energies

Review
Review of Multilevel Inverters for PV Energy System Applications
Ali Bughneda 1 , Mohamed Salem 1, * , Anna Richelli 2, *, Dahaman Ishak 1 and Salah Alatai 1

1 School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Nibong Tebal 14300, Penang,
Malaysia; bughneda@student.usm.my (A.B.); dahaman@usm.my (D.I.); salahalatai@student.usm.my (S.A.)
2 Department of Information Engineering, University of Brescia, 25121 Brescia, Italy
* Correspondence: salemm@usm.my (M.S.); anna.richelli@unibs.it (A.R.)

Abstract: Over the last decade, energy demand from the power grid has increased significantly due
to the increasing number of users and the emergence of high-power industries. This has led to a sig-
nificant increase in global emissions with conventional energy generation. Therefore, the penetration
of renewable energy resources into the power grid has increased significantly. Photovoltaic systems
have become the most popular resources as their protentional is enormous, thus, the worldwide
installed PV capacity has increased to more than 635 gigawatts (GW), covering approximately 2% of
the global electricity demand. Power electronics are an essential part of photovoltaic generation; the
drive for efficient power electronic converters is gaining more and more momentum. Presently, mul-
tilevel inverters (MLI) have become more attractive to researchers compared to two-level inverters
due to their abilities to provide lower electromagnetic interference, higher efficiency, and larger DC
link voltages. This paper reviews multilevel inverters based on their classifications, development,
and challenges with practical recommendations in utilizing them in renewable energy systems.
Moreover, PV systems with various maximum power point tracking (MPPT) methods have been




extensively considered in this paper as well. The importance and the development of a modified

 multilevel inverter are also highlighted in this review. In general, this paper focuses on utilizing
Citation: Bughneda, A.; Salem, M.; multilevel inverters for PV systems to motivate and guide society to focus on inventing an efficient
Richelli, A.; Ishak, D.; Alatai, S. and economical multilevel inverter that has the combined capabilities of these converters reported in
Review of Multilevel Inverters for PV the literature.
Energy System Applications. Energies
2021, 14, 1585. https://doi.org/ Keywords: multilevel inverter (MLI); PV system; maximum power point tracking; MPPT; modified
10.3390/en14061585 MLC converter; leakage current suppression

Academic Editor: Tapas Mallick

Received: 5 February 2021

1. Introduction
Accepted: 10 March 2021
Published: 12 March 2021
The huge rate of the global energy demand has led to the high consumption of fossil
fuels; thus, the environment has been negatively affected owing to the high emission
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere. Therefore, renewable energy resources have
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
gained attention and development by generating efficient electric power with almost zero
published maps and institutional affil-
pollution [1]. There are various renewable resources, such as solar energy, wind energy,
iations. geothermal, etc. [2,3]. Solar radiation contributes largely to the global energy flow. Out
of the total amount of solar radiation radiated from the sun, more than 100,000 TW reach
the Earth’s surface after reflection and absorption [4]. This amount of free energy has the
potential to make solar energy a significant contributor to renewable energy sources [5].
Despite this availability, the global contribution of solar energy to the energy network is
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
still small [6,7]. Significant improvements have indeed been made in the deployment of PV
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
systems over the past three decades, yet certain challenges are still facing solar technologies
distributed under the terms and
and, as such, these technologies are yet to compete favorably with the other energy sources,
conditions of the Creative Commons such as fossil fuels, in the energy market. Among these challenges are the high capital cost,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// intermittency, and modest conversion efficiency of solar technologies [8]. From a technical
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and scientific perspective, there is an urgent need to develop new technologies that can
4.0/). offer greater conversion efficiencies at a lower production cost as this will improve the

Energies 2021, 14, 1585. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14061585 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2021, 14, 1585 2 of 23

entry of solar technologies into the energy market. Several studies have been dedicated to
finding solutions to these problems for better reliability, performance, and competitiveness
of solar-based energy technologies [9–11]. PV cells are used in solar based technologies for
the conversion of the solar energy into electrical energy. The components of a system for
solar energy conversion include the PV cells, the power converters, and the control unit for
the regulation of the power extracted from the PV cells (see Figure 1) [2]. For the efficient
harvesting of power from renewable energy sources, various control techniques, power
converter topologies, and power tracking methods have been developed [12,13]. Yet, more
studies are still focusing on ways of integrating renewable energy sources into the power
grid for better efficiency. In this regard, more attention is given to power converters and
their controls owing to their vital role in power conversion and output power regulation
from these resources. Normally, attention is given to DC/DC converters as the front-end
stage of the renewable energy sources’ integration into the DC grid. At this stage, the
major requirement is the high efficiency because of the associated variabilities with the
output voltage of the renewable energy sources, such as wind and PV energy sources.
Therefore, there is a need to ensure the adaptation of the DC/DC front-end stages to
such variation so that they can operate maximally. Mostly, the two-level inverters are
deployed in small-scale industries and utility applications [14] as they are not suitable
for high-power applications due to their production of high voltage stress, low-efficiency
operation, and high temperature. Hence, multilevel inverters are mostly used in large-scale
high-power grid-connected renewable energy systems [15]. Scholars are focusing more on
multilevel inverters due to their low switching losses, high voltage operation capability,
low Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI) output, high efficiency, and good power quality
performance (low THD output) due to multiple level output waveform [16].

Figure 1. A photovoltaic (PV) system with power electronics and the needed control.

