Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (AAiT), 2020

1 Pavement Materials – CENG 6305

Subgrade
Soils
 SUBGRADE SOILS
2

Purpose of pavement is to provide a smooth surface over which

vehicles may pass under all climatic conditions

Although a pavement's wearing course is most prominent, the
success or failure of a pavement is more often than not
dependent upon the underlying subgrade (see Figures below) -
the material upon which the pavement structure is built.

Subgrade Preparation Subgrade Failure Crack

 SUBGRADE PERFORMANCE
3

A subgrade’s performance depends on the following

interrelated basic characteristics:
1. Load bearing capacity:

The subgrade must be able to support loads
transmitted from the pavement structure.

It is often affected by degree of compaction,
moisture content, and soil type.

A good subgrade can support a high amount of
loading without excessive deformation.
 SUBGRADE PERFORMANCE
4

2. Moisture content:

Moisture tends to affect subgrade properties
including load bearing capacity, shrinkage and
swelling.

It can be influenced by a number of things such as
drainage, groundwater table elevation, infiltration,
or pavement porosity (which can be assisted by
cracks in the pavement).

Generally, excessively wet subgrades will deform
excessively under load.
 SUBGRADE PERFORMANCE
5

3. Shrinkage and/or swelling:

Some soils shrink or swell depending upon their
moisture content.

Additionally, soils with excessive fines content may
be susceptible to frost heave in northern climates.

Shrinkage, swelling and frost heave will tend to
deform and crack any pavement type constructed
over them.
 SUBGRADE PERFORMANCE
6

Soil vary considerably; Due to the interrelationship and

complexity of soil texture, density, moisture content, and
strength, its behavior under repeated loads is difficult
to evaluate.

In sum, subgrade characteristics such as load bearing
capacity, moisture content and expansiveness will
influence not only structural design but also long-term
performance and cost.
 Strength-Density-Moisture Relationship
7

Compaction of subgrades increases density with a consequent

lower potential of moisture content – both of these factors
result in an increase in strength.

The strength values that are used for design should be based
on the results of a thorough study of the moisture-density-
strength relationships attainable after construction and during
the life time of the pavement.

Compaction requirements for heavily loaded pavements
(airfields) is more stringent than those for highways.

Normally, it is specified that the subgrade be compacted to
100% of the dry density achieved in the laboratory up to a
depth of 30cm.
 Strength-Density-Moisture Relationship
8
 Strength-Density-Moisture Relationship
9

Subgrade materials are typically characterized by their

resistance to deformation under load, which can be either:

a measure of their strength (the stress needed to break
or rupture a material) or

stiffness (the relationship between stress and strain in the
elastic range or how well a material is able to return to
its original shape and size after being stressed).

In general, the more resistant to deformation a subgrade is,
the more load it can support before reaching a critical
deformation value.
 Strength-Density-Moisture Relationship
10

Three basic subgrade stiffness/strength characterizations

are commonly used:

California Bearing Ratio (CBR),

Resistance Value (R-value) and

Elastic (resilient) modulus.

Although there are other factors involved when evaluating
subgrade materials (such as swell in the case of certain
clays), stiffness is the most common characterized using
CBR and resilient modulus
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
11

The CBR test is a simple strength test that compares the

bearing capacity of a material with that of a well-graded
crushed stone (thus, a high quality crushed stone material
should have a CBR @ 100%).

It is primarily intended for, but not limited to, evaluating the
strength of cohesive materials having maximum particle sizes
less than 19 mm (0.75 in.) (AASHTO, 2000).

It was developed by the California Division of Highways
around 1930 and was subsequently adopted by numerous
states, counties, U.S. federal agencies and internationally.
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
12

The basic CBR test involves applying

load to a small penetration piston at
a rate of 1.3 mm (0.05") per minute
and recording the total load at
penetrations ranging from 0.64 mm
(0.025 in.) up to 7.62 mm (0.300 in.).

