GED TEST

MATHEMATICAL
REASONING
REVIEW
 Related Titles

GED® Test Preparation

GED® Test Power Practice
GED® Test Mathematical Reasoning Flash Review
GED® Test RLA Flash Review
GED® Test Science Flash Review
GED® Test Social Studies Flash Review
 GED TEST
®

MATHEMATICAL
REASONING
REVIEW

N E W YO R K
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 CONTRIBUTOR

Kimberly Stafford majored in mathematics and education at Colgate University in upstate New York. She
taught math, science, and English in Japan, Virginia, and Oregon before settling in Los Angeles. Kimberly began
her work in Southern California as an educator in the classroom but soon decided to launch her own private
tutoring business so she could individualize her math instruction. She believes that a solid foundation in math
empowers people by enabling them to make the best work, consumer, and personal decisions. Kimberly is
unfazed by the ubiquitous student gripe, “When am I going to use this in real life?” She stresses that the mastery
of math concepts that are less applicable to everyday life helps teach a critical skill—problem solving. The very
ability to apply a set of tools to solve new and complex problems is an invaluable skill in both the workforce and
personal life. Kimberly believes that mathematics is a beautiful arena for developing organized systems of think-
ing, clear and supported rationale, and effective problem solving.

v
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 About the GED® Mathematical Reasoning Test 1

CHAPTER 2 GED® Mathematical Reasoning Diagnostic Test 9

CHAPTER 3 Number Foundations Part I: Fractions and Decimals 25

CHAPTER 4 Number Foundations Part II: Negatives, Exponents, and PEMDAS 47

CHAPTER 5 Rates, Proportions, and Percents 65

CHAPTER 6 Algebra Part I: Variables and Linear Equations 81

CHAPTER 7 Algebra Part II: Graphs of Linear Equations and Inequalities 101

CHAPTER 8 Algebra Part III: Quadratics and Functions 133

CHAPTER 9 Interpreting Data in Graphs and Tables 159

CHAPTER 10 Geometry Foundations 189

CHAPTER 11 Statistics and Probability 225

CHAPTER 12 Calculator Skills on the TI-30XS 249

CHAPTER 13 GED® Mathematical Reasoning Practice Test 259

APPENDIX Mathematical Reasoning Formulas Sheet 277

vi i
 1 ABOUT THE GED®
C H A P T E R

MATHEMATICAL
REASONING TEST

T he test of General Education Development, or GED® test, measures how well you understand high-
school-level math, reading, writing, science, and social studies. Passing a GED® test in a specific area
proves you have a high-school-level education in that subject. If you pass all four of the GED® tests,
you will be awarded with a GED® diploma, the equivalent of a high school diploma.

The four separate modules of the GED® test include:

1. Reasoning through Language Arts

2. Social Studies
3. Science
4. Mathematical Reasoning

To pass each test, not only will you need to know the basics of each subject, but you’ll also need to
use critical thinking, writing, and problem solving skills.

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If you would like to receive a high school diploma,

but you are unable or do not wish to graduate via the The GED® Testing Service has put together a
traditional path of attending high school, the GED® useful GED® Test Tutorial to familiarize GED®
test might be a great fit for you. candidates with important aspects of the
exam. It’s important to watch this tutorial in
order to:
The GED ® Mathematical
Reasoning Test n learn how to use the computer to navi-
gate the questions on the test,
The purpose of the Mathematical Reasoning test is to n learn how to operate the online calculator
assess your depth of math knowledge. In addition to that will be provided during the GED®
performing computations correctly, you will need to test,
demonstrate your ability to reason mathematically: n become familiar with the five different
to build solution pathways and to evaluate the lines styles of questions that will be on the
of reasoning as you solve problems. In other words, exam, and
are you able to identify how to start a problem? Can n understand how to access and use several
you change your course of action when your original different math reference tools that will be
solution pathway is not working? Can you recognize available during your GED® Mathematical
flaws in your reasoning or in that of others? Do you Reasoning Test.
understand why you are doing what you are doing, or
are you simply following a memorized procedure? You can find this useful tutorial here: http://
Improving your conceptual understanding of www.gedtestingservice.com/2014cbttutorial
math will not only help you pass the GED® Mathe- view/
matical Reasoning Test, but will also aid you in fur-
thering your education and in securing and
maintaining future jobs.
When and Where Can I Take
How Is the Test Delivered? the Test?
You will take your GED® test on a computer at an Now that the GED® tests are given online, the testing
official testing center. Although you do not need to be dates are no longer restricted to just three times a
a computer expert to pass the GED® test, you should year. The first step is to create an account at www
be comfortable using a mouse and typing on a .GED.com. Use this account to select an official Test-
keyboard. ing Center, a date, and the time that you would like to
take any of the four different tests. If you do not pass
a particular module on your first attempt, you may
take that test up to two more times with no waiting
period between test dates. If you still do not pass on
your third attempt, you will need to wait 60 days
before you can retake that particular test.

