WC <E 4G - 17EC81 - Module - 1 - Key Enablers For LTE Feature
WC <E 4G - 17EC81 - Module - 1 - Key Enablers For LTE Feature
WC <E 4G - 17EC81 - Module - 1 - Key Enablers For LTE Feature
Advanced second Digital, circuit switched (HSCSD High-Speed Circuit Switched Data), Internet-enabled
(WAP) 10 Kbps
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a technology for WLAN based on the IEEE 802.11 (a, b, g) specifications Originally developed
for PC in WLAN Increasingly used for more services: Internet and VoIP phone access, gaming, … and
basic connectivity of consumer electronics such as televisions and DVD players, or digital cameras,…
In the future Wi-Fi will be used by cars in highways in support of an Intelligent Transportation System
to increase safety, gather statistics, and enable mobile commerce (IEEE 802.11p) Wi-Fi supports
structured (access point) and ad-hoc networks (a PC and a digital camera).
Wi-MAX
IEEE 802.16: Broadband Wireless Access / Wireless MAN / WiMax (Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access) Connecting Wi-Fi hotspots with each other and to other parts of the Internet
Providing a wireless alternative to cable and DSL for last mile broadband access Providing high-speed
mobile data and telecommunications services Providing Nomadic connectivity 75 Mbit/s up to 50 km
LOS, up to 10 km NLOS; 2-5 GHz band. Initial standards without roaming or mobility support
802.16e adds mobility support, allows for roaming at 150km/h.
Wireless Telephony
Electromagnetic Spectrum
To meet its service and performance requirements, LTE design incorporates several important
enabling radio and core network technologies Here, we provide a brief introduction to some of the key
enabling technologies used in the LTE design.
One of the key differences between existing 3G systems and LTE is the use of Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing (OFDM) as the underlying modulation technology .Widely deployed 3G systems
such as UMTS and CDMA2000 are based on Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) technology.
OFDM has emerged as a technology of choice for achieving high data rates. It is the core
technology used by a variety of systems including Wi-Fi and Wi-MAX. The following
advantages of OFDM led to its selection for LTE:
Splitting the data stream into mainly parallel streams increases the symbol duration of each stream
such that the multipath delay spread is only a small fractional of the symbol duration, OFDM is a
spectrally efficient version of multicarrier modulation, where the subcarriers are selected such that
they are all orthogonal to one another over the symbol duration, thereby avoiding the need to have non
overlapping sub carrier channels to eliminate inter-carrier interference.
Reduced computational complexity: OFDM can be easily implemented using Fast Fourier Transforms
(FFT/IFFT), and the computational requirements grow only slightly faster than linearly with data rate
or bandwidth. The computational complexity of OFDM can be shown to be O(Blog BTm.) where B is the
bandwidth and Tm is the delay spread.
Graceful degradation of performance under excess delay: The performance of an OFDM system
degrades gracefully as the delay spread exceeds the value designed for. Greater coding and low
constellation sizes can be used to provide fallback rates that are significantly more robust against
delay" spread. In other words, OFDM is well suited for adaptive modulation and coding, which allows
the system to make the best of the available channel conditions. This contrasts with the abrupt
degradation owing to error propagation that single-carrier system is experience is the delay spread
exceeds the value for which the equalizer is designed.
Enables efficient multi-access scheme: OFDM can be used as a multi-access scheme by partitioning
different subcarriers among multiple users. This scheme is referred to as OFDMA and is exploited in
LTE. OFDMA offers the ability to provide fine granularity in channel allocation, which can be exploited
to achieve significant capacity improvements, particularly in slow time-varying channels.
Facilitates use of MIMO: MIMO stands for multiple input multiple output and refers to a collection of
signal processing techniques that use multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to
improve system performance.
For MINO techniques to be effective, it is required that the channel conditions are such that the
multipath delays do not cause inter symbol interference in other words, the channel has to be a flat
finding channel and not a frequency selective one. At very high data rates, this is not the case and
therefore MIMO techniques do not work well in traditional broadband channels. OFDM, however,
converts frequency selective.
Efficient support of broadcast services: By synchronizing base stations to timing errors well within
the OFDM guard interval, it is possible to operate an OFDM network : a single frequency network (SEN).
This allows broadcast signals from different cells to combine over the air to significantly enhance the
received signal power, thereby enabling higher data rate broadcast transmissions for a given transmit
power. LTE design leverages this OFDM capability to improve efficient broadcast services.