CBR Sample
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
13

Values obtained are inserted into the following equation to obtain

a CBR value:
x
CBR (%) = 100  
 y
where:
x = material resistance or the unit load on the piston (pressure)
for 2.54 mm (0.1") or 5.08 mm (0.2") of penetration
y = standard unit load (pressure) for well graded crushed stone
= for 2.54 mm (0.1") penetration = 6.9 MPa (1000 psi)
= for 5.08 mm (0.2") penetration = 10.3 MPa (1500 psi)
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
14

General Soil Type USC Soil Type CBR Range

GW 40 - 80
GP 30 - 60
Typical CBR GM 20 - 60
Ranges Coarse-grained GC 20 - 40
soils SW 20 - 40
SP 10 - 40
SM 10 - 40
SC 5 - 20
ML 15 or less
CL LL < 50% 15 or less
OL 5 or less
Fine-grained soils
MH 10 or less
CH LL > 50% 15 or less
OH 5 or less
 Load-Penetration Curves for Typical Soils

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Influence of
Moisture Content
and Soil Type on
CBR Values.
 Resilient Modulus
17

The Resilient Modulus (MR) is a subgrade material stiffness

test. A material's resilient modulus is actually an estimate
of its modulus of elasticity (E).

While the modulus of elasticity is stress divided by strain
(e.g., the slope of the stress-strain plot within the linear
elastic range) for a slowly applied load, resilient modulus
is stress divided by strain for rapidly applied loads – like
those experienced by pavements.

Although they measure the same stress-strain relationship,
the load application rates are different, thus resilient
modulus is considered an estimate of elastic modulus.
 Elastic Modulus
18

Elastic modulus is sometimes called Young's modulus after

Thomas Young who published the concept back in 1807.

An elastic modulus (E) can be determined for any solid
material and represents a constant ratio of stress and strain
(a stiffness):
stress
E=
strain

A material is elastic if it is able to return to its original shape
or size immediately after being stretched or squeezed.

Almost all materials are elastic to some degree as long as the
applied load does not cause it to deform permanently.
 Elastic Modulus
19

The modulus of elasticity for a material is basically the slope

of its stress-strain plot within the elastic range.

If the material is loaded to any value of stress in this part of
the curve, it will return to its original shape. Thus, the modulus
of elasticity is the slope of this part of the curve and is equal
to about 207,000 Mpa for steel.

A measure of a material's modulus of elasticity is not a
measure of strength.

Strength is the stress needed to break or rupture a material
(as illustrated in next slide), whereas elasticity is a measure of
how well a material returns to its original shape and size.
 Elastic Modulus
20

Stress-Strain Plot Showing the Elastic Range

 Elastic Modulus
21

Stress-Strain Plot for Steel

 Modulus of Elasticity
22

Typical values of modulus of elasticity for various materials

Elastic Modulus
Material
MPa psi
Diamond 1,200,000 170,000,000
Steel 200,000 30,000,000
Aluminum 70,000 10,000,000
Wood 7,000-14,000 1,000,000-2,000,000
Crushed Stone 150-300 20,000-40,000
Silty Soils 35-150 5,000-20,000
Clay Soils 35-100 5,000-15,000
Rubber 7 1,000
 Stress Distribution in Pavement Layers
Beneath a Moving Wheel Load.
23
 Resilient Modulus Tests
24

There are two fundamental approaches to estimating

elastic moduli:
 Laboratory tests and
 Field deflection data/backcalculation.

Of the laboratory tests, the two common methods are:
 Diametral resilient modulus: typically used on HMA
 Triaxial resilient modulus: typically used on unbound
materials such as soil and aggregate.
 Triaxial Resilient Modulus Test
25

In triaxial resilient modulus test, a repeated axial cyclic

stress of fixed magnitude, load duration and cyclic
duration is applied to a cylindrical test specimen.

While the specimen is subjected to this dynamic cyclic
stress, it is also subjected to a static confining stress
provided by a triaxial pressure chamber.

