Unit - IV Cell Coverage for Signal and Traffic

Introduction: Ground incident, elevation and

1
reflection angles
2 Effect of human made structures
3 Phase difference between direct and reflected paths
4 Constant standard deviation
5 Straight line path loss slope
6 General formula for mobile radio propagation
7 Propagation over water and flat open area
8 Near and long distance propagation
9 Antenna height gain
10 Form of a point to point model( Lee model)
Ground incident, elevation and reflection angles
The ground incident angle and the ground elevation angle over a communication link are
described as follows. The ground incident angle Ɵ is the angle of wave arrival incidentally
pointing to the ground as shown in Fig. The ground elevation angle ɸ is the angle of wave
arrival at the mobile unit as shown in Fig.
Obtain area to area prediction curves for human made structures (Effect of the
Human-Made Structures)
 Because the terrain configuration of each city is different, and the human-made structure
of each city is also unique.





 We may have to measure signal strengths at those high spots and also at the low spots
surrounding the cell sites.

Fig: Propagation path loss curves for human-made structures -For selecting measurement
areas

Fig:b) Path loss phenomenon.

****Phase difference between direct and reflected paths****
 Where P is the power difference in decibels between two different path lengths and G is
the gain (or loss) in decibels obtained from two different antenna heights at the cell site. From
these measurements, the gain from a mobile antenna height is only 3 dB/oct, which is different
from the 6 dB/oct . Then

Constant standard deviation

 When plotting signal strengths at any given radio-path distance, the deviation from
predicted value is approximately 8 dB. This standard deviation of 8 dB is roughly true in
many different areas.
 The explanation is as follows. When a line-of-sight path exists, both the direct wave path
and reflected wave path are created and are strong. When an out-of-sight path exists, both
the direct wave path and the reflected wave path are weak.
 In either case, according to the theoretical model, the 40-dB/dec path-loss slope applies.
The difference between these two conditions is the 1-mi intercept (or 1-km intercept)
point. It can be seen that in the open area, the 1-mi intercept is high.
 In the urban area, the 1-mi intercept is low. The standard deviation obtained from the
measured data remains the same along the different path-loss curves regardless of
environment.
 Support for the above argument can also be found from the observation that the standard
deviation obtained from the measured data along the predicted path-loss curve is
approximately 8 dB. The explanation is that at a distance from the cell site, some mobile
unit radio paths are line-of-sight, some are partial line-of-sight, and some are out-of-sight.
Thus the received signals are strong, normal, and weak, respectively.
 At any distance, the above situations prevail. If the standard deviation is 8 dB at one
radio-path distance, the same 8dB will be found at any distance. Therefore a standard
deviation of 8 dB is always found along the radio path as shown in Fig.

 The standard deviation of 8 dB from the measured data near the cell site is due mainly to
the close-in buildings around the cell site. The same standard deviation from the
measured data at distant locations is due to the great variation along different around the
cell site. The same standard deviation from the measured data at a distant location is due
to the great variation along different radio paths.
Straight line path loss slope
General formula for mobile radio propagation
 ***Propagation over water or flat open area***
Propagation over water or flat open area is becoming a big concern because it is very easy to
interfere with other cells if we do not make the correct arrangements. Interference resulting from
propagation over the water can be controlled if we know the cause.
In general, the permitivities Er of sea water and fresh water are the same, but the conductivities
of seawater and fresh water are different.
We may calculate the dielectric constants Ec where Ec = Er - j60σλ. The wavelength at 850MHz
is 0.35m. Then Eo (sea water) = 80 - j84 and Ec (fresh water)=80-j0.021.

However, based upon the reflection coefficients formula with a small incident angle both the
reflection coefficients for horizontal polarized waves and vertically polarized waves approach 1.
Since the 1800 phase change occurs at the ground reflection point, the reflection coefficient is -1.
Now we can establish a scenario, as shown in Fig.

Since the two antennas, one at the cell site and the other at the mobile unit, are well above sea
level, two reflection points are generated. The one reflected from the ground is close to the
mobile unit; the other reflected from the water is away from the mobile unit. We recall that the
only reflected wave we considered in the land mobile propagation is the one reflection point
which is always very close to the mobile unit. We are now using the formula to find the field
strength under the circumstances of a fixed point-to-point transmission and a land-mobile
transmission over water or flat open land condition.
Case1: Between two fixed stations
Case2: Land to Mobile Transmission over Water
Near and long distance propagation
Calculation of Near-Field Propagation
The range dF of near field can be obtained by letting φ in the equation below be π.