SC-FDE and SC-FDMA : To keep the cost down and the battery life up, LTE incorporated a power
efficient transmission scheme for the uplink. Single Carrier Frequency Domain Equalization (SC-FDE) is
conceptually similar to OFDM but instead of transmitting the Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) of
the actual data symbols, the data symbols ne as a sequence of QAM symbols with a cyclic prefix added;
the IFFT is added at the end of the receiver. SC-FDE retains all the advantages of OFDM such as
multipath resistance and low complexity, while having a low peak-to-large ratio of 4-5 db. The uplink of
LTE implements a multi-user version of SC-FDE, called SC-FDMA, which allows multiple users to use
parts of the frequency spectrum. SC-FDMA closely resembles
OFDMA and can in fact be thought of is “DFT preceded OFDMA." SC-FDMA also reserves
the PAR properties of SC-FDE but increases the complexity of the transmitter and the
receiver.
Channel Dependent Multi-user Resource Scheduling .The OFDMA scheme used in LTE provides
enormous flexibility in how channel resources are allocated. OFDMA allows for allocation in both time
and frequency and it is possible to design algorithms to allocate resources in flexible and dynamic
manger to meet arbitrary throughput, delay, and other requirements. The standard supports dynamic,
channel dependent scheduling to enhance overall system. Capacity. Given that each user will be
experiencing uni-correlated funding channels, it is possible to allocate subcarriers among users in such
a way that the overall is increased. This technique, called frequency selective multiuser scheduling, calls
for focusing transmission power in each user's best channel portion, thereby increasing the overall
capacity. Frequency selective scheduling requires good channel tracking and is generally only able in
slow varying channels. For fast varying channels, the overhead involved in doing this regenerates the
potential capacity gains. In OFDMA, frequency selective scheduling calm be combined with multi-user
time domain scheduling, which calls for scheduling users during the crests of their individual fading
channels. Capacity gains are also obtained by adapting the modulation and coding to the instantaneous
signal-to-noise ratio conditions for each user .For high-mobility users, OFDMA can be used to achieve
frequency diversity. By coding and interleaving across subcarriers in the frequency domain using a
uniform random distribution of sub carriers over the whole spectrum, the signal can be made more
robust 1gainst frequency selective fading or burst errors.
Multi-antenna Techniques: The LTE standard provides extensive support for implementing advanced
multi-antenna solutions to improve link robust, system capacity, and spectral efficiency. Depending of
the deployment scenario, one or more of the techniques can be used. Multi antenna techniques
supported in LTE include:
Beam forming: Multiple antennas in LTE may also be used to transmit the same signal
appropriately weighted for each antenna element such that the effect is to focus the
transmitted beam in the direction of the receiver and away from interference, thereby
improving the received signal-to-interference ratio. Beam forming an provide significant improvements
in coverage range, capacity, reliability, and battery life. It can also be useful in providing angular
information for user tracking. LTE supports beam forming in the downlink.
Spatial multiplexing: The idea behind spatial multiplexing is that multiple in dependent streams can
be transmitted in parallel over multiple internals and can be separated at the receiver using multiple
receive chains through appropriate sig mal processing. This can be done as long as the multipath
channels as seen by the different antennas are sufficiently de-correlated us would be the case in a
scattering.
IP-Based Flat Network Architecture Besides the air-interface, the other radical aspect of LTE is the
flat radio and core network architecture. "Flat" here implies fewer nodes and a la hierarchical
structure for the network. The lower cost and lower latency requirements drove the design toward a
flat architecture since fewer modes obviously implies a lower infrastructure cost. It also means fewer
interfaces and protocol-related processing, and reduced interoperability testing, which lowers the
development and deployment cost. Fewer nodes also allow better optimization of radio interface,
merging of some control plane protocols, and short start-up time.
Figure shows how the 3GPP network architecture evolved over a few releases 3GPP
Release 6 architecture, which is conceptually very similar to its predecessor, has four
network elements in the data path: the base station or Node-B, radio network controller
(RNC), serving GPRS service node (SGSN), and gateway GRPS service node (GGSN).
Release 7 introduced a direct tunnel option from the RNC to GGSN, which eliminated SGSN from the
data path. LTE on the other hand, will have only two network elements in the data path: the enhanced
Node-B or e Node-B, and a System Architecture Evolution Gateway(SAE-GW). Unlike all previous
cellular systems, LTE merges the as e station and radio network controller functionality into a single
unit. The control path includes a functional entity called the Mobility Management Entity (MME),
which provides control plane functions related to subscriber, mobility, and session management. The
MME and SAE-GW could be collocated in a single entity called the gateway (1-GW). More details about
the network architecture are provided in the next section.
LTE Network Architecture: While the focus of this book is on the radio network aspects of LTE, a basic
understanding of the overall end-to-end architecture is useful to gain are appreciation of how services
are delivered an LTE network. To that end, we provide a brief overview of the LTE network
architecture in this section.