The first attempt at multilevel converters was made in 1975 [17], starting with the
three-level converters [18] and subsequently advanced to several multilevel converters
topologies [19–21]. However, the MLI is based on the concept of using several DC sources
and numerous low-power rated semiconductor switches for the synthesis of a stepped
voltage waveform; these are aimed at achieving greater levels of power generation. Various
energy sources can be used as multiple-input DC sources, such as batteries, solar PV panels,
capacitors, and fuel cells. Then, algorithms are used to control the power switches when
combining these multiple DC sources to get a high output voltage [16,22]. There are various
industrial applications of MLI topologies, such as in grid-connected renewable energy
systems (RES) where it is used as an advanced power converter topology. Currently, the
trends in MLIs are mainly focusing on the reduction of the switch count, gate driver circuits,
and DC supplies to improve fault tolerance and power quality, thereby making the system
cost-efficient for grid-connected RES [23].
Several advance have been witnessed in MPPT controllers in the areas of their accuracy,
reliability, efficiency, simplicity, and tracking speed. Normally, the optimal MPPT algorithm
exhibits fast speed and less oscillation about the PPP; it goes along with the rapid changes in
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 3 of 23

output power. Several applications of MPPT control techniques are currently available [24];
however, the major application of these controllers is either in tracking the MPP under
uniform irradiance or tracking a PV system with MMPP. For any given PV system, the
MPP must be unique and must not rely on a complex algorithm to be tracked. Note that
there could be some abnormal phenomena in some cases, such as partial shading (PS),
which is among the commonest factors with steric effect on the extracted power from PV
systems [25]. It is implicated in cases of multipeak points that generate MMPP [26] and
global maximum power point (GMPP) [27]. A traditional MPPT algorithm that is under PS
normally exhibits low efficiency [28].
Several classifications are available in the literature for the indexing of MPPT con-
trollers [29–31]. These classifications are based on different conditions, such as the tracking
techniques, modernity, and sensing implementation. Generally, MPPT is classified into
the conventional, advanced (soft computing), and hybrid methods. Regarding the con-
ventional methods, they are generally simple but cannot differentiate local peaks from
global peaks during PS; hence the causes of low efficiency [28]. Due to their higher effi-
ciency, they require advanced tracking methods to be tracked [32]. Being that the use of
the conventional and advanced methods alone is associated with numerous limitations,
studies have proposed the hybrid methods as a combination of both methods to overcome
these limitations [33]. However, determining the best MPPT method to be used is still an
issue. Hence, more studies are still ongoing in the area of MPPT techniques to arrive at a
system with better performance in terms of the system cost, the ease of implementation,
the tracking efficiency, and the adaptability to different PV systems.
The paper is organized thus: Section 2 presents the classification of MLIs and dis-
cussion on the structure and working principle of three major MLI topologies with the
comparison between them based on the advantages and disadvantages. Section 3 presents
the modified multilevel converter as a case of study and how it was favored among oth-
ers. Section 4 provides an overview of utilized multilevel inverters in various renewable
systems. Photovoltaic (PV) systems and their characteristics, followed by a concise classifi-
cation of the applied MPPT methods, are highlighted in Section 5. The multilevel inverters
utilized for PV systems are also considered in Section 6. In Section 7, the challenges and
future work areas are presented, while Section 8 summarizes the study.

2. Multilevel Inverters (MLIs)

These days, MLIs are being deployed in power systems because of their ability to
meet the demand in power quality and power rating, as well as their reduced level of
harmonic distortion and electromagnetic interference. There are several advantages of
an MLI over the traditional two-level inverters where high switching frequency PWM is
used [34,35]. MLIs are currently being considered as an industrial solution for high power
quality and dynamic performance demanding systems, spanning through a power range
of 1 to 30 MW [36]. Hence, MLIs are ideal for use in high voltage applications because they
can generate low THD output voltage waveforms and can generate higher voltages with a
limited device rating [37]. The sources of sustainable energy, such as PV cells, fuel cells,
and wind can broadly interact with a multilevel converter system [38]. Mostly, the type
of control algorithm utilized in the PWM of MLIs determine their operations, efficiency,
power ratings, and application [39]. Several studies have proposed various MLI topologies
over the last few decades [40–43]. Figure 2 shows the classification of the MLIs into two
main groups based on the number of employed DC sources in their topology. Until now,
the most commonly used topologies in the industries are the neutral point clamped (NPC)
or diode clamped, the flying capacitor (FC), and the cascaded H-bridge (CHB) [44–46].

2.1. Cascaded H-Bridges MLI

The CHB-MLIs are produced from the serial connection of numerous single-phase
H-bridge inverters with separate DC sources (SDCS). Each H-bridge consists of four unidi-
rectional power switches and one DC source as shown in Figure 3 [22]. Each inverter level
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 4 of 23

is programmed to produce three voltage outputs (+Vdc, 0, and −Vdc) via the connection
of the DC source to the AC output; the desired output is achieved by connecting the four
switches (S1–S4) in different manners. Switching the S1 and S4 switches to the ON position
generates the +Vdc output, but when S2 and S3 are in the ON position, −Vdc output is
produced. To produce the 0 output voltage, either S1 and S2 or S3 and S4 must be in the
ON position. A serial connection of the AC outputs of the full-bridge inverter is made in
such a way that the generated voltage waveform will represent the sum of the outputs of
all the inverters. In a cascade inverter, m = 2s + 1 is used to represent the number of
output phase voltage levels, with s being the number of different DC sources [47]. This
topology requires a smaller number of components when compared to DCMLI and FCMLI
because it does not have clamping diodes and clamping capacitors. In addition to that,
it is free from the voltage balancing problem because it does not contain DC link capaci-
tors [23,48]. On the other hand, the multiple DC sources can be replaced either by separate
renewable energy sources with separate converters or by single renewable energy sources
with multioutput converters where the voltage balancing is the major concern.

Figure 2. Multilevel inverters (MLIs) and their classification.

Figure 3. (a) Five-level CHBMLI topology, (b) three-level CHBMLI topology.

Proposals have been made for the use of multilevel cascaded inverters in applications
for static var generation, as well as their usage as an interface with RES [49]; they have
also been proposed for use in battery-powered applications. A cascade inverter can also be
used for static var compensation via direct connection in series with the electric system.
They are suitable for the hooking of RES to the AC grid as they need separate DC sources
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 5 of 23

when used in fuel cells and photovoltaics [50]. They have also been proposed to be used in
electric vehicles as the main traction drive because in such applications several batteries or
ultracapacitors serve as SDCSs [51]. The structure of this topology is flexible and can be
used in different number of inverter levels. The generation of the different output voltages
is achievable via the application of different ratios of the DC sources and reducing the
inner voltage levels-related switching redundancy. Transformer-dependent CHBMLIs are
developed to reduce the need for independent DC sources; it is like the CHBMLI structure
but differs by the serial connection of the output voltage of the isolation transformer [52].

