Solar and Wind Utilization: Week-5 Solar Electric Conversion 2020-2021/ 2T

ME165-3
SOLAR AND WIND UTILIZATION

Instructor:
Week-5 Solar Electric Conversion Engr. Manuel B. Rustria
2020-2021/ 2T 07 January 2021
OBJECTIVES
 Differentiate solar thermal form photovoltaic conversion.
 Enumerate the different kinds of conversion technologies.
 Show and describe the schematic diagram of a solar thermal central receiver system.
 Define a heliostat.
 Enumerate the kinds of heliostat.
 Discuss and enumerate the causes of energy losses between the incident energy on the
heliostat field and the receiver.
 Enumerate some heliostat controls.
 Define a central receiver.
 Enumerate the different types of basic receiver.
 Define the efficiency of a receiver.
 Discuss and enumerate the design considerations in improving the efficiency of a receiver.
SOLAR CONVERSION SYSTEM
Solar Thermal Conversion

Solar thermal conversion systems use
reflectors or mirrors to concentrate sunlight
to extremely intense levels of heat. (Solar
means “of the sun,” thermal means “of
heat” and conversion means “changing
something from one form to another.”)
Solar thermal conversion systems use mirrors or

reflectors to concentrate sunlight onto containers
full of liquid. Sometimes water is used. Sometimes
other liquids are used, which retain heat better
than water.
 The liquids are heated up to high temperatures, and
this produces steam.
 The steam is used to turn a turbine.
 Theturning motion of the turbine is used to create
electricity.
 Solar heating is another form of solar thermal conversion.

 Insolar heating, an absorber is used to take in sunlight
and convert it to heat.
 The absorber could be something simple, like black paint,
or it could be a special ceramic material.
A heat absorber is considered to be a good one when it
collects at least 95 percent of the sun’s radiation.
 The absorbers are then used to heat a fluid, which is then
circulated to warm up buildings or to create hot-water
supplies.
 Photovoltaic Conversion
 Photo means “light.” It comes from the Greek word “phos,”
which means “light.”
 “Voltaic”means, “producing electric current.” The word
comes from the name of Alessandro Volta, an Italian physicist
who was a pioneer in the field of electricity during the 1700’s.
(His name is also where the word “volt” comes from.)
 Photovoltaic means, “creating electrical energy when
exposed to light.”
A “cell” is a device that produces electricity. An example of
an electrical cell is a flashlight battery.
 Photovoltaiccells produce electricity when they are
exposed to light. They usually consist of panels. The panels
contain two layers of different materials.
 When light hits these two layers, one of the layers becomes
positively charged, and the other becomes negatively charged.
 This works similarly to a regular
flashlight battery, which has a
positive end and a negative end.
When a wire connects the two
ends, they produce an electric
current.
 When the two layers of material in
a solar cell are exposed to light,
they create an electric current.
PRINCIPLE OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION BY
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
Aphotovoltaic cell comprises

P-type and N-type
semiconductors with different
electrical properties, joined
together. The joint between
these two semiconductors is
called the "P-N junction."
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
 Sunlight striking the photovoltaic

cell is absorbed by the cell. The
energy of the absorbed light
generates particles with positive
or negative charge (holes and
electrons), which move about or
shift freely in all directions within
the cell.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
 Theelectrons (-) tend to collect in the N-type semiconductor,

and the holes (+) in the P-type semiconductor. Therefore,
when an external load, such as an electric bulb or an electric
motor, is connected between the front and back electrodes,
electricity flows in the cell.
CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES
Hybrid Solar Energy

Solar power combines with engines or generators
PV solar power combines with diesel engines
Solar and wind power combination
Combination of PV capability (for electricity) and
a thermal component (for hot water)
Photovoltaic (PV) Panels
Traditional PV Panels
Made of silicon semiconductors within
solar cells that convert sunlight (photons)
to electricity (electrons).
PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) PANELS
Thin Film Photovoltaic Panels

Next generation of PV because of lighter weight,
less of the expensive silicon material needed, and
other forms of photovoltaic material (amorphous
silicon) can be used.
PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) PANELS
Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) Panels

Solar panels are made of multi-junction solar cells
with concentrating lenses, rather than flat silicon
cells. The result is increased efficiency anywhere
from 2-3 times greater than traditional PV panels,
ranging upwards of 43%.
Solar Thermal Panels

Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)

SOLAR THERMAL CENTRAL RECEIVER SYSTEM
 How the system works:

 Power from sunlight is generated by focusing energy
from a field of sun-tracking mirrors called heliostats
onto a central receiver.
 Liquid or nitrate salt (HTF), which flows similar to
water when melted, is circulated through the receiver,
collecting the energy gathered from the sun.
 The heated salt is then routed to an insulated storage
tank where it is stored with minimal energy losses.
 When electricity is to be generated, the hot salt is
routed to heat exchangers to produce steam used to
generate electricity in a conventional steam turbine
cycle.
Schematic of a Solar Thermal Central Receiver  The salt is then sent to the cold salt storage tank, ready
System to be reheated by the sun and reused the following day.
SOLAR THERMAL CENTRAL RECEIVER SYSTEM
Central Receiver System (CRS) Subsytems:

 Collector system, or helliostat field
 Solar receiver, where the concentrated flux is absorbed
 Heat exchanger system
 Heat storage system
 Fossil fuel backup for hybrid systems
 Power block
 Master controls and heat rejection systems
HELIOSTAT
Heliostat
A device that includes a mirror, usually a plane mirror, which
turns so as to keep reflecting sunlight toward a predetermined
target, compensating for the sun's apparent motions in the sky.
 The target may be a physical object, distant from the heliostat, or a direction in
space.
 To do this, the reflective surface of the mirror is kept perpendicular to the
bisector of the angle between the directions of the sun and the target as seen
from the mirror.
 In almost every case, the target is stationary relative to the heliostat, so the light
is reflected in a fixed direction.
 The heliostat is used used with a pyrheliometer to make continuous
measurements of solar radiation.
HELIOSTAT
Design. The heliostat used in Solar One is shown on the
right. The reflecting element of a heliostat is typically a
thin, back (second) surface, low-iron glass mirror. This
heliostat is composed of several mirror module panels
rather than a single large mirror. The thin glass mirrors are
supported by a substrate backing to form a slightly
concave mirror surface. Individual panels on the heliostat
are also canted toward a point on the receiver. The
heliostat focal length is approximately equal to the
distance from the receiver to the farthest heliostat.
Subsequent “tuning” of the closer mirrors is possible.
Inclination angle of a single heliostat is a
function of the tower height, its distance from Solar-1, a heliostat
the tower and the incidence angle of the sun. array located in
California
HELIOSTAT
Types of Heliostat
 Manually-Operated Heliostats
 The earliest known heliostats were also the simplest. They
were used for daylighting in ancient Egypt, more than
4000 years ago. Polished metal mirrors were used to
reflect sunlight indoors. Servants or slaves moved the
mirrors manually to keep reflecting sunlight in the right
directions as the sun moved across the sky.
TYPES OF HELIOSTAT
 Clockwork Heliostats
A simple type of semi-automatic heliostat uses a mirror
mounted so it can be rotated by a clockwork
mechanism about an axis that is parallel with the earth's
axis of rotation. The clockwork turns the mirror once every
24 hours in the direction opposite to the earth's rotation.
The mirror is oriented so it reflects sunlight along the same
polar axis as its axis of rotation. At an equinox, this means
that the mirror is inclined at 45 degrees to the axis
HELIOSTAT
Heliostats Controlled by Light-Sensors