The signal received within the near field (d < dF ) uses the free space loss formula, and the signal
received outside the near field (d > dF ) can use the mobile radio path loss formula, for the best
approximation.
Long-distance propagation
The advantage of a high cell site is that it covers the signal in a large area, especially in a noise-
limited system where usually different frequencies are repeatedly used in different areas.
However, we have to be aware of the long-distance propagation phenomenon. A noise-limited
system gradually becomes an interference-limited system as the traffic increases.
The interference is due to not only the existence of many co-channels and adjacent channels in
the system, but the long-distance propagation also affects the interference.
Within an Area of 50-mi Radius
For a high site, the low-atmospheric phenomenon would cause the ground wave path to
propagate in a non-straight-line fashion. The wave path can bend either upward or downward.
Then we may have the experience that at one spot the signal may be strong at one time but weak
at another.
At a Distance of 320 km (200 mi)
Troposphere wave propagation prevails at 800 MHz for long-distance propagation; sometimes
the signal can reach 320 km (200 mi) away.
The wave is received 320 km away because of an abrupt change in the effective dielectric
constant of the troposphere.
The dielectric constant changes with temperature, which decreases with height at a rate of about
6.5◦C/km and reaches −50◦C at the upper boundary of the troposphere.
In tropospheric propagation, the wave may be divided by refraction and reflection.
Tropospheric refraction: This refraction is a gradual bending of the rays due to the changing
effective dielectric constant of the atmosphere through which the wave is passing.
Tropospheric reflection: This reflection will occur where there are abrupt changes in the
dielectric constant of the atmosphere. The distance of propagation is much greater than the line-
of-sight propagation.
Moistness: Water content has much more effect than temperature on the dielectric constant of
the atmosphere and on the manner in which the radio waves are affected. The water vapor
pressure decreases as the height increases.

Antenna height gain in non obstructive and obstructive conditions

In nonobstructive Condition
G= 20 log(2)= 6 dB
***Form of a point to point model (General Formula of Lee Model)***
 The free-space propagation model does not apply in a mobile radio environment.
Propagation path loss depends on distance of the mobile from its serving cell-site, carrier
frequency of transmission, fc (or wavelength λc), the antenna heights of cell-site and
mobile unit and the local terrain characteristics such as buildings and hills.
 Mobile radio propagation path loss is uniquely different from that experienced in other
communication media. The signal received by a mobile unit remains constant only over a
small operating area and varies as the mobile unit moves. This is mainly due to the
variations in the terrain conditions and presence of man-made structures surrounding the
mobile unit.
The formula of the Lee model can be stated simply in three cases
1.Direct-wave case( Non obstructive case)
– The effective antenna height is a major factor which varies with the location of the mobile unit
while it travels.
 2. Shadow case (Obstructive case)
– No effective antenna height exists. The loss is totally due to the knife-edge diffraction loss.

3.Over-the-water condition
5. Within one mile or one kilometer in a manmade environment, the received signal is
affected by the buildings and street orientations.
 Merits of point to point model (Lee model)
 Area-to-area signal prediction models are not useful for cellular communication systems
because of the large uncertainty of the prediction. It usually provides an accuracy of
prediction with a measured standard deviation of about 8 dB, which means that 68 per
cent of the actual path-loss data are within 8 dB of the predicted path-loss value. This
implies that the uncertainty range for predicting the path loss is too large.
The point to point model reduces the uncertainty range by including the detailed
terrain contour information in the path loss predictions
 The point to point model is very useful for designing a mobile cellular system with a
radius for each cell of 10 miles or less. Because the path loss or received signal strength
data follows the lognormal distribution, 68 per cent of predicted values obtained from a
point-to-point propagation .
 Point to point model prediction can be used to provide overall coverage of all cell sites
and to avoid cochannel interference.
 The occurrence of handoffs in cellular mobile communication can be predicted with more
accuracy in this model.
 The point to point prediction model is a basic tool that is used to generate a signal
coverage map, an interference area map, a handoff occurrence map, or an optimum
system design configuration, to name a few applications.
Assignment cum Tutorial Questions
Part-A
1. Foliage areas are
(a) natural terrains (b) man-made structures
(c) open areas (d) urban areas
2. In a standard local mean spread, in the curve of signal strength versus distance from
transmitting antenna, the measured standard deviation would be
(a) 18 dB (b) 5 dB (c) 8 dB (d) 0.8 dB
3. Foliage loss is due to
(a) tall buildings (b) indoor structures
(c) tall trees, leaves, etc. (d) outdoor structures
4. A cell site located at a height covers a signal in
(a) smaller area (b) larger area
(c) short-distance propagation (d) long-distance propagation
5. The gradual bending of rays due to changing effective dielectric constant of atmosphere is
the following effect
(a) troposphere refl ection (b) troposphere refraction
(c) moistness (d) diffraction
6. Signal coverage can be found by _________ and generally applied to________
(a) coverage prediction models, end system
(b) coverage prediction models, start up system
(c) point-to-point, end system
(d) point-to-point model, terrain contour
7. The path that is not obstructed by terrain profi le and man-made structure is
(a) non-obstructive path (b) indirect path
(c) line-of-sight path (d) none
8. Consider the following statements and mention whether it is true or false:
i. In man-made structures, there are sparse structures
ii. In man-made structures, there are dense man-made structures
(a) first statement is true (b) second statement is true
(c) both are true (d) both are false
9. In mobile-to mobile-propagation, the propagation channel acts as
(a) repeater (b) attenuator (c) filter (d) amplifier
Answers
1. (a), 2. (c), 3. (c), 4. (b), 5. (b), 6. (b), 7. (c), 8. (c), 9. (c).
Part-B
1. Explain the Effect of human made structures on signal propagation.

2. Derive the expression for Phase difference between direct and reflected paths.

3. Write a short note on Constant standard deviation and Straight line path loss slope.

4. Write the general formula for mobile radio propagation.

5. Explain about Propagation over water and flat open area.
i. Between two fixed stations
ii. Land to mobile transmission over water

6. Write about Near and long distance propagation.

7. How the Antenna height gain is calculate under the following conditions.
i. Non obstructive condition
ii. Obstructive condition
8. Explain Lee point to point model with merits.