2.2. Flying Capacitor MLI

There are close similarities in the topologies of the FCMLI and DCMLI just that the
FCMLI relies on the use of floating capacitors rather than clamping diodes. For the FCMLI,
the magnitude of the voltage steps in the output waveform is a direct function of the
voltage variation occurring in the adjacent capacitors [53]. The FCMLI topology for the ‘m’
level inverter is comprised of 0 m − 10 DC link capacitors count. Figure 4 is a schematic of
the 3-level FCMLI topology which contains four unidirectional power switches and a flying
capacitor, in addition to a DC supply with two capacitors for obtaining voltage levels (Vdc/2,
0, −Vdc/2). Switches S1 and S2 must be in the ON position to generate the positive polarity
output voltage while S3 and S4 are switched ON for the negative polarity output voltage.
Switches S1 and S3 or S2 and S4 are turned on to generate the 0 level output voltage. In the
FCMLI, the voltage synthesis is more flexible compared to that of a DCMLI. When there
are more than five levels, the problem of voltage balancing can be addressed by making a
proper selection of the switching combination [34]. One major advantage of this topology
is that the reactive and active power can be controlled [53] while its major drawback is in
the use of several capacitors, which makes the system expensive and difficult to assemble.
Furthermore, the switching frequency losses in such arrangements are high in real power
transmission [54].

Figure 4. Three-level flying capacitor MLI topology.

2.3. Diode Clamped MLI

This type of inverter, also called a neutral point clamped inverter (NPC), was invented
in 1981 by Nabae et al. [18]. Figure 5 depicts the DCMLI topology, which is used to
generate an output voltage with three levels. The configuration for this topology contains
four unidirectional power switches, two diodes, and two capacitors. The clamping diodes
are connected in series to share the blocking voltage. In this topology, the output voltage
is of three levels, which are Vdc/2, 0, and −Vdc/2; Vdc/2 is generated by keeping S1 and
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 6 of 23

S2 switches ON while S3 and S4 are switched to ON to generate −Vdc/2. Switches S2

and S3 are turned on to produce the 0 level voltage. During the passage of the equivalent
voltage through the DC link capacitors, it is expected that each active switching device has
voltage stress that is clamped to the voltage of each capacitor through diode clamping [54].
In a real application, the blocking voltage is shared by serially connecting the clamping
diodes. Then, only a voltage level of V /(m − 1) dc is required to be blocked by each active
device. For reverse voltage blocking, the voltage ratings of the clamping diodes must vary.
If operating the DCMLI under the PWM technique, the major issue with the design in high
voltage applications is the diode reverse recovery of these clamping diodes [55].

Figure 5. Three-level diode-clamped MLI topology.

The DCMLI, in comparison to the other multilevel converter topologies, has a greater
industrial application due to its high-power delivery capability, simplicity, and efficiency.
It has found application in Static VAR Compensators (SVC), high voltage system intercon-
nections [55,56], and variable speed motor drives. The need for a capacitance is annulled in
the DCMLI converter as the components share a common DC bus. Hence, it can be used in
high voltage back-to-back interconnection, adjustable speed drives, and other back-to-back
topologies. However, the problems of this converter include difficulty in single inverter
real power flow due to discharging or overcharging of the DC level without adequate
control [57], as well as the issue of balancing and stabilizing the capacitor DC voltage in
the DC link [41].

2.4. Comparison between CHB-MLI, FC-MLI, and DC-MLI Topologies

In this section, a comparison between the three main MLI topologies, called the
classical topologies, was made in terms of the advantages and disadvantages, as illustrated
in Table 1.
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 7 of 23

Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of the classical topologies (DC-MLI, FC-MLI, and CHB-MLI).

Types of MLI Advantages Disadvantages

• A good option for industrial applications.
• Exhibits high fundamental frequency
switching efficiency.
• Can precharge the capacitors as a group. • The complexity of voltage balancing circuit.
• Control method is simple. • The unequal share of losses between inner
DC-MLI and outer switches.
• Reduces the number of required DC sources.
[18,35,41,55,57–61] • Increased number of clamping diode as the
• Appropriate for fault-tolerant application.
• The use of neutral clamping switches can solve level increased.
the issue of voltage balancing and uneven loss
sharing between the switching devices in
neutral point clamped (NPC) converters.
• Reduces the number of required DC sources. • The complexity of voltage balancing circuit.
• Phase redundancies are available for balancing • Requires numerous capacitors for high levels.
FC-MLI the voltage levels of the capacitors. • High losses and switching frequency for real
[22,35,41,57,59,62,63] • Appropriate for fault-tolerant application. power transmission.
• Real and reactive power flow can be controlled • High installation cost.
• No need for filters to reduce harmonics.
• Less number of output voltage levels.
• Requires more number of gate driver circuits.
• Modular and simple structure. • Requires several DC sources to increase the
• Easy to extend to higher levels. output voltage.
• Requires only unidirectional switches. • Limited to certain applications where
• Appropriate for fault-tolerant application. separate DC sources are available.
CHB-MLI • Potential of electric shock is reduced due to the • Switches have to bear blocking voltage equal
[22,23,59,64–67] separate DC sources. to the input voltage value.
• Asymmetric source configuration can • Loss of modularity (asymmetric
be employed. source configuration).
• Can be implemented as a single DC • Implement cost is high (asymmetric
source configuration. source configuration).
• Switches are differently voltage rated
(asymmetric source configuration).