A simple design uses a principal axis of rotation that is
aligned to point at the target toward which light is to be
reflected. The secondary axis is perpendicular to the first.
Sensors send signals to motors that turn around both axes
so that a small arm, carrying the sensors, points toward the
sun. (Thus this design incorporates a sun-tracker.) A gear
mechanism bisects the angle between the sun-pointing
arm and the principal rotation axis. This gives the direction
in which the perpendicular to the mirror must be pointed.
Computer-Controlled Heliostats
HELIOSTAT
Causes of Energy losses between the incident energy

on the heliostat field and the receiver
 Atmosphere attenuation loss
▪ Not all the sunlight that clears the heliostat reaches the
vicinity of the receiver. Some of the energy is scattered
and absorbed by the atmosphere.
▪ Increases when water vapor or aerosol content in the
atmosphere is high (typically between 5-15% in solar
field).
HELIOSTAT
CAUSE OF ENERGY LOSSES
Poor beam quality of the mirror

▪ It could cause energy spillage over around the
receiver
▪ Can be eliminated by increasing the size of the
receiver, at some point, increased size becomes
counterproductive because of the resulting increased
receiver losses and receiver costs.
HELIOSTAT
Shadowing
 Occurs at low sun angles when a heliostat casts its
shadow on a heliostat located behind it. Therefore,
not all the incident solar flux is reaching the reflector.
Blocking
 Occurs when a heliostat in front of another heliostat
blocks the reflected flux on its way to the receiver.
HELIOSTAT
SHADOWING & BLOCKING

HELIOSTAT
 Heliostat Controls
 Most modern heliostats are controlled by computers.
 The computer is given the latitude and longitude of the heliostat's position on the
earth and the time and date.
 From these, using astronomical theory, it calculates the direction of the sun as seen
from the mirror, e.g. its compass bearing and angle of elevation.
 Then, given the direction of the target, the computer calculates the direction of
the required angle-bisector, and sends control signals to motors, often stepper
motors, so they turn the mirror to the correct alignment.
 Thissequence of operations is repeated frequently to keep the mirror properly
oriented.
 Heliostat Field Control System (HCFS)
 Its main purpose is to keep each heliostat positioned at the desired coordinate at all
times, depending on power system demand.
HELIOSTAT CONTROLS
 Receiver and Power System Control System (RPSCS)

 Regulatesthe pressure and temperature of the heat transfer fluid,
and steam generator.
SOLAR THERMAL CENTRAL RECEIVER SYSTEMS
Central Receiver
 Ina solar power plant, the receiver is the heat exchanger
where the concentrated sunlight is intercepted and
transformed into thermal energy useful in thermodynamic
cycles.
SOLAR THERMAL CENTRAL RECEIVER
 Different Types of Basic Receivers

 Open Volumetric Receiver
 In the open volumetric receiver concept, a blower transports ambient air
through the receiver, which is heated up by the reflected sunlight.
 The receiver consists of wire mesh or ceramic or metallic materials in a
honeycomb structure, and air is drawn through this and heated up to
temperatures between 650°C and 850°C.
 On the front side, cold, incoming air cools down the receiver surface. Therefore,
the volumetric structure produces the highest temperatures inside the receiver
material, reducing the heat radiation losses on the receiver surface.
 Next, the air reaches the heat boiler, where steam is produced. A duct burner
and thermal storage can also guarantee capacity with this type of solar thermal
power plant.
Schematic of solar thermal tower power plant, showing an

open volumetric receiver with steam turbine cycle
 Pressurize Air Receiver

 The volumetric pressurized receiver concept offers totally new opportunities for
solar thermal tower plants.
 A compressor pressurizes air to about 15 bar; a transparent glass dome covers
the receiver and separates the absorber from the environment.
 Inside the pressurized receiver, the air is heated to temperatures of up to 1100°C,
and the hot air drives a gas turbine.
 This turbine is connected to the compressor and a generator that produces
electricity.
 The waste heat of the gas turbine goes to a heat boiler and in addition to this
drives a steam-cycle process.
 The combined gas and steam turbine process can reach efficiencies of over
50%, whereas the efficiency of a simple steam turbine cycle is only 35%.
Therefore, solar system efficiencies of over 20% are possible.
Schematic of solar thermal tower power plant, showing a pressurized

receiver with combined gas and steam turbine cycle
 Tubular Receiver
 Concentrated radiation is
transferred to the cooling fluid
through a metal or ceramic
wall.
 Conventional panels with
darkened metal tubes have
been used with steam, sodium
and molten salts for
temperatures up to 500-600oC.
 Cavity Tubular Receiver
 Billboard Tubular Receiver External Tubular Receiver used in Solar One Power Plant, Barstow, CA
Receiver efficiency
The efficiency of a solar receiver is defined as the
quotient of usable thermal energy versus received
solar energy.
Radiant flux and temperature are substantially
higher than in parabolic troughs.
DesignConsideration in Improving the Efficiency of a

Receiver
 High-performance materials should be chosen.
 The solar receiver should mimic a blackbody by
minimizing radiation losses. To do so, cavities, black-
painted tube panels or porous absorbers able to trap
incident photons are used.
PARABOLIC TROUGH POWER PLANTS
 Parabolic Trough Power Plants

 Parabolic trough power plants are the only type of solar thermal power plant
technology with existing commercial operating systems until 2008.
 The parabolic trough collector consists of large curved mirrors, which
concentrate the sunlight by a factor of 80 or more to a focal line.
 Parallel collectors build up a 300–600 meter long collector row, and a multitude
of parallel rows form the solar collector field.
 The one-axis tracked collectors follow the sun.
 The collector field can also be formed from very long rows of parallel Fresnel
collectors. In the focal line of these is a metal absorber tube, which is usually
embedded in an evacuated glass tube that reduces heat losses.
 A special high-temperature, resistive selective coating additionally reduces
radiation heat losses.
PARABOLIC TROUGH POWER PLANTS
 How it works:
 The system operates with two tanks.
 The storage medium for high-
temperature heat storage is molten salt.
 The excess heat of the solar collector
field heats up the molten salt, which is
pumped from the cold to the hot tank.
 If the solar collector field cannot produce
enough heat to drive the turbine, the
molten salt is pumped back from the hot
Schematic of a concentrated solar thermal trough power plant with to the cold tank, and heats up the heat
thermal storage transfer fluid.
REFERENCES & MATERIAL SOURCES
Reference
• Solar Energy Engineering, Processes and Systems, Soteris A. Kologirou, 2009
• Energy Conversion, D. Yogi Goswami and Frank Kreith, 2008
Websites
• http://www.applied-solar.info/solar-energy/solar-thermal-conversion/
• http://www.applied-solar.info/solar-power/photovoltaic-conversion/
• http://www.volker-quaschning.de/articles/fundamentals2/index.php
• http://webservices.itcs.umich.edu/drupal/recd/?q=node/155
• http://energystoragetrends.blogspot.com/2011/09/financing-for-crescent-dunes-solar.html
• http://cleantechnica.com/2012/03/01/what-is-solar-energy-types-solar-energy-technology/
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk%3AHeliostat
Youtubesites
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rO5rUqeCFY4&feature=player_embedded
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ot_k4uWezBw&feature=player_embedded
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RSjefWkZAzI&feature=related
ME165-3
Instructor:
Week-6 Heat Transport, Thermal Storage,
Engr. Manuel B. Rustria
Heating and Cooling Systems
2020-2021 / 2T 14 January 2021
OBJECTIVES
 Define the heat transport system.
 Discuss and enumerate the different kinds of primary coolants.
 Define a thermal storage system.
 Discuss and enumerate the types of thermal storage.
 Discuss the types of solar heating and cooling systems.
 Discuss
cooling by solar energy and by nocturnal radiation and
evaporation.
 Discuss
the different types of sizing solar heating and cooling
systems.
 Define a concentrator.
 Discuss and enumerate the types of distributed solar systems.
HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEM
Heat Transport System

A system where heat is typically transported through
engineered heating or cooling systems by using a flowing
gas or liquid.
 Air is sometimes used, but quickly becomes impractical under
many circumstances because it requires large ducts to transfer
relatively small amounts of heat.
 In systems using refrigerant, this working fluid can also be used to
transport heat a considerable distance, though this can become
impractical because of increased risk of expensive refrigerant
leakage.
 When large amounts of heat are to be transported, water is
typically used, often supplemented with antifreeze, corrosion
inhibitors, and other additives.
Heat transport system includes
the primary side of the steam generators, the primary coolant pumps,
the coolant channels, end fittings, pressuriser, piping and piping
components.
Schematic of a Solar Thermal Central Receiver System