As already mentioned, the core network design presented in 3GPP Release & to support
LTE is called the Evolved Packet Core (EPC). EPC is designed to provide a high capacity, all IP, reduced
latency, flat architecture that dramatically reduces cost and sup ports advanced real-time and media-
rich services with quality of experience. It is designed not only to support new radio access networks
such as LTE, but also provide interworking with legacy2G GERAN and 3G UTRAN networks connected
via SGSN. Functions provided by the EPC include access control, packet routing and transfer, mobility
management, security, resource in management, and network management.
(1) Serving Gateway (SGW), which terminates the interface toward the 3GPP radio access networks
Serving Gateway (SGW): The SGW acts is a demarcation point between the RAN and core network,
and manages user plane mobility. It serves as the mobility anchor when terminals move across areas
served by different e Node-B elements in E-UTRAN 19 Well is across other 3GPP radio networks such
as GERAN and UTRAN. SGW dogs downlink packet buffering and initiation of network-triggered service
request procedures. Other functions include lawful interception, packet routing and forwarding,
transport level packet marking in the uplink and the downlink, accounting support for, and inter-
operator charging.
Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW): The PGW acts as the termination point of the EPC toward
other Packet Data Networks (PDN) such as the Internet, private IP network, or the IMS network
providing end-user services. It serves as an anchor point for sessions toward external PDN and
provides functions such as user IP address allocation, policy enforcement, packet Altering, and charging
support. Policy enforcement includes operator defined rules for reliable allocation to control data rate,
Qos, and usage. Packet Altering functions includes deep packet inspection for application detection.
Mobility Management Entity (MME):The MME performs the signalling and control functions to
manage the user terminal access to the work connections, as instrument of network re-OUICES, and
mobility management function such is idle mode location tracking. paging, roaming, handovers. MME
controls all control plane functions related to subscriber and session management.
Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF): The Policy and Charging Rules Function: (PCRF) is a
concatenation of Policy Decision Function (PDF) and Charging Rules Function (CRF). The PCRF
interfaces with the PDN gateway and supports service data flow detection, policy enforcement, and
flow-based charging The PCRF Was actually defined in Release 7 of 3GPP ahead of LTE. Although not
much deployed with pre-LTE systems, it is mandatory for LTE. Release & further enhanced PCRF
functionality to include support for -3GPP access (e.g Wi-Fi or fixed line access) to the network.
WIRELESS FUNDAMENTALS
Digital signal is converted into representative analog waveform by a digital-to- analog (DA) convertor,
and then up converted to one of the desired LTE radio frequency (RF) bands. This RF signal is then
radiated as electromagnetic waves by a suitable antenna.
The receiver performs essentially the reverse of these operations. After down converting the received
RF signal and filtering out signals at other frequencies, the resulting baseband signal is converted to a
digital signal by an analog-to-digital (AD) convertor.
This digital signal can then be demodulated and decoded with energy and space-efficient integrated
circuits to (hopefully) reproduce the original bit stream
.
The Broadband Wireless Channel: Path Loss and Shadowing: The main goal of this chapter is to
explain the fundamental factors affecting the receivedsignal in a wireless system, and how they can be
modelled using a handful of parameters.The relative values of the parameters, which are summarized
in Table 1 . and described throughout this section, make all the difference when designing a Wireless
Communication system. In this section we will introduce the overall channel model, and discuss the
large scale trends that affect this model.
The overall model we will use for describing the channel in discrete time is a simple tap delay line
(TDL):
Here, the discrete-time channel is time-varying (so changes with respect to t), and has non negligible
values over a span of v + 1 channel taps. Generally, we will assume that the channel is sampled at
frequency fs = 1/Ts, Where T is the symbol period,' and hence the duration of the channel in this case is
about T. The v+1 sampled values are, in general, complex numbers.
Assuming that the channel is static over a period of (v +1] T seconds, the output of the
channel win then be described is
where x[k) is an input sequence of data symbols with rate 1/T, and * denotes convolution. In simpler
notation, the channel can be represented as a time-varying (v+1) x 1 column vector:
Although this tapped-delay line model is general and accurate, it is difficult to design a
communication system for the channel without knowing some of the key attributes about h(t). Some
likely questions one might have are
• What is the value for the total received power? In other words, what are the relative
values of the h; terms?
Answer: As we will see, a number of different effects cause the received power to Mary over long path
loss), medium (shadowing), and short (fading)distances.
Answer: The channel coherence time specifies the period of time over which the channel's value is
correlated. The coherence time depends on how fast the transmitter and receiver are moving relative to
each other What is the approximate value of the channel duration u?
Answer: This value is known as the delay spread, and is measured or approximated based on the
propagation distance and environment.
Path Loss: The first obvious difference between wired and wireless channels is the amount of
transmitted power that actually reaches the receiver. Assuming an isotropic antenna is used, to shown
in Figure, the propagated signal energy expands over a spherical wave front, so the energy received at
an antenna: a distance and away is inversely proportional to the sphere surface area .The fre e-space
path loss formula, or Friis formula, is given more precisely as
Pt/Pr is the average value of the channel gain: that is, Pt/Pr=
E||h||2, where E(.) denotes the expected value, or
mathematical mean.