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How Much Do the GED ® Tests Cost? What Topics Are Covered
The exact price of the GED® tests varies from state to on the GED ® Mathematical
state. On average, each of the four GED® Tests costs Reasoning Test?
around $30, for an average total of $120 for all four
tests. You can pay for any or all parts of the test you More than half of the math portion of the GED® test
are ready to take. If you don’t pass a module on your contains problems that require algebraic thinking.
first attempt, you will have the opportunity to take Don’t let this scare you! Algebra is a way to demon-
two reduced fee retakes for each module purchased. strate mathematical reasoning skills in a sometimes
(You will receive at least $20 off of two retake tests abstract, yet logical, way. Algebraic thinking is
and certain states may waive additional fees as well.) ingrained in everyday life; it’s likely that you are
already using this way of thinking without even real-
How Are the Tests Scored? izing it to solve problems in your daily routine. The
The GED® tests are all scored on a scale of 100 to 200 questions on the Mathematical Reasoning Test will
points. A minimum score of 145 is required for pass- fall under two areas: Quantitative Problem Solving
ing each test. Each question on the GED® test is and Algebraic Problem Solving.
assigned a different point value depending on its dif-
ficulty. Students who score 170 points or more will n Quantitative Problem Solving math questions
receive an Honors Passing Score. You will find out cover basic math concepts like multiples, factors,
your score (or scores) on the same day you take the exponents, absolute value, ratios, percentages,
test. After you take any of the GED® tests, you will averages, geometry, probability, and more.
receive an Enhanced Score Report from the GED® Approximately 45% of the questions will fall into
Testing Service. This personalized report will help this category.
you learn more about your score. In the event that n Algebraic Problem Solving math questions ask
you do not pass on your first attempt, it will help you you to use your knowledge of the basic building
identify what skills need more attention. Here are the blocks of math to solve problems using algebra,
breakdowns of scores: including linear equations, quadratic equations,
functions, linear inequalities, and more. Approxi-
n Below Passing: 100–144 mately 55% of the questions will fall into this
n Passing Score: 145–169 category.
n Honors Passing Score: 170–200
What Types of Questions Are on
How Long Is the Test? the Mathematical Reasoning Test?
You can choose to take all four GED® tests at once, or Since the GED® Mathematical Reasoning Test is given
you can take each test separately. In total, the four dif- on a computer, you will see several different types of
ferent subject tests take about seven hours to com- questions. The questions may ask you to use the
plete. The Mathematical Reasoning Test is composed mouse to move images around or use the keyboard to
of two separate parts that are timed together as a sin- type in your answer. It is important to preview the
gle test. You will have 115 minutes (just under 2 GED® Test Tutorial mentioned above so that you are
hours) to answer 46 questions. familiar with the different formats of questions you
will be asked to answer. Here are different formats of
questions you will encounter on the actual test:

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1. Multiple Choice 2. Fill-in-the-Blank

More than 50% of the questions on the GED® test For fill-in-the-blank questions, rather than being pre-
will be multiple-choice. You will have to pick the best sented with a selection of possible answers from
answer out of four given choices: A, B, C, and D. To which to choose, you will need to type in an answer
select an answer, you will click your mouse in the or answers. In this book, you can practice by writing
circle next to that answer choice. To change your in the correct answer on the given line or lines.
answer, click the circle of another answer choice. In
this book, you will simply circle the correct response
to a multiple-choice question.