Solar Coolants
 Solarcoolant are heat transfer fluids which transfer the
heat from solar collector.
 Solar coolants are low freeze point fluids and most suitable
for indirect solar heating system where freezing weather
occurs more frequently and drain back system cannot
install.
SOLAR COOLANTS
 Thesolar coolant fluids are circulating through a pump to the
solar collector and back to the heat exchange coil.
 Here,
the heat is transfer to the potable water via the
exchange coil.
 The
solar coolants protect the collector and its piping from
damage due to freezing temperature.
 Solarcoolants do not have a definite freeze point but will turn
thick and viscous as the temperature drops and also not
expand as water does, for this reason, protect the system from
bursting.
SOLAR COOLANTS
 Solar
coolants are completely non-toxic, non-staining, and, if
used as directed, will not harmful to the environment.
 Give the Corrosion protection for all metals, including
aluminum, steel, copper and brass.
 Solarcoolants are high boiling point fluids so they also provide
boil protection.
SOLAR COOLANTS
 Different Kinds of Primary Coolants
 Water
 Ethylene Glycol
 Ethylene Glycol based water solutions are common in heat-transfer applications where
the temperature in the heat transfer fluid can be below 32oF (0oC).
 Propylene Glycol
 Used in lieu of ethylene if there is a slightest chance of leakage to potable water or food
processing systems
 Thermal Oil
 NH3/H2O or Ammonia/Water
 Water/Lithium Bromide
 Water/Lithium Chloride
 Water/Silica Gel or Water/Zeolite
THERMAL STORAGE SYSTEM
 Thermal Storage System

 A system that stores thermal energy in energy storage reservoirs for later use.
 They can be employed to balance energy demand between day time
and night time.
 The thermal reservoir may be maintained at a temperature above
(hotter) or below (colder) that of the ambient environment.
 The applications today include the production of ice, chilled water, or
eutectic solution at night, or hot water which is then used to cool/heat
environments during the day.
 Thermal energy is often accumulated from active solar collector or
more often combined heat and power plants, and transferred to
insulated repositories for use later in various applications, such as space
heating, domestic or process water heating.
Types of Thermal Storage
Air System Thermal Storage
Liquid System Thermal Storage

Air System Thermal Storage

Although some early systems passed solar-heated air
through a bed of rocks as energy storage, this
approach is not recommended because of the
inefficiencies involved, the potential problems with
condensation and mold in the rock bed, and the
effects of that moisture and mold on indoor air
quality.
AIR SYSTEM THERMAL STORAGE
OtherStorage options for air systems include phase

change materilas (PCMs) and water.
▪ A phase-change material (PCM) is a substance with a high heat of
fusion which, melting and solidifying at a certain temperature, is
capable of storing and releasing large amounts of energy. Heat is
absorbed or released when the material changes from solid to
liquid and vice versa; thus, PCMs are classified as latent heat
storage (LHS) units.
▪ Water can also be used as a storage medium for air collectors
through the use of a conventional water-to-air heat exchanger to
transfer heat from the air to the water in the storage tank.
AIR SYSTEM THERMAL STORAGE
Schematic of Air System Thermal Storage

Liquid System Thermal Storage

Liquidsystems store solar heat in tanks of water or in
the masonry mass of a radiant slab system.
In tank type storage systems, heat from the working
fluid transfers to a distribution fluid in a heat
exchanger exterior to or within the tank.
LIQUID SYSTEM THERMAL STORAGE
Tanksare pressurized or unpressurized, depending on

overall system design.
Specialty or custom tanks may be necessary in systems
with very large storage requirements.
 They
are usually stainless steel, fiberglass, or high
temperature plastic.
 Concrete and wood (hot tub) tanks are also options.
LIQUID SYSTEM THERMAL STORAGE
Schematic of Liquid System Thermal Storage

SOLAR HEATING & COOLING SYSTEMS
 Solar heating System

 Active solar heating systems use solar energy to heat a fluid --
either liquid or air -- and then transfer the solar heat directly to
the interior space or to a storage system for later use. If the solar
system cannot provide adequate space heating, an auxiliary or
back-up system provides the additional heat.
 Liquidsystems are more often used when storage is included,
and are well suited for radiant heating systems, boilers with hot
water radiators, and even absorption heat pumps and coolers.
 Both liquid and air systems can supplement forced air systems.
Types of Solar Heating Systems

▪ Liquid Base Active Solar Heating
▪ Solar Air Heating System
TYPES OF SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS
▪ Liquid Base Active Solar Heating

 Solar liquid collectors are most appropriate for central heating. They
are the same as those used in solar domestic water heating systems.
 Flat-plate collectors are the most common, but evacuated tube and
concentrating collectors are also available.
▪ In the collector, a heat transfer or "working" fluid such as water, antifreeze (usually non-
toxic propylene glycol), or other type of liquid absorbs the solar heat.
▪ At the appropriate time, a controller operates a circulating pump to move the fluid
through the collector.
▪ The liquid flows rapidly, so its temperature only increases 10° to 20°F (5.6° to 11°C ) as it
moves through the collector.
▪ Heating a smaller volume of liquid to a higher temperature increases heat loss from the
collector and decreases the efficiency of the system.
▪ The liquid flows to either a storage tank or a heat exchanger for immediate use.
▪ Other system components include piping, pumps, valves, an expansion tank, a heat
exchanger, a storage tank, and controls.
▪ Solar Air Heating Systems

 Solarair heating systems use air as the working fluid for
absorbing and transferring solar energy.
 Solarair collectors can directly heat individual rooms or
can potentially pre-heat the air passing into a heat
recovery ventilator or through the air coil of an air-source
heat pump.
 Aircollectors produce heat earlier and later in the day
than liquid systems, so they may produce more usable
energy over a heating season than a liquid system of the
same size.
 Also,
unlike liquid systems, air systems do not freeze, and
minor leaks in the collector or distribution ducts will not
cause significant problems, although they will degrade
performance.
 However, air is a less efficient heat transfer medium than
liquid, so solar air collectors operate at lower efficiencies
than solar liquid collectors.
Solar Cooling System

 Solar
cooling refers to any cooling system that uses solar
power.
 This
can be done through passive solar, solar thermal
energy conversion and photovoltaic conversion (sunlight
to electricity).
 Solar
air conditioning/cooling will play an increasing role in
zero-energy and energy-plus buildings design.
TYPES OF SOLAR COOLING SYSTEMS
Absorption Cooling
 Uses solar thermal energy to vaporize the refrigerant
 In
absorption cooling, heat drives the system, instead of
electricity.
 There are two basic types of systems.
▪ The single-stage systems, are driven by any warm fluid (not necessarily water)
heated to around 100 oC.
▪ The two-stage systems work at around 120 oC. These can use low temperature
solar energy to "pre-heat" the air.
▪ A high-temperature energy source (e.g. natural gas or oil) is used in the
second cooling stage.
Dessicant Coolers
 Desiccant coolers are the other very popular style of solar
cooling.
 Desiccant coolers remove moisture from air.
 This
does not actually cool the air but reduces the
humidity, making it seem cooler.
 These are often used in combination with other types of
solar coolers such as vapour compression or evaporative,
which really do lower temperature.
Vapor Compression Cooling

 Vapour compression cooling uses solar thermal energy to
operate a Rankin cycle heat engine, whilst the
evaporative cooling method uses a mechanical device
that takes the heat from the outside air and uses this to
evaporate water held in pads inside the cooling unit.
 This
'sucks' heat out of the air and the cooled air is blown
into the home by a fan.
 Cooling by Nocturnal Radiation & Evaporation
 Passive & Solar Assisted Cooling
▪ Passive cooling for buildings is mostly relevant to hot climatic
zones.
▪ The prime intent of passive cooling is to prevent heat (or reduce
heat flux) from entering the building or remove heat once it has
entered.
▪ These concepts use solar energy or other natural cooling sources
(radiative cooling, evaporative cooling, natural ventilation, etc.).
▪ The applicability of these depends to a large extent on the
prevailing climatic conditions. Evaporative cooling is effective in
hot and dry climates only.
 Passive & Solar Assisted Cooling
▪ Passive cooling techniques maximize building envelope
efficiency by minimizing heat gain from the external
environment and by facilitating heat loss to the external
environment.
▪ Some commonly used passive cooling concepts are:
a) evaporative cooling,
b) nocturnal radiation cooling,
c) passive desiccant cooling,
d) earth sheltering/berming,
e) earth- cooling.
Nocturnal and Convective Cooling