The total resilient (recoverable) axial deformation
response of the specimen is measured (see Figure)
 Triaxial Resilient Modulus Test
26

Triaxial Resilient Modulus Test Illustration

 Triaxial Resilient Modulus Test
27

The resilient modulus is calculated using the following

equation:
σd
MR (or ER ) =
εr
where: MR = resilient modulus (or elastic modulus since resilient
(or ER) modulus is just an estimate of elastic modulus)
σd = stress (applied load / sample cross sectional area)
εr = recoverable axial strain = ∆ L/L
L = gauge length over which the sample deformation is
measured
∆ L = change in sample length due to applied load
 Triaxial Resilient Modulus Test
28

Basic outline of the triaxial test

procedure:
 The specimen is a cylindrical sample
normally 100 mm (4 in.) in diameter by
200 mm (8 in.) high. The sample is
generally compacted in the laboratory;
however, undisturbed samples are best
if available (which is rare).
 The specimen is enclosed vertically by
a thin "rubber" membrane and on both
ends by rigid surfaces as shown in the
Figure.
 Triaxial Resilient Modulus Test
29

Triaxial test procedure (cont’d.):

 The sample is placed in a
pressure chamber and a
confining pressure is applied (σ3)
as sketched.
 The deviator stress is the axial
stress applied by the testing
apparatus (σ1) minus the
confining stress (σ3).
 In other words, the deviator stress
is the repeated stress applied to
the sample as illustrated.
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 Triaxial Resilient Modulus Test
30

Triaxial test procedure

(cont’d.):
 The resulting strains are
calculated over a gauge length,
which is designated by "L".
 Basically, the initial condition of
the sample is unloaded (no
induced stress).
 When the deviator stress is
applied, the sample deforms,
changing in length. This change
in sample length is directly
proportional to the stiffness.
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 Stress Sensitivity of Moduli
31

Changes in stress can have a large impact on resilient modulus.

Stress softening behavior of

fine grained soils!!!

Resilient Modulus vs. Deviator Stress for Unstabilized Fine Grained Materials
 Stress Sensitivity of Moduli
32

Resilient Modulus vs. Bulk Stress for Unstabilized Coarse Grained Materials
 Stress Sensitivity of Moduli
33

Resilient Modulus
Relation for a Sandy
Gravel
(AASHTO A-l-b (0) )
 Resilient Modulus
Granular Materials and Fine-grained Soils
34

The resilient modulus for granular materials can be expressed as:

E = K1θ K 2
where, K1 & and K2 are constants, θ is stress invariant, which can
be either the sum of three normal stress, σx, σy, and σz or σ1, σ2,
and σ3

The resilient modulus of fine grained soil can be expressed as:
E = K1 + k3 ( K 2 − σ d ) when σd < K 2

E = K1 − k 4 (σ d − K 2) when σd > K 2

where, K1,K2, K3, and K4, are material constants

In laboratory triaxial tests, σd,= σ1- σ3 34
 Elastic Moduli: Backcalculation
35

"Backcalculation" is a mechanistic evaluation of pavement

surface deflection basins generated by various pavement
deflection devices.

Backcalculation takes a measured surface deflection and
attempts to match it with a calculated surface deflection
generated from an identical pavement structure using assumed
layer stiffnesses (moduli).

The assumed layer moduli in the calculated model are adjusted
until they produce a surface deflection that closely matches the
measured one. The combination of assumed layer stiffnesses that
results in this match is then assumed to be near the actual in situ
moduli for the various pavement layers.

The backcalculation process is usually iterative and normally
done with computer software.
 Strength/Stiffness Correlations
36

A widely used empirical relationship developed by

Heukelom and Klomp (1962) and used in the 1993
AASHTO Guide is:
MR = (1500) (CBR)
 This equation is restricted to fine grained materials
with soaked CBR values of 10 or less. Like all such
correlations, it should be used with caution.

The new AASHTO Design Guide uses the following
relationship:
MR = 2555 x CBR0.64

Powell et. Al. (1984)
E=17.6 x CBR0.64 MPa
 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (k)
37

The modulus of subgrade reaction (k) is used as a primary input

for rigid pavement design. It estimates the support of the layers
below a rigid pavement surface course (the PCC slab).