3. Modified Multilevel Inverter

Although MLIs have various advantages over other inverters, they have been exten-
sively tested and developed to produce better efficiency by considering sizes and cost with
all types and different voltage levels obtained. Thus, a modified multilevel inverter was
invented by modifying MLI configurations and designing MLI with less count of power
switches. With the reduced number of switched MLIs, the system has the advantages of
cost-effectiveness, lower component count, and less space occupancy [23]. Considering
this, the cascaded H-bridge MLI was adopted as a case study [68–71] because of its lower
component requirement compared to the MLI topologies. A further modification was
done on the CHBMLI framework to achieve a five-level output for single phase usage
using a lower number of switching components rather than the required eight switches
in the conventional design as depicted in Figure 6. Moreover, the system is completed by
adding a filter at the output of the inverter for greater THD reduction. The study by [72]
investigated the relationship of the THD with changes in the switching frequencies and
inverter levels; the study found the switching frequency of 6 kHz and the seven-level
inverter as the arrangement generating the lowest THD. In this case, a five-level design
was selected because of its lesser circuit complexity and less THD. Figure 6a presents
the general structure of MLI while the modified version used in this study is shown in
Figure 6b. According to [36], MLIs are modular and easy to design [36]; they are suitable
for use in high power and high voltage systems [73]; their simple configuration allows
the generation of a higher voltage without the need for high rating components since
the multilevel topology ensures that the overall device stress is distributed among the
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 8 of 23

respective components [74,75]. Hence, MLIs can be used for 10 kV rated DC-link voltage
inverters. There is also a significant decline in the switching losses. The total rated load
losses can also be reduced by 60% using a five-level inverter. The use of higher number of
inverter levels decreases the THD of the output, thereby increasing the signal quality [73].

Figure 6. (a) Schematic of the MLI topology where each 4-switch block is considered an H-bridge.
(b) The modified structure of a 5-level inverter that uses 6 switches instead of 8.

The extent of work done on this inverter type recently portrays their importance in
this field. For instance, reference [76] suggested a three-phase five-level inverter that uses
six switches, while reference [77] developed a single-phase inverter that has six switches
per inverter cell. In this system, the ratings of two of the switches differed from those of
the other four (four switches are designed to withstand 400 V, while the others are exposed
to 200 V). Hence, two different switch ratings are needed in this system. Furthermore, the
study by [78] proposed an 11-level inverter that has 14 switches, while a system with fewer
switches was presented by [73]; this system relies on low rating switches and exhibited the
expected performance level via cross-connection of the switches. The study also evaluated
this approach on an 11-level inverter system. Various studies [79–83] have presented
similar MLI architectures with a reduced number of switches. A topology that can combine
individual battery cells that are serially connected to achieve multiple voltage levels has
also been presented; the system was developed with a reduced number of switches via the
intelligent modification of the cell connection. This topology can also utilize capacitors
and other DC sources and could be used in grid-connected PV systems [84]. Single-phase
MLIs have been connected with grid-connected PV systems in the studies by [85,86]. The
study by [87] presented another topology with a lower number of switches (six switches);
the system was designed by altering the polarities of the DC source as required. The
performance of the system was evaluated as well on a five-level single-phase inverter.

4. Multilevel Inverters in Renewable Energy System Applications

Due to the MLI’s capabilities of producing high-quality voltage waveforms through
low switching frequency operation, they are thus preferred for high and medium power
applications [41,88]. MLIs have widely used in various applications such as power supplies
(PSs) applications; renewable energy systems (RESs) such as photovoltaic (PV) systems,
wind energy conversion systems (WECS) and fuel cells (FC); electric vehicles (EV); induc-
tion heating (IH) and numerous other fields. Many MLI topologies have been integrated
with RESs in grid-connected systems for the addition of the power generated by the RESs
to the grid [89].
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 9 of 23

4.1. Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS)

An attempt to the use of a CHBMLI topology to interface split winding wind alterna-
tors (SWAs) to the grid was made by [90]. The experimented SWA-CHBMLI system was
found efficient in interfacing a large wind turbine to the grid; the system also achieved
better power quality at the PCC, thereby making the system more efficient. In recent years,
scholars have been paying attention to MLIs designs with fewer numbers of gate drivers
and switches to reduce the required installation space and the cost of MLIs. A hybrid
modular multilevel converter was presented by [91] for the connection of large wind
turbines to the grid. The system is a promising converter topology on the grid-side of
a back-to-back connected full-scale converter of a WECS since it combined MMC and
HB module features. It can improve the reliability of the entire WECS. A study by [92]
presented a novel two-stage CSD multilevel system that used a lower number of switches
to achieve a high number of voltage levels; the system also addressed the issue of high
voltage spikes under R-L loads as the system has a path for the reverse load currents.
The system was considered suitable for integration in medium-voltage renewable energy
systems. The use of a modular cascaded MLI in a fault-tolerant distributed control system
has been evaluated by [93] for the integration of wind turbines to the grid. The inverter
was found capable of synchronizing with the grid frequency without any damage to the
in-coming currents, which is a necessary condition after clearing a grid fault or when first
connecting to the grid.

4.2. Fuel Cells (FC)

A hybrid cascaded MLI was designed and developed by [94] for fuel cell application by
using the variable frequency inverted sine wave carrier modulation technique (VFISPWM).
This modulation technique aims to improve the output voltage while giving low THD
and reduced switching losses. Another work by [95] came up with a fuel cell-based
system with H-bridge DC/AC inverter and a three-level boost converter. To make sure
the system operates in stable conditions, two feedback control loops were designed and
added to the system. The developed multilevel DC-DC converters can be used in RESs
for power generation at a reduced cost. A hybrid cascaded multilevel inverter CMLI
has been proposed by [96] for fuel cell power conditioning systems. The developed
system can generate high voltages at higher speeds with a high conversion efficiency
while ensuring low switching losses. The developed system can be used in high-power
fuel cell systems. The study by [97] reported the development of an open-loop FC-based
energy system interfaced with CHBMLI. The system was evaluated for performance under
different loading conditions and from the results, the system performed better than the
conventional inverter-based systems and was considered appropriate for use in FC based
energy system where there is a need for more flexibility and power handling capability.
A proton exchange membrane fuel cell interfaced with five-level diode clamped MLI was
presented by [98]. This arrangement was intended to reduce harmonic distortion and
increase system efficiency. The study by [99] presented a system for energy delivery from a
fuel cell to the grid; the system was equipped with a single-stage multilevel current-source
inverter (MCSI) for energy provision and for increasing the power quality in the grid. The
study found the developed system as an alternative in smart grids or distributed generation
systems because it can generate active power while reducing the line current harmonics
and compensating the power factor.