 Ventilationto cool the thermal mass of the building during
the night in order to improve comfort during the day is
nocturnal convective cooling.
 Givoni’srule of thumb for nocturnal convective cooling is
that the indoor temperature is less than the outdoor
maximum temperature by nearly half the diurnal range in
outdoor temperature, providing the envelope and
internal gains are modest and thermal capacity is high.
Nocturnal and Convective Cooling

 Nocturnal convective ventilation is applicable if the
maximum ambient temperature is too high for comfort
ventilation and the diurnal range is sufficiently large to
bring the indoor maximum temperature down into the
comfort range.
▪ For example, if the minimum outdoor temperature is 24oC, the
threshold value of the maximum outdoor temperature is 40oC if
the indoor temperature is not to exceed 32oC.
Evaporative Cooling
Evaporative cooling is a process that uses the
effect of evaporation as a natural heat sink.
▪ Sensible heat from the air is absorbed to be used as
latent heat necessary to evaporate water.
▪ The amount of sensible heat absorbed depends on
the amount of water that can be evaporated.
Evaporative cooling can be direct or indirect;

passive or hybrid.
▪ In direct evaporative cooling, the water content
of the cooled air increases because air is in
contact with the evaporated water.
• Since high evaporation rates might increase relative
humidity and create discomfort, direct evaporative
cooling can be applied only in places where relative
humidity is very low.
▪ In indirect evaporative cooling, evaporation occurs inside

a heat exchanger and the water content of the cooled
air remains unchanged.
▪ Where evaporation occurs naturally it is called passive
evaporation.
• A space can be cooled by passive evaporation where there are
surfaces of still or flowing water, such as basins or fountains.
▪ Where evaporation has to be controlled by means of
some mechanical device, the system is called a hybrid
evaporative system.
SOLAR CONCENTRATOR
Solar Concentrator
A solar concentrator is a solar collector that
enhances solar energy by focusing it onto a
smaller area through mirrored surfaces or lenses.
It is essentially just like parabolic satellite dish lined
with mirrors. Regardless of where the sun hits the
disc, it’s reflected into a center focal point,
generating abundant amounts of power
SOLAR CONCENTRATOR
SOLAR CONCENTRATOR
How does solar concentrator work?

A solar concentrator uses lenses, called Fresnel lenses, which
take a large area of sunlight and direct it towards a specific
spot by bending the rays of light and focusing them.
 Somepeople use the same principle when they use a
magnifying lens to focus the Sun's rays on a pile of kindling or
paper to start fires.
A Fresnel lens from the front.

SOLAR CONCENTRATOR
Fresnel
lenses are shaped like a dart board, with
concentric rings of prisms around a lens that's a
magnifying glass.
Allof these features let them focus scattered light
from the Sun into a tight beam.
Solarconcentrators put one of these lenses on top of
every solar cell.
SOLAR CONCENTRATOR
Thismakes much more focused light come to each

solar cell, making the cells vastly more efficient.
Concentrators work best when there is a single
source of light and the concentrator can be pointed
right at it.
Thisis ideal in space, where the Sun is a single light
source.
Reference
Websites
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning
• http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pdfs/csp_water_study.pdf
• http://www.google.com.ph/search?q=thermal+storage+system&hl=en&qscrl=1&rlz=1T4ADRA_enUS458US458&prmd=imvns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=ffqFUOC
HC4XBiQex-ICABA&ved=0CDQQsAQ&biw=1024&bih=451
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_energy_storage#Solar_energy_storage
• http://energy.gov/energysaver/articles/active-solar-heating
• http://www.foemalta.org/home/index.php/solutions/energy-from-the-sun/solar-cooling
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-change_material
• http://www.sustainable-buildings.org/wiki/index.php/Category:Passive_and_solar_assisted_cooling
• http://www.sustainable-buildings.org/wiki/index.php/Nocturnal_Convective_Cooling
• http://www.new-learn.info/packages/clear/thermal/buildings/passive_system/evaporating_cooling.html
Youtubesites
ME165-3
Instructor:
Week-7 Solar Collector Engr. Manuel B. Rustria
2020-2021 / 2T 21 January 2021
OBJECTIVES
Define a concentrating solar collector.

Enumerate the types of concentrating collectors.
Calculate and evaluate collector performance.
Discuss the repowering and hybrid plants.
Discuss and enumerate the different types of hybrid
plants.
SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS
Solar Energy Collectors
 Specialkind of heat exchangers that transform solar
radiation energy to internal energy of the transport
medium.
 Thesolar collector is the major component of any solar
system.
 This is a device that absorbs the incoming solar radiation, converts it into
heat, and transfers the heat to a fluid (usually air, water, or oil) flowing
through the collector. The solar energy collected is carried from the
circulating fluid either directly to the hot water or space conditioning
equipment or to a thermal energy storage tank, from which it can be
drawn for use at night or on cloudy days.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
Two Types of Solar Collector

Non-concentrating or Stationary Collector
 It has the same area for intercepting and absorbing
solar radiation.
Concentrating Collector
 Usually has concave reflecting surfaces to intercept
and focus the sun’s radiation to a smaller receiving
area, thereby increasing the radiation flux.
 Suitable for high-temperature applications.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
Stationary Collectors
These collectors are permanently fixed in
position and do not track the sun. Three
main types of collectors fall into this
category:
1. Flat Plate Collectors (FPCs)
2. Stationary Compound Parabolic Collectors (CPCs)
3. Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETCs)
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 Flat Plate Collectors (FPCs)

 When solar radiation passes through
a transparent cover and impinges Flat Plate Collector
Credit: US Dept of Energy
on the blackened absorber surface
of high absorptivity, a large portion
of this energy is absorbed by the
plate and transferred to the
transport medium in the fluid tubes
to be carried away for storage or
use.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 Flat Plate Collectors (cont’d.)

▪ The underside of the absorber plate and the two sides
are well insulated to reduce conduction losses.
▪ The liquid tubes are connected at both ends by large-
diameter header tubes.
▪ The header (inlet tube) and the riser (flow tubes) collector
is the typical design for flat plate collectors.
▪ The advantages of the FPCs are that they are
inexpensive to manufacture, they collect both beam and
diffuse radiation, and they are permanently fixed in
position so no sun tracking is required.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 Compound Parabolic Collectors (CPCs) A Compound

Parabolic
 They have the capability of Collectors panel
reflecting to the absorber all of the
incident radiation within wide limits.
 CPCs can accept incoming
radiation over a relatively wide
range of angles.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 Compound Parabolic Collectors (cont’d.)
 Byusing multiple internal reflections, any radiation
entering the aperture within the collector acceptance
angle finds its way to the absorber surface located at the
bottom of the collector.
 CPCs can be manufactured either as one unit with one
opening and one receiver or as a panel.
A single CPC unit

SOLAR COLLECTORS
 Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETCs)
 Evacuated tube collectors operate differently than the other
collectors available in the market.
 These collectors consist of a heat pipe inside a vacuum-sealed
glass tube, as shown in the schematic below.
 In
an actual installation many tubes are connected to the same
manifold.
Actual ETC installation

Schematic diagram of an ETC
SOLAR COLLECTORS
How ETCs work

 ETCsuse liquid-vapor phase change materials to transfer
heat at high efficiency.
 These
collectors feature a heat pipe (a highly efficient
thermal conductor) placed inside a vacuum-sealed tube.
 Thepipe which is a sealed copper tube, is then attached to
black copper fin that fills the tube (absorber plate).
 Theheat pipe contains a small amount of fluid (e.g.,
methanol) that undergoes an evaporating-condensing
cycle.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 How ETCs work (cont’d.)