3. Drop-Down the arrow to show all of the answer choices. Then,

For drop-down questions, you will need to select the you will click on your chosen answer to complete the
correct numerical answer or phrase to complete a sentence, paragraph, or equation. This type of ques-
sentence or problem. You will click your mouse on tion is similar to a multiple-choice item.

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4. Drag-and-Drop practice this type of question by identifying which

To answer drag-and-drop questions, you will need to object will complete the problem, diagram, chart, or
click on the correct object, hold down the mouse, and graph. Instead of dragging it, you will need to write
drag the object to the appropriate place in the prob- your answer in.
lem, diagram, chart, or graph. In this book, you can

5. Hot Spot point by clicking on an empty graph. In this book,

For hot-spot questions, you will need to click on an you can practice by identifying where the correct
area of the screen to indicate where the correct answer answer is located and marking the location on paper
is located. For instance, you may be asked to plot a in the appropriate spot.

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Can I Use a Calculator? distributive property, simplifying or solving problems

An online calculator, called the TI-30XS MultiView using the rules of exponents, or identifying absolute
(pictured below), will be available to you for most of value, among other computational skills and concepts.
the questions within the Mathematical Reasoning Test. Part 2 of the test will have the on-screen calculator
available for you to use. Most states will permit you to
bring in a TI-30XS MultiView calculator, but you
TI-30XS
MultiView should check with your individual testing center
regarding this. No other calculators will be permitted.
Carefully going through Chapter 12 in this
book, Calculator Skills on the TI-30XS, is a great way
TEXAS INSTRUMENTS to help build your calculator skills. It is also a good
idea to carefully study the tutorials and reference
DEG
sheets on the official GED® Testing Service website
before you take the actual test.

CALCULATOR RESOURCES
quit insert
The GED® Testing Service has created a cal-
2nd mode delete
ş

ş ş
culator reference sheet and tutorial videos
10x angle stat
on its website to help you get the most out
ş

log prb data

ex U
n n
şş
Ud
n
f şş
d
of the TI-30XS MultiView calculator. Although
d d

ln
n
d x10 n
table clear the reference sheet will be available for you
hyp sin–1 cos–1 tan–1 K to use during the test, you should be com-
π sin cos tan ÷ fortable with the functions of the calculator
x√ % ş%
before taking the test. You will not want to
^ x–1 ( ) ×
take extra time to read through the refer-
√ ş
ence sheet’s illustrated steps while trying to
x2 7 8 9 –
complete the problems in limited time.
clear var ş
yzt Visit www.gedtestingservice.com/testers/
xabc 4 5 6 +
calculator to learn all about the TI-30XS
recall
MultiView.
sto 1 2 3 şş
off reset , ans
on 0 . (–) enter
Formula Reference Sheet
MultiView Display
A list of formulas will be available for you to use
during the test. Although it will include basic for-
mulas such as the area of a rectangle or triangle, cir-
cumference of a circle, and perimeter of geometric
The first five math questions on the test will be non- figures, it will benefit you greatly to be able to recall
calculator questions and they will comprise Part 1. these formulas from memory and work with them
These questions may deal with ordering fractions and comfortably without having to rely on the Formula
decimals, using the least common multiple (LCM) and Reference Sheet. These formulas will be covered in
the greatest common factor (GCF), using the Chapter 10 of this book. Visit the Appendix on page

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277 to see the list of formulas you will be given on Sneak Preview Question
test day. These boxes give you an idea of what types of ques-
tions you are going to be able to answer after com-
pleting a particular section. Don’t panic if initially
How to Use This Book you cannot understand or answer the question!