4.3. Electric Vehicles (EVs)

The cascaded H-bridge converters have been used by [100,101], for the balancing
of the voltage of battery cells. In the studies, each battery cell was controlled using one
H-bridge cell while a separate control of the charging and discharging cycles ensured
voltage balance. The converter generated multilevel output voltage, and this is considered
suitable for motor drives. A hybrid cascaded multilevel converter was proposed by [102];
the proposed system was for battery energy management and EV motor drives were
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 10 of 23

proposed. The system was capable of balancing the terminal voltage or SOC between
the employed battery cells; hence, it exhibited a good fault-tolerant characteristic, which
boosts the reliability of the system. The study by [103] presented a new modular multilevel
topology that contains electrochemical cells; the system was proposed for use in battery
electric vehicles. The multilevel nature of the output voltages significantly reduced the
THD of the motor currents and minimized motor power losses. Hence, the system can be
used for the elimination of the balancing circuits of the battery pack of electric vehicles. The
performance of modular multilevel converters that contain battery cells has been evaluated
by [104] in electric vehicles for traction drive. The system significantly reduced the motor
current distortion, thereby improving the motor efficiency. MMC offers better reliability
compared to two-level inverters; this is why the proposed converter is most suitable for
urban use of the electric car. A study by [105] reported the use of the CMLI in the battery
energy storage system (BESS). The performance of the system was positive during the
charging, discharging, and transient operating conditions. A hybrid CMLI was proposed
by [106] based on three-level (TL) cells for the provision of more voltage levels and to satisfy
the requirement of the motor drive in EVs. The proposed system produced higher voltage
levels when compared to the traditional topologies at the same number of battery modules.

4.4. Induction Heating (IH)

The provision of induction heating power simultaneously at two frequencies using
multilevel converters has been proposed by [107]; this was aimed at achieving higher
efficiency, better control, greater reliability, and reduced electromagnetic interference.
A CMLI has been used by [108] to accelerate high frequency and high-power application
of induction heating power supply. The study by [109] developed a new IH power supply
system based on a multilevel neutral point clamped inverter (MNPCI). The system reduced
the DC link voltage by half, thereby reducing the switching losses and improving the
system efficiency. Furthermore, reference [110] reported the use of MNPCI in an IH system
with maximum harmonic control. The system achieves natural switching with the highest
heating power efficiency and lowest harmonic distortion. In [111]. A modular MLC has
been applied in the tundish induction heating power supply (TIHPS) for the heating of
molten steel. In [112], the multilevel neutral point clamped inverter (MNPCI) has been
used as part of a super frequency induction heating power supply system with an optimum
control algorithm. Thus, a new multilevel neutral point clamped inverter was developed
as a component of the IH system.

5. Photovoltaic Systems (PVs)

Much attention has been given to PV-based power generation due to its numerous
advantages, such as ease of allocation, longer life, absence of noise, lack of pollution,
lesser installation time, high mobility and components’ portability, and ability to produce
power output that can meet peak load requirements. Hence, PV arrays have found many
industrial applications, such as in battery recharging systems, solar hybrid vehicles, satellite
power systems, solar-based water-pumping machines, etc. For this reason, many countries
are investing heavily in renewable energy-based projects. However, there are certain
problems associated with PV generation systems, such as low conversion efficiency and
interference from climate conditions. The power of PV cells is directly a function of the solar
intensity/radiation but depends less on the temperature [113]. A complete PV system is
comprised of solar panels, batteries, DC-DC voltage converters, and controllers. The work
of the DC-DC voltage converters is to match the load characteristics with the characteristics
of the solar panels. There are three categories of DC-DC voltage converters, namely boost,
buck, and buck–boost converters. The expected voltage level determines the section of
the appropriate form of DC-DC voltage converter. Batteries are used to make the PV
systems act as the real feeder source such that it is possible to achieve constant voltage
levels that correspond to different loads. Another use of the battery is for power saving
and as temporary compensation for power fluctuations. A solar panel is made up of
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 11 of 23

several PV cells that are connected either in series or parallel or as series-parallel external
connections [114].
The photovoltaic power characteristics are nonlinear, as illustrated in Figure 7. The
characteristics of a PV cell are analyzed using parameters such as open-circuit voltage (Voc)
and short-circuit current (Isc). Regarding the Isc, it is the maximum value of the current
produced by a cell; this parameter is sensitive to irradiance. On the other hand, the Voc is
the maximum value of the voltage that a solar cell can produce at zero current [114]. There
is the equivalent circuit generic model to represent PV cells. Which has a single diode with
series resistance and a shunt resistance as shown in Figure 8. The current source represents
photon-generated current (Iph) by PV, which is proportional to the solar irradiation. The
resistance (Rs) represents the contacts and connections-related losses, while the leakage
currents in the diode are represented by parallel resistance (Rsh) [113,115].

Figure 7. The current I– voltage V characteristics of a PV module.

Figure 8. The equivalent circuit of PV cell.