 In this cycle, solar heat evaporates the liquid and the
vapor travels to the heat sink region, where it
condenses and releases its latent heat.
 The condensed fluid returns to the solar collector and
the process is repeated.
 Water or glycol flows through the manifold and picks up
the heat from the tubes.
 The heated liquid circulates through another heat
exchanger and gives off its heat to a process or water
stored in a solar storage tank.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 (Sun-Tracking) Concentrating Collectors

 Temperatures far above those attainable by flat plate
collectors can be reached if a large amount of solar
radiation is concentrated on a relatively small
collection area.
 Thisis done by interposing an optical device between
the source of radiation and the energy-absorbing
surface.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 (Sun-Tracking) Concentrating Collectors (cont’d.)

 Advantages of concentrating collectors over the conventional
flat plate collectors:
1. The working fluid can achieve higher temperatures in a
concentrator system than a flat-plate system of the same
solar energy-collecting surface. This means that a higher
thermodynamic efficiency can be achieved.
2. It is possible with a concentrator system to achieve a
thermodynamic match between temperature level and task.
The task may be to operate thermionic, thermodynamic, or
other high-temperature devices.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 Advantages (cont’d.)
3. The thermal efficiency is greater because of the small
heat loss area relative to the receiver area.
4. Reflecting surfaces require less material and are
structurally simpler than fla-plate collectors. The cost
per unit area of the solar-collecting surface is therefore
less than that of a flat-plate collector.
5. Owing to the relatively small area of receiver per unit of
collected solar energy, selective surface treatment and
vacuum installation to reduce heat losses and improve
the collector efficiency are economically viable.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 Disadvantages of Concentrating Collectors:

1. Concentrator systems collect little diffuse radiation,
depending on concentration ratio.
2. Some form of tracking system is required to enable
the collector to follow the sun.
3. Solar reflecting surfaces may lose their reflectance
with time and may require periodic cleaning and
refurbishing.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
Types of Concentrating Collectors

1. Parabolic Trough Collector
2. Linear Fresnel Reflector
3. Parabolic Dish
4. Central Receiver
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTCs)
 PTCs are high performance collectors
that could deliver high temperatures
with good efficiency.
 Theycan effectively produce heat at
temperatures between 50oC and 400oC.
 PTCs are made by bending a sheet of
reflective material into a parabolic
shape.
A black metal tube, covered with a glass
tube to reduce heat losses is placed
along the focal line of the receiver.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 How PTCs work:
 When the parabola is pointed toward the
sun, parallel rays incident on the reflector
are reflected to the receiver tube
(absorber).
 Theconcentrated radiation reaching the
receiving tubes heat the fluid that circulates
through it, thus transforming the solar
radiation into useful heat.
 Thecollector can be oriented in the east-
west direction, tracking the sun from north
to south, or in north-south direction, tracking
the sun from east to west.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 Fresnel Collectors
Fresnel Lens Collector (FLC)
▪ Made from a plastic material and shaped in the way
shown to focus the solar rays to a point receiver.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR)

 Relies on an array of linear mirror strips that concentrate light
onto a linear receiver.
 The LFR collector can be imagined as a broken-up parabolic
trough reflector, but unlike parabolic troughs, the individual strips
need not be of parabolic shape.
 LFRs are mounted close to the ground, thus minimizing structural
requirements.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 Parabolic Dish Reflectors (PDRs)

 PDR is a point-focus collector that tracks the
sun in two axes, concentrating solar energy
onto a receiver located at the focal point of
the dish.
 The dish structure must fully track the sun to
reflect the beam into the thermal receiver.
 Because the receivers are distributed
throughout a collector field, like parabolic
troughs, parabolic dishes are often called
distributed receiver system.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 Parabolic dishes important advantages:

1. Because they are always pointing at the sun, they are the most
efficient of all collector system.
2. They typically have concentration ratios in the range of 600 to 2000
and thus are highly efficient at thermal-energy absorption and
power conversion systems.
3. They are modular collector and receiver units that can function
either independently or as a part of a larger system of dishes.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
How PDRs work:
The receiver absorbs the radiant solar
energy, converting it into thermal energy in
a circulating fluid.
The thermal energy can then be either
converted into electricity using an engine-
generator coupled directly to the receiver
or transported through pipes to a central
power conversion system
PDRs can achieve temperatures in excess
of 1500oC.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 Helliostat
Field Collectors (HFCs) or Central
Receiver Collectors
 Forextremely high inputs of radiant energy, a
multiplicity of flat mirrors, or heliostats, using altazimuth
mounts can be used to reflect their incident direct solar
radiation onto a common target. Photo of a Heliostat Field Collector
 By using slightly concave mirror segments on the

heliostats, large amount of thermal energy can be
directed into the cavity of a steam generator to
produce steam at high temperature and pressure.
 The concentrated heat energy absorbed by the
receiver is transferred to a circulating fluid that can be
stored and later used to produce power. Schematic of Central Receiver System
SOLAR COLLECTOR
 Advantages of Central Receivers

1. They collect solar energy optically and transfer it
to a single receiver, thus minimizing thermal
transport requirements.
2. They typically achieve concentration ratios of
300 to 1500 and so are highly efficient, both in
collecting energy and in converting it to
electricity.
3. They can conveniently store thermal energy.
4. They are quite large (generally more than 10
MW) and thus benefit from economies of scale. Central Receiver Collector
CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS
Concentration ratio and its theoretical maximum

values:
 The
concentration ratio (C) is defined as the ratio of the
aperture area to the receiver-absorber area, that is
C = Aa / Ar (7.1)
 Forflat-plate collectors with no reflectors, C=1. For
concentrators, C is always greater than 1. Consider a
circular (3-dimentional) concentrator with aperture Aa
and receiver area Ar , located at a distance R from the
center of the sun, as shown in figure 7-1.
r Aa
R qm
Ar
Sun
Concentrator
Figure 7-1. Schematic of the sun and a concentrator
 Thesun is considered a sphere of radius r, therefore, as seen from the

earth, the sun has a half angle, qm which is the acceptance half
angle for maximum concentration. If both the sun and the receiver
are considered to be blackbodies at temperatures Ts and Tr, the
amount of radiation emitted by the sun is given by
Qs = (4pr2)sTs4 (7.2)
A fraction of this radiation is intercepted by the collector, given

by
Fs-r = Aa / 4pR2 (7.3)
 Therefore
the energy radiated from the sun and received by the
concentrator is
Qs-r = Aa [4pr2/4pR2] sTs4 = Aa [r2/R2] sTs4 (7.4)
A blackbody (perfect) receiver radiates energy equal to Ar, Tr4,

and a fraction of this reaches the sun, given by
Qr-s = Ar Fr-s sTr4 (7.5)
 Under this idealized condition, the maximum temperature of the receiver

is equal to that of the sun. According to the 2nd law of thermodynamics,
this is true only when Qr-s = Qs-r. Therefore, from eqs. (7.4) and (7.5),
Aa /Ar = (R2/r2) Fr-s (7.6)
 Since the maximum value of Fr-s is equal to 1, the maximum

concentration ratio for 3-dimensional concentration is [sin(qm)=r/R]:
Cmax = 1/sin2(qm) (7.7)
 A similar analysis for linear concentrator gives