If directional antennas are used at the transmitter or receiver, Gt and/or Gr. is achieved, and the
received power is simply increased by the gain of these antennas.
In other words, for a given transmit power, the range is decreased when higher frequency waves are
used. This has important implications for high-data Mite systems, since most large bandwidths are
available at higher frequencies.
However, because a reflected Wave often experiences a 180-degree phase shift, un
relatively large distances (usually over a kilometre) the reflection series to create
destructive interference, and the common 2-ray approximation for path loss is:
which is significantly different from free-space path loss in several respects. First, the
Antenna heights now assume a very important role in the propagation, as is anecdotally
familiar: radio transmitters are usually placed on the highest available object. Second, the Wavelength
and hence carrier frequency dependence has disappeared from the formula, which is not typically
observed in practice, however. Third, and crucially, the distance dependence has changed to d -4,
implying that energy loss is more severe with distance in a terrestrial system than in free space.
In order to more accurately describe different propagation environments, empirical models are often
developed using experimental data. One of the simplest and most common is the Empirical path loss
formula:
Demonstrating that the overall system performance can be substantially improved when the path loss
is in fact large. These calculations can be viewed : an upper bound, where the signal-to-interference
plus noise ratio (SINR) is less than the SIR, due to the addition of noise. This means that as the path
loss worsens, microcells grow increasingly attractive since the required signal power can be decreed
down to the noise floor, and the overall performance will actually be better than in a system with lower
path loss at the same transmit power level.
Shadowing As we have seen in the last section, path loss models attempt to account for the distance
dependent relationship between transmitted and received power. However, many factors other than
distance can have a large effect on the total received power.
For example, as shown in Figure 5 obstacles such as trees and buildings may be located
between the transmitter and receiver, and cause temporary degradation in received signal strength,
while on the other hand a temporary line-of-sight transmission path would result in Abnormally high
received power. Since modelling the locations of all objects in every possible communication
environment is generally impossible, the standard method of accounting for these variations in signal
strength is to introduce a random effect called shadowing. With shadowing, the empirical path loss
formula becomes
where x is a sample of the shadowing random process. Hence, the received power is now also modelled
a random process. Shadowing is an important effect in wireless networks because it causes the
received SINR to way dramatically over long time scales. The shadowing value x is typically modelled as
a lognormal random variable, that is
Cellular Systems: As explained in the previous section, due to path loss and to a lesser extent
shadowing, given a maximum allowable transmit power, it is only possible to reliably communicate
over some limited distance. However, path loss allows for spatial isolation of different transmitters
operating on the same frequency at the same time. As a result, path loss under short-range
transmissions in fact increases the overall capacity of the system by allowing more simultaneous
transmissions to occur. This straightforward observation is the theoretical basis for the ubiquity of
modern cellular communication systems In this section, we briefly explore the key aspects of cellular
systems, and the closely related topics of sectoring and frequency reuse.
The Cellular Concept In cellular systems, the service area is subdivided into smaller
geographic areas called cells that are each served by their own base station. In order to
minimize interference between cells, the transmit power level of each base station is
regulated to be just enough to provide the required signal strength at the cell boundaries.
Then, also we have seen, propagation path loss allows for spatial isolation of different cells operating of
the same frequency channels at the same time. Therefore, the sine frequency channels can be
reassigned to different cells, long as those cells are spatially isolated. The reuse of the site frequency
channels should be intelligently planned in order to maximize the geographic distance between the co-
channel base stations. Figure shows an example of hexagonal cellular system model with frequency
reuse factor f=1/7, where cells labelled with the same letter use the same frequency channels. In this
model, 1 cluster is outlined in bold and consists of seven cells with different frequency channels.
3G uses CDMA2000 and UMTs
Summarize the topics covered
highlighting the Course Outcomes Key enabling Technologies in the LTE is OFDM,
Applications/significance/Importance
PAN,LAN,MAN Wireless technologies
of Today’s topic covered
1. How and OFDM takes advantages in LTE ? Explain
2. Explain Multi antenna , Beam forming Special diversity.
3. Explain IP based flat network Architecture evolved towards
LTE.
4. Explain LTE- EPC Architecture for IP and non IP based
Questions for practice/ services
Assignment (from course 5. Briefly explain the wireless fundaments for wireless digital
file) communication.
6. What is the main goal of broadband wireless channel ?
describe the wireless parameter for wireless channels
7. Explain Path loss and shadowing.
8. What is cellular concept? Explain the cellular concept with
frequency reuse.
Additional learning tools https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/104/117104099/
Books with Page
No.s/NPTEL https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/106/106106167/
course reference with https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/102/117102062/
link/Relevant video lecture
link