5.1. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Techniques

Significant improvements have been made recently towards improving the capability
of PV energy in meeting the ever-increasing global energy demand. However, it is still a
challenge to efficiently deploy and use PV systems due to the high initial cost of the PV
materials. Another factor that limits the advancement of PV systems is the low conversion
efficiency associated with the PV module; hence, studies are focusing on the integration
of power converters with MPPT capability into PV systems to ensure optimum energy
harvesting from the available environmental conditions [115]. Owing to the variations
in weather, the MPP can lose stability based on the weather conditions (temperature and
irradiation); this could lead to great power losses when operating at points that are far
from the MPP. Therefore, the MPP must be tracked in any condition to ensure that the
maximum available power is generated by the PV panels. Note that this is a function of
the PV parameters and the weather conditions [29]. For a better efficiency of PV systems,
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 12 of 23

MPPT controllers have often been deployed to track the PPP. Hence, MPPT controllers
have received much attention as an important component of the PV system that requires
optimization. Being that different algorithms are used in these controllers, they vary in
their performance, tracking speed, efficiency, and complexity. They can be used to track the
MPP under uniform irradiance for a specific MPP or the tracking of the PV system with
MMPP [31].
The evidence in the literature suggests the availability of several MPPT algorithms,
with each approach having its limitations, specifications, and application. The classification
of MPPT methods is based on different forms, such as the sensing implementation, tracking
technique, and contemporary. These major classifications are further subclassified based on
different factors, working principles, or implementation. They can be generally classified
into three main types as follows:
• Conventional MPPT methods.
• Advanced (soft computing) MPPT methods.
• Hybrid MPPT methods.

5.1.1. Conventional MPPT Methods

These were the early entrants; hence, they are the most popular, with the major
advantages of being simple and easy to implement. These methods can only track single
MPPs under uniform irradiance [28,116]; hence, they are commonly applied in perturb
and observe (P&O), incremental conductance (INC), parasitic capacitance (PC), and Hill
Climbing (HC) [117–120]. Some of the shortfalls of these techniques include not being able
to work under PSCs because they cannot easily observe the GMPP under PSCs despite
receiving the required GMMPT a long time ago with low tracking accuracy and large
oscillation. So, they normally exhibit low-efficiency levels.

5.1.2. Advanced (Soft Computing) MPPT Methods

Owing to the numerous drawbacks of the conventional MPPT methods, such as low
efficiency and slow tracking speed under shading conditions [121], advanced methods were
developed to address these issues. The advanced methods can reduce the perturbation
level close to MPP. Being that the soft computing MPPT methods are more complex than
the conventional techniques, they are mostly used for PSCs because of their reliability, ro-
bustness, and flexibility [122]. These techniques have demonstrated excellent performances
in different applications under uniform and partial shading solar irradiance conditions.
These techniques are mainly reliant on AI principles and other evolutionary algorithms
(EA) [33]. As such, the genetic algorithm (GA), ANN, fuzzy logic controller (FLC) [123],
and PSO are some of the most commonly applied advanced techniques [123–126]. The
ability and flexibility of these algorithms in solving nonlinear tasks is their main strong
point [127]; they can find the optimal solution or multipeak GMPPT with a reasonable
level of high accuracy. Hence, they are considered superior to the conventional methods in
terms of tracking performance.

5.1.3. Hybrid MPPT Methods

The hybrid methods are mostly used in solving the challenges of the singular methods
because they can improve the overall efficiency and can perform well under partial shading
conditions [128]. Hybrid MPPT methods have been proposed as the solution to the issues
associated with conventional and advanced techniques. They are developed by combining
different numbers of single techniques [129], such as the combination of soft computing
algorithms with a conventional algorithm [130]; two soft computing-based algorithms can
also be combined to form a hybrid system [131]. Hybrid techniques can achieve better
tracking performance than singular algorithms.
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 13 of 23

6. Multilevel Converters in PV Systems

The application of multilevel inverter (MLI) in PV systems to improve power quality
and efficiency has received considerable interest recently. The selection of an appropriate
converter for PV applications is one of the challenges since that has an impact on the
behavior of the photovoltaic (PV) system. Therefore, many multilevel converters for the
photovoltaic (PV) systems have been reported in the literature [113]. The study by [132]
presented an MLC for PV systems with integrated ESS. The developed MLC can provide
constant power irrespective of the weather conditions. The proposed MLC showed a
smooth transition from the charging mode to the discharging mode. Hence, the cascaded
H-bridge (CHB) converter can be used in grid interconnections owing to its modular
attributes, high-quality output waveforms, and ability to connect to medium voltage
grids. A CHB-MLC with DC-DC stage isolation has been presented by [133] for large-scale
PV systems. The proposed CHB converter offered quality currents with low distortion.
Its modular design ensured that it could operate in high voltage conditions and could
improve the power quality. The study by [134] presented an improved CMLI with a
reliable configuration for reduction of current leakages in transformerless PV systems;
conduction and switching losses were also reduced, making high switching frequency
operation possible.
The study by [135] presented a CHB converter for use in PV systems; the system
utilized an H6-bridge power cell rather than the H-bridge type. The system significantly
improved the current quality and output voltage in partial shading conditions compared to
the CHB type; this improved the system efficiency and the energy injected into the grid. A
modular MMC was used in grid-connected PV systems by [136]. The proposed system can
perform in both active and reactive power conditions, and this extends the applicability of
the PV systems. A hybrid modular MMC for grid-connected PV systems was presented
by [137]; this system can be used in high power systems by simply increasing the number
of submodules per phase.

6.1. Multilevel Inverters for Grid-Connected PV Systems

Different multilevel converter topologies have been investigated and compared in
the literature [138,139] to highlight the most suitable topology for PV applications that
can operate under fundamental and high frequencies, deliver high-quality waveform
with lower THD, achieve better electromagnetic compatibility, and exhibit high efficiency.
In [140], a modified multilevel inverter topology was presented. This topology generates a
seven-level voltage waveform with low harmonic contents. This inverter was confirmed
suitable for use in photovoltaic applications for power delivery from PV panels of different
voltage/current ratings to the grid. The study by [141] presented a new MLI configuration
with fewer switches compared to the traditional MLI configuration; this configuration
required no additional components, such as capacitors and inductors. It is a convenient
configuration owing to its asymmetrical PV sources. It also exhibits fault-tolerant and
modular capabilities. Owing to the greater number of sources, this structure offers higher
voltage levels and provides a suitable sinusoidal voltage waveform. Being that this struc-
ture requires no filter, this inverter has a considerably low size and weight. A new basic
asymmetrical MLI has been proposed by [142] for use in PV systems; this MLI was designed
with a maximum number of components though the number of components required is still
lower than in the classical MLI topologies. The system succeeded in generating 31 output
levels and performed excellently under different load types. This topology also produces
highly efficient AC output with low THD. Some of the recently proposed MLIs with a
reduced number of components for use in grid integration have been comprehensively
reviewed by [143] based on the selection of components, comparative factors, and their suit-
ability. The design of a modular CHBMLI for use in single- or three-phase grid-connected
applications has been presented by [144,145]. The idea behind this topology is to aid in
improving the flexibility and efficiency of PV systems, ensure better PV module utilization,
as well as to ensure maximum solar energy extraction.
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 14 of 23