Cmax = 1/sin(qm) (7.8)
 Example Problem No. 1

 From the diameter of the sun and the earth and the mean
distance of sun from earth, estimate the amount of energy
emitted from the sun, the amount of energy received by the earth,
and the solar constant for a sun temperature of 5777oK. If the
distance of Venus from the sun is 0.71 times the mean sun-earth
distance, estimate the solar constant for Venus. (s - Stefan-
Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-K4)
 Solution Problem No. 1
 The amount of energy emitted from the sun, Qs, is
Qs /As = sTs4 = 5.67 x 10-8 x (5777)4 = 63,152,788 W/m2 = 63.15 MW/m2
or Qs = 63.15 x 4pr2 = 63.15 x 4p(1.39 x 109/2)2 = 3.82 x 1020 MW
 From Eq. (7.4), the solar constant can be obtained as
Qs-r /Aa = [r2/R2] sTs4 = (1.39 x 109/2)2/(1.496 x 1011)2 x 63,152,788 = 1363 W/m2
 The mean distance of Venus from the sun is 1.496 x 1011 x 0.71 = 1.062 x 1011
m.
The solar constant of Venus is
Qs-r /Aa = [r2/R2] sTs4 = (1.39 x 109/2)2/1.062 x 1011)2 x 63,152,788
= 2705 W/m2
SOLAR COLLECTOR
 Calculation & Evaluation of Collector Performance

 Solar Collector Performance Equations
REPOWERING PLANTS
 Repowering Plants
 Global climate change urges immediate measures to be taken to limit
greenhouse gas emission coming from the fossil fuel fired power plants.
 Solar thermal energy can be involved in different ways in existing power
generation plants in order to replace heat produced by fossil fuels.
 Particularly baseload solar supported by solar PV and wind.
 Solar field feed water preheating can be an option for steam cycled power plant.
 A field with solar Fresnel collectors can directly heats boiler’s feed water.
 The best results can be obtained when the group of high pressure heaters is replaced
and feed water temperature exceeds its original design value.
 Plant modification utilizing solar energy yields substantial fossil fuel input reduction.
REPOWERING PLANTS
 Repowering Plants (cont’d.)
 The solar power generation share can reach a substantial
percentage of the power plant capacity, having efficiency higher
than 39% for the best solar hour of the year.
 Repowering (energy gains and/or working power gains) of existing
plants is an environmentally sustainable alternative in opposition to
constructing new plants.
 Repowering a power plant and its equipment refers to projects
seeking to generate extra potency and production gains.
 Intheoretical terms, repowering aims to increase the quantity of
energy (QE) produced:
 QE = Installed Capacity X Capacity Factor X 8760 hours
HYBRID POWER SYSTEMS
 Hybrid Power Systems
 Hybrid systems, like the name
implies, combine two or more
modes of electricity generation
together, usually using renewable
technologies such as solar
photovoltaic (PV) and wind
turbines.
 Hybrid systems provide a high level
of energy security through the mix
of generation methods, and often
will incorporate a storage system
(battery, fuel cell) or small fossil
fueled generator to ensure
maximum supply reliability and A hybrid system combines PV with other forms
security. of generation, usually a diesel engine.
 There
are three basic elements to the system – the power
source, the battery, and the power management center.
1. The power sources are a wind turbine, diesel engine
generator, and solar arrays.
2. The battery allows autonomous operation by compensating
for the difference between power production and use.
3. The power management center regulates power production
from each of the sources, controls power use by classifying
loads, and protects the battery from service extremes.
 Hybrid systems have the following advantages:
 The systems are complementary. During the summer months when
there's not much wind there should be ample sunlight and during the
dark winter months it is usually quite windy.
 Two different energy sources provide a diversity of supply, reducing
the risk of power outages.
 High cost ancillary equipment such as the battery and the inverter
required for a single system must be specified to carry the full system
load. A second system can thus be added without increasing its
capacity or adding cost for more of these components.
 Because of the supply diversity, the capacity of the battery can most
likely be reduced.
 The required generating capacity of the basic solar and wind energy
conversion units can be reduced since the total load is shared.
Types of Hybrid Power Systems

 Wind-solar hybrid
 Consisting of wind turbines and solar PV cells
 Solar-diesel hybrid
 Consisting of solar PV cells and diesel generators
 Wind-hydro hybrid
 Consisting of wind turbines and pumped storage water
 Wind-diesel hybrid
 Consisting of wind turbines and diesel generators
 Wind-compressed air hybrid
 Consisting of wind turbines and stored compressed air
 Wind-solar-natural gas hybrid
 Consisting of wind turbines, solar PV celss and natural gas
Wind-Solar Hybrid System

 Duringperiod of bright sun light (peak summer & winter)
solar energy charges the battery and creates enough
reserve for darkness.
 Duringmonsoons etc., micro - wind generators produce
most of the energy since wind speed is high.
 Hybrid controllers combine both powers to charge the
batteries or provide power to inverter. Inverter modulates
this to quality power.
WIND-SOLAR HYBRID SYSTEM
Solar-Diesel Hybrid System

 Storagebatteries are used to store energy harnessed
through the PV panels during sunny days.
 During wet season, whereby PV panels could not
'collect' sufficient energy to meet night time energy
requirement, the diesel power generator would kick in
and take over the job.
SOLAR-DIESEL HYBRID SYSTEM
Wind-Hydro Hybrid System

A wind-hydro system generates electric energy
combining wind turbines and pumped storage.
 Wind-hydro stations dedicate all, or a significant
portion, of their wind power resources to pumping
water into pumped storage reservoirs.
 These reservoirs are an implementation of grid energy
storage.
WIND-HYDRO HYBRID SYSTEM
 Wind-Diesel Hybrid System

A wind-diesel hybrid power system combines diesel generators
and wind turbines, usually alongside ancillary equipment such as
energy storage, power converters, and various control
components, to generate electricity.
 Theyare designed to increase capacity and reduce the cost
and environmental impact of electrical generation in remote
communities and facilities that are not linked to a power grid.
 Wind-diesel hybrid systems reduce reliance on diesel fuel, which
creates pollution and is costly to transport.
WIND-DIESEL HYBRID SYSTEM
Wind Diesel system on Ramea in Canada

 Wind-Compressed Air Hybrid System
 At power stations that use compressed air energy storage (CAES), electrical
energy is used to compress air and store it in underground facilities such as
caverns or abandoned mines.
 During later periods of high electrical demand, the air is released to power
turbines, generally using supplemental natural gas.
 Power stations that make significant use of CAES are operational in McIntosh,
Alabama, Germany, and Japan.
 System disadvantages include some energy losses in the CAES process; also, the
need for supplemental use of fossil fuels such as natural gas means that these
systems do not completely make use of renewable energy.
 The Iowa Stored Energy Park, projected to begin commercial operation in 2015,
will use wind farms in Iowa as an energy source in conjunction with CAES.
HYBRID PLANTS
Standalone power plant primarily powered by solar energy with option of natural gas
backup
HYBRID PLANTS
Martin Next Generation Solar Energy Center near Indiantown, Florida. Hybrid solar
power facility connect to an existing combined-cycle natural gas power plant.
HYBRID PLANTS
Wind-Hydrogen Hybrid
Plant
HYBRID PLANTS
570-megawatt hybrid power plant in Los

Angeles
HYBRID PLANTS
This solar flower (tower) is the first of its kind to combine concentrated solar power with a
hybrid-microturbine as well as biodiesel, natural gas or biogas, to ensure production of power
24 hours a day particularly when the sun goes down without the need of a grid. Israel
.
HYBRID PLANTS
 Remote Area Power Systems (RAPS)
Reference
Websites
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_hybrid_power_systems
• http://www.google.com.ph/search?q=parabolic+dish+reflectors&hl=en&qscrl=1&rlz=1T4ADRA_enUS458US458&prmd=imv
ns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=9WCNUOrWPO-hmQWB24B4&sqi=2&ved=0CEAQsAQ&biw=1024&bih=451
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnel_lens
• http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038092X10003579
• http://www.researchgate.net/publication/49612826_Proposed_Partial_Repowering_of_a_Coal-
Fired_Power_Plant_Using_Low-Grade_Solar_Thermal_Energy
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand-alone_power_system
• http://www.mpoweruk.com/hybrid_power.htm
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_power
• http://exploringgreentechnology.com/solar-energy/hybrid-energy-systems/
Youtube Videos
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bSLz6kgSbXs&feature=related
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zqFhVm9OYEE
ME165-3
Instructor:
Week-8 Solar Pond, Solar Cell & Semiconductor Engr. Manuel B. Rustria
2020-2021 / 2T 28 January 2021
OBJECTIVES
 Define a solar pond.
 Discuss and describe the schematic diagram of solar pond
power plant.
 Discuss the advantages of using solar pond.
 Define a solar cell.
 Discuss and describe schematic of solar cell.
 Discuss and enumerate the different methods of increasing
the cell efficiency.
 Define semiconductors.
 Discuss and enumerate the different types of semi-
conductors.
SOLAR PONDS
Solar Ponds
A solar pond is a pool of saltwater which acts as a
large-scale solar thermal energy collector with integral
heat storage for supplying thermal energy.
A solar pond can be used for various applications, such
as process heating, desalination, refrigeration, drying
and solar power generation.
SOLAR PONDS
Schematic of a Solar Pond