Now that you are familiar with the structure and Don’t Do This!
guidelines of the GED® test, you can begin focusing These boxes help you stay out of trouble by showing
on mastering the math content. The next chapter is a you mistakes that students commonly make. Study
Diagnostic GED® Mathematical Reasoning test. This these boxes carefully so you know what errors to steer
exam is designed to model as closely as possible the clear of!
actual GED® test. Each question is accompanied by a
detailed answer explanation—not only will you be Rule
able to see why the correct answer is right, but you We will put some of the important rules that you
will also be able to see why some of the other choices need for the GED® test in shaded boxes.
are incorrect.
After completing this diagnostic test, the fol- Vocabulary Alert!
lowing review chapters will help you brush up on If certain terms are critical to your understanding of
concepts and skills: the content being presented, or to your ability to
interpret questions on the GED® test, we’ll highlight
Chapter 3: Fractions and Decimals these terms in a shaded box.
Chapter 4: Negatives, Exponents, and PEMDAS
Chapter 5: Rates, Proportions, and Percents Calculator Tip!
Chapter 6: Variables and Linear Equations We’ll let you know if the concept being presented is
Chapter 7: Graphs of Linear Equations and something that you can also learn how to do on your
Inequalities TI-30XS in Chapter 12.
Chapter 8: Quadratics and Functions Chapter 12 gives you the opportunity to learn
Chapter 9: Interpreting Data in Graphs and some very beneficial calculator skills. Before moving on
Tables to the second full-length GED® Mathematical Reason-
Chapter 10: Geometry Basics ing Practice Test in Chapter 13, make sure you are com-
Chapter 11: Statistics and Probability fortable using all the formulas on the reference sheet
Chapter 12: Calculator Skills on the TI-30XS provided in the Appendix. These will be provided when
you take the actual test, but having these formulas com-
As you work through the skills and content in Chapters mitted to memory will be very beneficial to you.
3 through 11, pay close attention to the detailed expla- If you practice a little bit of math every day, not
nations for any of the questions you have gotten wrong. only will you see an improvement in your test scores,
It is important that you learn from your mistakes and but you will also notice that you are retaining your
understand the correct way to tackle each problem. math skills better and longer. Best of luck on your
It will also benefit you to spend extra time GED® test study journey and with your test-taking
studying the shaded boxes in each chapter. These experience!
boxes highlight important concepts, pitfalls, vocabu- For additional information on the GED®, visit
lary, and techniques. There are several types of shaded www.gedtestingservice.com/testers/mygedfaqs.
boxes that you will encounter:
7

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 2
GED®
MATHEMATICAL
C H A P T E R

REASONING
DIAGNOSTIC
TEST

T his practice test is modeled on the format, content, and timing of the official GED® Mathematical
Reasoning test. Like the official exam, the questions focus on your quantitative and algebraic problem-
solving skills.
You may refer to the formula sheet in the Appendix on page 277 as you take this exam. Answer questions
1–5 without using a calculator. You may use a scientific calculator (or a calculator of any kind) for the remaining
exam questions.
Work carefully, but do not spend too much time on any one question. Be sure you answer every question.
Set a timer for 115 minutes (1 hour and 55 minutes), and try to take this test uninterrupted, under quiet
conditions.
Complete answer explanations for every test question follow the exam. Good luck!

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 –GE D ® M ATH E MATICAL R EASO NING DI AGNO STI C TEST –

45 questions 4. In the x-y coordinate plane below, draw a dot

115 minutes on the point that is represented by the ordered
pair (4,–2).
1. The product of two consecutive integers is 42.
If the smaller integer is x, which of the follow- y
ing equations must be true?
10
a. x + 1 = 42
b. x2 + x = 42
c. 2x + 1 = 42
5
d. 2x2 + x = 42
A B C D
2.
–10 –5 5 10
x
0 1 1
2
1 3
If x is a rational number such that 2 < x < 4 , –5
then which of the points on the number line
above may represent x?
a. Point A
–10
b. Point B
c. Point C
d. Point D
5
2
5. Which of the following is equivalent to 2?
2
3. A real-estate agent has found that the asking a. 2
price of a home in his area can be estimated by b. 23
taking the square footage, multiplying by 84, c. 27
and adding 1,065. If the square footage is rep- d. 210
resented by S and the asking price by P, then
which of the following formulas represents this
estimation?
a. P = 1,149S
b. P = 84(S + 1,065)
c. P = 84S + 1,065
d. P = S + 1,149

10

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6. Which of the following graphs shows n as a

7. As a simplified fraction, 14 ( 52 − 1
6) =
function of m?
1 5 1
a. – 4 (2 − 6) =
a. n
1 5 1
4 (2 −b. 6) =
7
c. 12
3
d. 2

8. Suppose that for a rational number x, 3(x – 5)

= 3. Select which of the following must be true.
a. x – 5 = 1
b. 3x – 15 = 9
m
c. x = 5
n
b. d. 3x = 8

9. For input a, the function f is defined as f(a) =

–2a2 + 1. What is the value of f(–8)?
a. –127
b. –34
c. 33
d. 129
m
10. Which of the following represents the solution
c. n
set of the inequality 4x – 9 < 3x + 1?
a. x < – 78
b. x < –8
c. x < 10
d. x < 10
7

11. (x – 5)(2x + 1) =
a. 2x2 – 3x + 1
m
b. 2x2 – 9x – 5
c. 2x2 – 5
d. n
d. 2x2 – 10

12. What is the largest possible value of x if

x2 – 14x + 35 = –10? Write your answer in the
box below.