Performance analysis of the grid-connected photovoltaic system using two multilevel

inverter topologies has been performed in [146]. The MPPT controller was implemented
using a neural network algorithm to maximize the output power of the PV systems ac-
cording to changes in the environmental conditions. The investigated inverter topologies
performed excellently through the cascaded inverter and achieved lower current THD
compared to the NPC topology. However, it is more expensive due to the number of
power switching transistors it requires. The study by [147] presented a hybrid modular
MLC (H-MMC) for the integration of solar power into the grid. With the connection of the
PV-panels in each of the submodules of the converter, the proposed topology is suitable for
high power use but requires that the number of submodules in each phase be increased.
There are numerous advantages of hybrid-MMC compared to traditional MMC, such as
lower capacitor count, higher voltage levels, higher efficiency, no circulating current, and
less footprint. This converter was equipped with a global Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT) algorithm that requires only the current and voltage signals of just one submodule.
The distributed nature of the MPPT addressed the drawbacks of global MPPT under partial
shading. Table 2 is a comparison of the recent multilevel inverters for grid-connected
PV systems in terms of inverter type, voltage levels, MPPT technique, number of used
switches, and THD.

Table 2. A comparison of recent MLIs grid-connected PV systems in the literature.

Voltage No. of
Ref. Inverter Type MPPT THD
Level Switches
Nine-Level Active Neutral Point
[148] 9 Predictive Control Technique 10 13.99%
Clamp Inverter
Distributed Maximum Power
[149] Voltage Level Boost (VLB) MLI 15 10 5.54%
Point Tracking (DMPPT) Control.
Neutral-Point-Clamped (NPC) Incremental Conductance
[150] 4 11 4.61%
Multilevel Inverter MPPT Algorithm
[151] Cascaded Multilevel Inverter (CHB) 17 Perturbation-Observation (P&O) 3.23%
Neutral-Point-Clamped Multilevel
[152] 5 Artificial Neural Network (ANN) 6 2.35%
Inverter (NPC)
[152] Cascaded Multilevel Inverter (CHB) 5 Artificial Neural Network (ANN) 8 2.75%
[135] Cascaded Multilevel Inverter (CHB) 7 Perturb and Observe (P&O) 24 (6H) 10.75%
[153] Cascaded Multilevel Inverter (CHB) 5 Perturb and Observe (P&O) 8 3.2%
Modular Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Distributed MPPT
[154] 7 12 per phase 4.2%
inverter (MMC) Control Scheme
[140] Modified Cascaded Multilevel Inverter 7 Perturb and Observe (P&O) 6 3.1%
Distributed Maximum Point
[155] Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel inverter 7 12 3.3%
Tracking (DMPPT)
[156] Modified Cascaded Multilevel Inverter 7 Perturb and Observe (P&O) 6 11.81%

6.2. Common-Mode and Leakage Current Suppression for Transformerless ML PV Inverters

Although the multilevel inverter (MLI) based grid-connected PV system is reliable
in power generation, the galvanic connection is used between DC and bulk power AC
transmission system using a high-frequency transformer. This affected the efficiency owing
to the loss of more components; it also increased the cost. Therefore, the MLI topologies
with no transformer are considered the best option for low cost, low THD, and high-
efficiency PV systems [157,158]. The obvious advantage of the transformerless topologies
in grid-connected PV systems is that the issue of current leakage is eliminated; however,
the technical challenge encountered is related to how to ensure a constant system common-
mode voltage to minimize current leakage. However, the efficiency and reliability of the
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 15 of 23

system are negatively affected due to the current leakage from the parasitic capacitance.
It is, therefore, necessary that the problems associated with transformerless PV inverters
be addressed carefully. Various techniques have been developed for tackling the issue of
current leakage in transformerless string inverters; these techniques can be classified into
3 different groups as modulation solution [159,160], topology solution [161,162], and filter
solution [163,164]. Current leakage can be significantly reduced by the bipolar modulation
strategy through the maintenance of a constant common-mode voltage at the expense
of the conversion efficiency and output current quality. Extra DC or AC switches are
needed in the full-bridge topology to reduce current leakage [165,166]. Regarding the
filter solution, it reduces current leakage through bypassing loops with low impedance
for high-frequency common-mode noise; this prevents the outside flow of leakage current.
An improved five-level CMLI has been proposed by [134] for the reduction of current
leakage in transformerless PV system; the system was developed with low switch count
and minimized leakage current through the elimination of the high-frequency transitions
occurring at the CMVs and terminals. The conduction and switching losses were also
reduced in the proposed system, making high switching frequency operation possible.
A comprehensive analysis of the CMV and terminal voltage of PV-fed CHBMLIs has
been presented in [167]. Two PWM schemes were proposed based on the concept of the
redundant state for CHB nine-level MLI without increasing the number of elements in the
circuit; the first scheme is to ensure low-frequency transitions in the terminal voltage to
reduce the leakage current, while the second scheme is for the reduction of the common-
mode current via maintenance of a constant CMV. The study by [168] presented a single-
phase five-level transformerless inverter for PV systems; the study also presented the
modulation strategy for this system. The leakage current is reduced in the proposed system
by ensuring that the CMV is maintained at 50% of the DC-link voltage when outputting
±Vdc/2 and zero voltage levels. Hence, both leakage current and high-frequent CMV are
suppressed. In [169], a modified common-mode MCM-filter configuration was used to
address the issue of spurious load trips, as well as to minimize the ground leakage current
adequately in the system; the system is also applicable in three-phase applications.

