding that a certain level of grit penetration
into work-piece is required before chip formation can start.

Fig: Surface grinder with horizontal spindle and reciprocating worktable.

Quiz
1. What are some of the principal abrasive materials used in grinding wheels?
2. Why are specific energy values so much higher in grinding than in traditional machining
processes such as milling?
21