SOLAR PONDS
How solar pond works:

Solarponds can be naturally occurring; however,
most ponds are man-made.
Once the pond is dug, the pond must be lined
with an impermeable lining, preferable one that is
insulating.
Then the pond is filled with salty water.
Once the sun hits the pond the water warms and
divides into three layers.
SOLAR PONDS
 The top layer, known as the surface zone, is composed of

primarily freshwater due to the fact that salt typically settles
at the bottom of water.
 The middle layer is know as the insulation zone. The
insulation zone has a higher salt concentration than the
surface zone.
 Crucialto a solar pond is the bottom layer known as the
storage zone. The storage zone is where all the hot water is
held and this is what is converted into electricity. The hot salt
water produced is similar in chemical characteristics to a
brine.
SOLAR PONDS
 In
a typical freshwater pond, when the sun penetrates the
water the layers that are heated up rise to the top of the
pond and release the heat into the atmosphere.
 This is how a pond maintains a constant temperate.
The oxygen in warm water is greater than cold water.
 This causes warm water to rise to the top of the water
body and this heat is then released.
 However, in a solar pond this process does not happen.
Instead the water that is warmed is unable to rise to the top
due to the salt concentration.
SOLAR PONDS
 Therefore,
the warm water stays at the bottom of a pond
and gets hotter and hotter with the more sunlight it
receives.
 The bottom layer of a solar pond can reach 178 oF.
 What allows a solar pond to be used as an energy source is
that a pipe is placed at the bottom of the pond and draws
the warm/ hot water out of the pond by a pump and is
circulated through a piping system that utilizes the heat. It is
similar to how radiant heat, or solar hot water heaters use
the warm water.
SOLAR PONDS
 Once the water has run through the pipe it is deposited back
into the pond in the storage zone so this water can be heated
again.
 This
system is a close system so is quite efficient in terms of
water retention. Typically this is how a solar pond is used for
heating purposes.
 Solar
ponds can be used in all climates as Long as there is
plenty of sun. Even when a pond is frozen over, a salient
gradient solar pond still produces hot water.
 Therefore, they can be used all over the United States and
the world.
SOLAR PONDS
aerial picture of a solar pond

SOLAR PONDS
 Advantages of using solar ponds:

 It produces heat or electricity with little to no carbon emissions.
▪ The emission depends on the type of pump used to push water
through a turbine or piping.
 It is unique in its capability in acting both as collector and storage.
 The cost of solar pond per unit area is less than any active
collectors available today.
 When used for desalinization, no energy is required to produce
potable water, instead the clean water is a result of the separation
of water according to salt concentration.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SqWjhkXVRzM
SOLAR CELLS
Solar Cell
A solar cell (also called a photovoltaic cell) is an electrical
device that converts the energy of light directly into
electricity by the photovoltaic effect.
 It is a form of photoelectric cell (in that its electrical
characteristics-- e.g. current, voltage, or resistance-- vary
when light is incident upon it) which, when exposed to
light, can generate and support an electric current
without being attached to any external voltage source.
SOLAR CELLS
SOLAR CELLS
 How a solar cell works:

The solar cell works in three steps:
1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by
semiconducting materials, such as silicon.
2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms,
causing an electric potential difference.
▪ Current starts flowing through the material to cancel the
potential and this electricity is captured.
▪ Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are
only allowed to move in a single direction.
3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of
direct current (DC) electricity.
SOLAR CELLS
 How do photovoltaic cells work?
SOLAR CELLS
 How photovoltaic cells are made?
 Theprincipal components of a photovoltaic cell are semiconductors
made of silicon crystals that have been doped with other elements
such as Phosphorus or Boron.
 Thebottom layer is doped with Boron and is termed as the p-type
semiconductor while the upper layer is doped with Phosphorus and is
termed as the n-type conductor and the space between them is
called the P-N junction.
 Once the suns light enters the PV cells, its energy is transferred to
electrons that are then knocked loose in both semiconductors and
they are attracted to the p-type semiconductor however, the
electric field at the junction makes this difficult.
SOLAR CELLS
 When you connect to an external circuit you create a path for

the flow of electrons which is actually the current necessary for
electricity.
 The current generated here is Direct and needs to be
converted to usable form and this conversion is done by use of
a device referred to as an inverter although this leads to some
loss of energy.
SOLAR CELLS
 Methods of increasing the cell efficiency

 The efficiency of a solar cell may be broken down into reflectance
efficiency, thermodynamic efficiency, charge carrier separation
efficiency and conductive efficiency.
 The overall efficiency is the product of each of these individual
efficiencies.
 Due to the difficulty in measuring these parameters directly, other
parameters are measured instead: thermodynamic efficiency,
quantum efficiency, integrated quantum efficiency, VOC ratio, and
fill factor.
SOLAR CELLS
 Methods of increasing the cell efficiency (cont’d.)

 Reflectance losses are a portion of the quantum
efficiency under "external quantum efficiency".
 Recombination losses make up a portion of the
quantum efficiency, VOC ratio, and fill factor.
 Resistive
losses are predominantly categorized under fill
factor, but also make up minor portions of the quantum
efficiency, VOC ratio.
SOLAR CELLS
 The fill factor is defined as the ratio of the actual maximum
obtainable power to the product of the open circuit voltage and
short circuit current.
 This is a key parameter in evaluating the performance of solar
cells.
 Typical commercial solar cells have a fill factor > 0.70. Grade B
cells have a fill factor usually between 0.4 to 0.7.
 Cells with a high fill factor have a low equivalent series
resistance and a high equivalent shunt resistance, so less of the
current produced by the cell is dissipated in internal losses.
SOLAR CELLS

 Single
p-n junction crystalline silicon devices are now
approaching the theoretical limiting power efficiency of
33.7%, noted as the Shockley–Queisser limit in 1961.
 In
the extreme, with an infinite number of layers, the
corresponding limit is 86% using concentrated sunlight.
SOLAR CELL SYSTEM
 PV System Related Equipment

 Photovoltaic modules can be mounted on the ground or a building
roof or can be included as part of the building structure, usually
façade. Related equipment includes batteries, charge controllers,
inverters, and peak-power trackers.
 Batteries. They are required in many PV systems to supply power at
night or when the PV system cannot meet the demand. Main types
of batteries currently available in the market:
▪ Lead-acid
▪ Nickel-Cadmium
▪ Nickel-Hydride
▪ Lithium
SOLAR CELL SYSTEM
 PV System Related Equipment (cont’d.)