The k-value can be determined by field tests or by correlation with
other tests (No direct laboratory procedure).

The modulus of subgrade reaction came about because work done
by Westergaard during the 1920s developed the k-value as a
spring constant to model the support beneath the slab (as below).

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 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (k)
38

The reactive pressure to resist a load is thus proportional to the spring

deflection (which is a representation of slab deflection) and k (see below)
P = k∆
where: P = reactive pressure to support deflected slab
K = spring constant = modulus of subgrade reaction
∆ = slab deflection

The value of k is in terms of MPa/m and ranges from about 13.5 MPa/m
for weak support, to over 270 MPa/m for strong support.

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 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (k)
39

The plate load test presses a steel bearing plate into the surface to be
measured with a hydraulic jack. The resulting surface deflection is read
from dial micrometers near the plate edge and the modulus of subgrade
reaction is determined:
k = spring constant = modulus of subgrade reaction
P = applied pressure (load divided by the area of the
762 mm diameter plate)
∆ = measured deflection of the 762 mm diameter plate

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 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (k)
40

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 Design Subgrade Strength
41

The strength of subgrade soils is dependent on:

 the type of soil,
 density, and
 moisture content.

The design CBR of the subgrade soil, therefore,
should be evaluated at the moisture content and
density representative to the subgrade condition
during the service time of the pavement structure.
 Design Subgrade Strength
42

A road section for which a pavement design is undertaken

should be subdivided into subgrade areas where the
subgrade CBR can be reasonably expected to be uniform,
i.e. without significant variations.

Identification of sections deemed to have homogenous
subgrade conditions is carried out by desk studies on the
basis of geology, pedology, drainage conditions and
topography, and considering soil categories which have
fairly consistent geotechnical characteristics (e.g. grading,
plasticity, CBR).

Usually, the number of soil categories and the number of
uniform subgrade areas will not exceed 4 or 5 for a given
road project.
 Design Subgrade Strength
43

Subgrade Variability
 Design Subgrade Strength
44

The design subgrade CBR for homogenous section is usually

taken as the 90 %-ile value of the CBR test results
 Estimating Design Moisture Content
45

The ultimate moisture and density condition that will exist in the
subgrade largely determines the pavement load-carrying capacity

Increasing the soil’s density improves its strength, lowers its permeability,
and reduces future settlement

Subgrade moisture conditions are controlled primarily by the local
environment

For design-purposes, four-different categories are generally suggested
as indicators of the ultimate moisture conditions:
 Frost area: field measurement-frost-melt period = soaked sample
 Annual rainfall > 500 mm, water table > 6 m, nonfrost: saturation condition =
soaked sample
 Arid to semiarid climates (annual rainfall < 500 mm), water table > 6 m:
sample at OMC
 Depth of water table < 6 m: soaked sample
 Estimating Design Moisture Content
46

Design moisture (Tanzanian design manual, 1999)

Dry < 1 month higher rainfall than evaporation; Moderate=1-3 months, Wet≥3 months

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 Impact of Moisture (Soaking) on Strength
and Volume Change
47

47
Moisture Content (Percent)
 Problem Soils: Low strength soils
48

Problem soils include:

 Subgrade materials with low strength

 Subgrade materials with unfavorable properties

 Expansive soils
 Others (dispersive soils, organic soils, saline soil or presence of
saline water)

Low strength soils, soils with CBRdesign <3% (<2% in dry climatic
zones) require special treatment that may include one or more of the
following
 Removal and replacement of soils

 Stabilization (chemical or mechanical)

 Raising of the vertical alignment to increase soil cover and

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thereby redefine the design depth within the structure
 Problem Soils: Expansive soils
49

Expansive soils exhibit large volumetric changes (shrinkage

and swell) following variations in their in-service moisture
contents.