7. Challenges and Future Work Areas

Renewable energy systems have gained more application in the power grid due to
the advancements in power electronics devices and related technologies. However, this
has generated many concerns in terms of the power quality, protection, energy storage,
the intermittent nature of the energy fed to the grid, and system reliability. Hence, several
standards and codes have been developed for grid interfaced RESs to ensure the power
quality at the grid is maintained [42,170]. In view of the reviewed literature, there are areas
in this regard that demand more studies; these are highlighted as follows:
• The intermittent nature of the produced power by RESs remains one of the major
issues in grid-connected RES. It is believed that the contribution of RESs to the global
energy market will increase in the future; hence, this problem of power fluctuations in
grid-connected RESs demands to be addressed.
• Multilevel inverters (MLIs) have been widely used in both grid-connected and in-
dustrial applications over time owing to their numerous advantages. However, re-
searchers have recently begun to introduce hybrid topologies which are developed
from the classical topologies; these hybrid methods are developed to meet the high
grid code standards and address the power quality problems in a cost-friendly man-
ner [16,23,58]. Being that most of these new topologies have not been evaluated in
the grid-connected RESs, there is a need to investigate their performance in grid-
integrated applications.
• The MMC, a commonly used MC, remains the most suitable for large-scale RES
application. MMC has become the basic building block for multiterminal direct
current (MTDC) and DC grids due to its salient features, The MMCMTDC systems
embedded into the present power system will significantly enhance system reliability
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 16 of 23

and efficiency, support renewable energy integration, and improve the economy and
flexibility of power transmission. However, there are still several technical challenges
in the modeling, control, and protection of the MMC-MTDC systems [171–174].
• More studies are needed on the performance analysis of the recent MLIs to efficiently
address the issues encountered in the grid-connected RESs applications. Studies
should also focus on the role of MLIs in smart grid technologies.
• Even though the Reduced Switch Multilevel Inverter (RS MLI) topologies can be used
in RES integration, especially for PV applications, in consideration of the reduced total
standing voltage (TSV), more RS MLI topologies should be developed to increase the
suitability for the integration of both PV and wind energy systems [88].
• The integration of renewable energy systems to grids using suitable MLIs has gradu-
ally been moving grid systems towards the future smart grid. This comes with great
challenges but also presents some opportunities for MLI topology development and
control. Thus, there are numerous innovations in this field.
• The regulation of DC-link voltage, as well as the control of the MPPT in MLIs, usually
requires a PI-based controller which is associated with certain limitations. Several
soft computing and hybrid methods-based control systems can be evaluated for better
multidimensional control [42].
• The efficiency of the MPPT algorithm is affected by many factors but the most obvious
is the nonlinear nature of the PV system, the system working condition, and the
variations in ambient conditions. Most times, the algorithm developers do not consider
these changes, and this has been the source of system failure in certain working
conditions. Thus, the design of the PV module controller is a tedious task that demands
more attention to achieve stability [31,116].
• A key determinant of the proper MPPT to be selected is to find the optimal MPPT
method with fast performance, low tracking errors, and no oscillation around the
GMMP. The evaluation of MPPT techniques normally comes with various degrees
of complexity; hence, many studies are still ongoing, trying to address most of the
identified problems. It is, therefore, recommended that efforts should be geared
towards finding a simpler, faster, and cost-efficient MPP tracker that could offer better
reliability and efficiency [31,175].

8. Conclusions
This paper has briefly outlined the aspects of multilevel inverters to highlight the need
for further investigation. This paper has briefly outlined the aspects of multilevel inverters
to highlight the need to produce new inverters or modified combinations of inverters for
grid-connected and PV systems. MLIs have been elaborated in various aspects, such as
classifications, advantages, disadvantages, and their abilities to enhance energy conversion
in modern energy systems. Based on this review, a modified approach using MLIs for
different levels should employ standard MLIs to reduce the switching count. Modified
MLIs are promising solutions for PV and other renewable energy systems in terms of
size, cost, less THD, and high efficiency energy conversion. Besides, the most recent MLIs
grid-connected PV systems, and the minimizing current leakage suppression methods
were highlighted in this work. Lastly, the challenges and practical recommendations for
developing an efficient system were highlighted to motivate and guide society to focus on
inventing an efficient and economic MLIs grid-connected system that combines most of
the used and reported inverters’ capabilities.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.B., M.S. and A.R.; methodology, S.A. and D.I.; writing—
original draft preparation, A.B., M.S. and S.A.; investigation, D.I., M.S. and A.R.; resources, S.A. and
A.B.; writing—review and editing, M.S., A.R. and D.I.; visualization, M.S. and A.R.; supervision, M.S.
and D.I; funding acquisition, A.R., M.S. and A.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Energies 2021, 14, 1585 17 of 23

Funding: This work was supported in part by Universiti Sains Malaysia, under short-term grant No.
304/PELECT/6315330.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

MLI Multilevel Inverter

PV Photovoltaic
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
RESs Renewable Energy Sources
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
EMI Electro-Magnetic Interference
MMPP Multiple Maximum Power Points
GMPP Global Maximum Power Point
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
CHB-MLI Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter
DCMLI Diode Clamped Multilevel Inverter
FCMLI Flying Capacitor Multilevel Inverter
SDCS Separate DC Source
SWAs Split-Winding Alternators
MMC Modular Multilevel Converter
PCC Point of Common Coupling
CSD Cascaded Switched-Diode
BESS Battery Energy Storage System
SOC State of Charge
MCSI Multilevel Current-Source Inverter
PPP Peak Power Point
TSV Total Standing Voltage
VFISPWM Variable Frequency Inverted Sine Carrier PWM
Iph Photon-Generated Current

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