 Inverters.Used to convert the direct current into alternating
current electricity. The output of the inverter can be single or
three phase.
 Charge Controllers. Regulate the power from PV modules to
prevent the batteries from overcharging. The controller can be
a shunt type or series type and also function as a low-battery
voltage disconnect to prevent the battery from over-discharge.
SOLAR CELL SYSTEM
 PV System Related Equipment (cont’d.)
 Peak-Power Trackers. PV cells have a single operating point
where the values of the current (I) and the voltage (V) of the cell
result in maximum power output. These values correspond to a
particular resistance, which is equal to V/I, as specified by Ohm’s
law. A PV cell has an exponential relationship between current &
voltage, and there is only one optimum operating power point
also called a maximum power point (MPP). MPP changes
according to the radiation intesity and the cell temperature.
Maximum power point trackers (MPPTs) search for this point, thus,
allow the converter circuit to extract the maximum power
available from a cell.
SOLAR CELL SYSTEM - APPLICATIONS
PV Array Load
 Direct Coupled PV System

 The PV array is connected directly to the load.
 Therefore, the load can operate only when there is
solar radiation, so such a system has very limited
applications.
▪ A typical application of this type of system is for water pumping, i.e., the
system operates as long as sunshine is available, and instead of storing
electrical energy, water is usually stored.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zhdl-ta-OCA
 Direct Coupled PV System

 Stand-Alone PV System
 Usedin areas that are not easily accessible or have no
access to an electric grid.
 Itis independent of the electricity grid, with the energy
produced normally being stored in batteries.
 Stand-Alone PV System
 Thesystem would consist of a PV module or modules,
batteries, and a charge controller. An inverter may also
be included in the system to convert the direct current
generated by the PV modules to the alternating current
form required by normal appliances.
 Thesystem can satisfy both DC and AC loads
simultaneously.
 Grid-Connected System
 During the day, the electricity generated by the PV system can
either be used immediately or be sold to one of the electricity
supply companies.
 Inthe evening, when the solar system is unable to provide the
electricity required, power can be bought back from the network.
 In
effect, the grid is acting as an energy storage system, which
means the PV system does not need battery storage.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q0B9t8dPGe0
 Hybrid-Connected System. More than one type of electricity

generator is employed.
 The2nd type of electricity generator can be renewable,
such as a wind turbine, or conventional, such as a diesel
engine generator or the utility grid.
 Hybrid-Connected System (cont’d.)

 Thediesel engine generator can also be a renewable
source of electricity when the diesel engine is fed with
biofuels.
 Inthis system, both DC and AC loads can be satisfied
simultaneously.
SOLAR CELL SYSTEMS – TYPES OF APPLICATION
Remote Site Electrification

 Photovoltaic systems can provide long-term power at
sites far from utility grids.
 The
loads include lighting, small appliances, water
pumps, and communication equipment.
 Theload demand can vary from few watts to tens of
kilowatts.
 PVsystems are preferred to fuel generators, since they
do not depend on a fuel supply, and they do avoid
maintenance and environmental pollution problems.
Communications
 Photovoltaicscan provide reliable power for communication
systems, especially in remote locations, away from the utility
grid.
 Examples include communication relay towers, travelers’
information transmitters, cell phone transmitters, radio relay
stations, emergency call units, and military communications
facilities.
 These systems are stand-alone units in which PV-charged
batteries provide a stable DC voltage that meets the varying
current demand.
 Remote Monitoring
 Because of their simplicity, reliability, and capacity for
unattended operation, photovoltaics are preferred in
providing power at remote sites to sensors, data
loggers, and associated meteorological monitoring
transmitters, irrigation control, and monitoring highway
traffic.
 The
batteries required are often located in the same
weather-resistant enclosure as the data acquisition or
monitoring equipment.
 Water Pumping
 Stand-alone photovoltaic systems can meet the need for
small to intermediate-size water-pumping applications.
 These include irrigation, domestic use, village water supply,
and livestock watering.
 Advantages of using water pumps powered by
photovoltaic systems include low maintenance, ease of
installation, and reliability.
 Most
pumping system do not use batteries but store the
pumped water in holding tanks.
 Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV)

 BIPV is a special application in which PVs are installed either in the
façade or roof of a building and are integral part of the building
structure, replacing in each case the particular building
component.
 To avoid an increase in the thermal load of the building, a gap is
created between the PV and the building element, which is behind
the PV. In this gap, ambient air is circulated so as to remove the
produced heat.
A common example where these systems are installed is what is
called zero-energy houses, where the building is an energy-
producing unit that satisfies all its own energy needs.
 Charging Vehicle Batteries

 Photovoltaicchargers keep the battery at a high state of charge
by providing a trickle charging current.
 Themodule can be installed on the roof of a building or car park or
on the vehicle itself.
 Another
important application in the this area is the use of PV
modules to charge the batteries of electric vehicles.
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Semiconductor
 Sometimes referred to as computer chips or integrated
circuits (ICs), contain numerous electrical pathways
which are capable of connecting up to a billion
transistors and other electronic components.
 These transistors store information on the
semiconductors, either by holding an electrical charge
or by holding little or no charge.
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
 Semiconductors are available as either elements or compounds.

 Silicon
and Germanium are the most common elemental
semiconductors.
 Compound Semiconductors include InSb, InAs, GaP, GaSb, GaAs,
SiC, GaN. Si and Ge both have a crystalline structure called the
diamond lattice. That is, each atom has its four nearest neighbors
at the corners of a regular tetrahedron with the atom itself being at
the center.
 The advantage of compound semiconductor is that they provide the device
engineer with a wide range of energy gaps and mobilities, so that materials are
available with properties that meet specific requirements.
 Some of these semiconductors are therefore called wide band gap semiconductors.
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Types
 Intrinsic
 An intrinsic semiconductor material is chemically very

pure and possesses poor conductivity.
 It
has equal numbers of negative carriers (electrons)
and positive carriers (holes).
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
 Extrinsic
 An extrinsic semiconductor is an improved intrinsic
semiconductor with a small amount of impurities added by a
process, known as doping, which alters the electrical
properties of the semiconductor and improves its
conductivity.
 Introducingimpurities into the semiconductor materials
(doping process) can control their conductivity.
 Doping process produces two groups of semiconductors:
the negative charge conductor (n-type) and
the positive charge conductor (p-type).
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Flowchart – Semi-Conductor Basic Manufacturing Process

Reference
Websites
• http://climatelab.org/Solar_Ponds
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell
• http://ecovized.com/2011/07/13/what-are-solar-panels/
• http://www.about-solarenergy.com/how-does-solar-energy-work/
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication
Youtube Videos
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x2zjdtxrisc
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=shHjh9QUB9g

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ME165-3

SOLAR AND WIND UTILIZATION

Solar Thermal Conversion

Solar thermal conversion systems use mirrors or

 Solar heating is another form of solar thermal conversion.

Aphotovoltaic cell comprises

 Sunlight striking the photovoltaic

 Theelectrons (-) tend to collect in the N-type semiconductor,

Hybrid Solar Energy

Thin Film Photovoltaic Panels

Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) Panels

Solar Thermal Panels

Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)

 How the system works:

Central Receiver System (CRS) Subsytems:

Heliostats Controlled by Light-Sensors

Causes of Energy losses between the incident energy

Poor beam quality of the mirror

SHADOWING & BLOCKING

 Receiver and Power System Control System (RPSCS)

 Different Types of Basic Receivers

Schematic of solar thermal tower power plant, showing an

 Pressurize Air Receiver

Schematic of solar thermal tower power plant, showing a pressurized

DesignConsideration in Improving the Efficiency of a

 Parabolic Trough Power Plants

Heat Transport System

Schematic of a Solar Thermal Central Receiver System

 Thermal Storage System

Types of Thermal Storage

Air System Thermal Storage

Liquid System Thermal Storage

Air System Thermal Storage

OtherStorage options for air systems include phase

Schematic of Air System Thermal Storage

Liquid System Thermal Storage

Tanksare pressurized or unpressurized, depending on

Schematic of Liquid System Thermal Storage

 Solar heating System

Types of Solar Heating Systems

▪ Liquid Base Active Solar Heating

▪ Solar Air Heating Systems

Solar Cooling System

Vapor Compression Cooling

Nocturnal and Convective Cooling

Nocturnal and Convective Cooling

Evaporative cooling can be direct or indirect;

▪ In indirect evaporative cooling, evaporation occurs inside

How does solar concentrator work?

A Fresnel lens from the front.

Thismakes much more focused light come to each

Define a concentrating solar collector.

Two Types of Solar Collector

 Flat Plate Collectors (FPCs)

 Flat Plate Collectors (cont’d.)

 Compound Parabolic Collectors (CPCs) A Compound

A single CPC unit

Actual ETC installation

How ETCs work