Identification of expansive soils :
 Routine Investigations: include analysis of routine data
from soil surveys and site observations, simple geological
and geomorphological assessments, field reconnaissance,
routine indicator tests of Atterburg limits and grading.
Features of expansive soils - descriptions
Soil Description Typical Features of Expansive Soils
Soil Type More clayey soils are likely to be expansive
Consistency when slightly moist to dry Stiff to very stiff
Consistency when wet Soft to firm and sticky
Structure Typical cracked surface, slick-sided fissures
Color Only a reliable indicator when combined49
with local knowledge
 Problem Soils: Expansive soils
50

Extended Investigations are carried out when:

 The results of the field reconnaissance indicate expansive soils, &

 PIw >20%; where PIw = PI x (% passing 425µm)/100

Extended investigations include:

 Shrinkage Limit
 Calculation of Expansiveness using
Єex = 2.4 wp – 3.9 ws +32.5
Where; wp = PI x (% passing 425mm)/100
ws = Shrinkage Limit x (% passing 425µm)/100
50
 Problem Soils: Expansive soils
51

In-depth studies are carried out where extended investigations have revealed
the occurrence of expansive soils

In-depth studies include:
 Oedometer (1-D) compression test with unloading and consolidation stages

 Determination of swell index from unloading stages

 Calculation of expansiveness from

Єex = 644 Cs – 18.4; where; Cs = Swell Index determined in accordance

with TRL Report No. PR/OSC/012/93
 Instrumental analysis to identify characteristic clay mineralogy, e.g. X-ray
diffraction, differential thermal analysis, and electron microscopy
Expansiveness Єex Classification
Classification of Expansive Soils <20 Low
20-50 Medium
>50 51
High
 Problem Soils: Expansive soils
52

The design engineer may consider the following four main approaches
to mitigate the problem of expansive clays:
 Avoid expansive clay areas by realignment

 Excavate the expansive clays and replace them with suitable

material (backfilling)
 Treat the expansive clays (with lime)

 Minimize moisture changes and potential swelling in the expansive

clays.
 Confining expansive clays under improved subgrade and
protective blankets
 Surcharging expansive clays
 Limiting the compaction of expansive clays
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 Placing expansive clays at equilibrium moisture content
 Improving Subgrade Performance
53

Poor subgrade should be avoided if possible, but when it is

necessary to build over weak soils there are several methods
available to improve subgrade performance:
 Removal and replacement (over-excavation). Poor subgrade soil
can simply be removed and replaced with high quality
fill. Although this is simple in concept, it can be expensive. Table
below shows typical over-excavation depths recommended by
the Colorado Asphalt Pavement Association (CAPA).
Subgrade Depth of Over-Excavation Below Normal Subgrade
Plasticity Index Elevation
10 - 20 0.7 meters (2 ft.)
20 - 30 1.0 meter (3 ft.)
30 - 40 1.3 meters (4 ft.)
40 - 50 1.7 meters (5 ft.) 53
More than 50 2.0 meters (6 ft.)
 Improving Subgrade Performance
54

 Stabilization with a cementitious or asphaltic binder: The addition

of an appropriate binder (such as lime, portland cement or
emulsified asphalt) can increase subgrade stiffness and/or
reduce swelling tendencies. Table below summarizes the
Colorado Asphalt Pavement Association recommendations.

Stabilization
Conditions Under which it is Recommended
Material
Subgrades where expansion potential combined with a
Lime
lack of stability is a problem.

Portland Cement Subgrades which exhibit a plasticity index of 10 or less.

Subgrades are sandy and do not have an excessive

Asphalt Emulsion 54
amount of material finer than the 0.075 mm (#200) sieve.
 Improving Subgrade Performance
55

 Additional base layers:

 Marginally poor subgrade soils may be compensated
for by using additional base layers. These layers
(usually of crushed stone – either stabilized or
unstabilized) serve to spread pavement loads over a
larger subgrade area.
 However, it should be noted that a thick pavement
structure over a poor subgrade will not necessarily
make a good pavement.

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