11

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13. The figure below shows the graph of a function 2 1

16. x ( x − 1) + x − 1 =
and all of its turning points.
3
a. 2 x ( x − 1)
y b. 2 + x
x ( x − 1)
3
c. x ( x − 1)
2
d. x − 1

17.

2m

x 3m

4m

In meters, what is the perimeter of the given

triangle?
How many x-intercepts does the function a. 3 m
have? b. 6 m
a. None c. 7 m
b. 1 d. 9 m
c. 2
d. infinitely many 18. Two friends go to a restaurant for lunch and
receive a final bill of $24.36. One friend
14. A website is selling a laptop computer for believes they should tip 15%, while the other
$375.00 plus 6.5% state sales tax. A student believes they should tip 20%. To the nearest
wishes to purchase two of these computers: cent, what is the difference between the two
one for his brother and one for himself. possible tips?
Including tax, what will be the total cost of his a. $1.22
order? Write your answer in the box below. b. $3.65
c. $4.87
$
d. $8.52
15. A small town has a population of 20,510 and
an area of 86.8 square miles. To the nearest
tenth, what is the population density as mea-
sured by the value “people per square mile”?
a. 2.72
b. 236.3
c. 2,201.4
d. 55,833.1

12

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 –G E D ® M AT HEMATI CAL REASO NING DI AGNO ST IC TEST –

19. Two high-school biology classes hosted a bird 21. The histogram below represents the data col-
watching day where students kept track of how lected through a survey of students at a large
many different species of birds they observed commuter college. Each student surveyed pro-
in a nearby park. The dot plot represents the vided the one-way distance he or she travels to
number of species observed by many of the campus.
students.

10
9
8
7

Frequency
6
1 10 20 5
Number of Species Observed
4
3
Four of the students have not been included on
2
the plot. The number of species these students
1
observed was:
1 10 19 28 37 46
STUDENT NUMBER OF SPECIES OBSERVED Distance (in miles)
Amy 14
Scott 14 Based on the data, which of the following state-
Crystal 21
ments must be true?
a. A total of 46 students were surveyed.
Gilbert 9
b. There is one student who travels exactly 46
Draw as many dots on the graph above as is miles to campus, one way.
necessary to add these students’ observations c. Between 10 and 19 students travel exactly 6
to the plot. miles to campus, one way.
d. Fewer than 5 students travel less than 10
20. Which of the following is equivalent to the miles to campus, one way.
expression 2x + 3(x – 2)2?
a. 3x2 – 10x + 12
b. 3x2 + 3x – 4
c. 3x2 – 2x + 4
d. 3x2 – 10x + 4

13

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22. The figure below represents the cumulative The graph shown here represents a function
number of packages loaded onto trucks in one y = g(x). Select the correct description of the
day at a small warehouse. When the day began, function from the options that follow.
there were already 50 packages loaded. a. The function has a maximum value of –1
when x = 3.
b. The function has a maximum value of 3
300
Packages Loaded

250
when x = –1.
200 c. The function has a minimum value of 3
150 when x = –1.
100
d. The function has a minimum value of –1
50
when x = 3.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Hours 25. A map is drawn such that 2.5 inches on the
map represents a true distance of 10 miles. If
Based on this graph, how many packages were
two cities are 7.1 inches apart on the map, then
loaded each hour?
to the nearest tenth of a mile, what is the true
a. 25
distance between the two cities?
b. 50
a. 14.6
c. 125
b. 17.8
d. 250
c. 28.4
d. 71.0
23. A right triangle has legs of length 7 and 4. To
the nearest tenth, what is the length of its
26. Over the last six months, a company’s monthly
hypotenuse?
revenue has increased by 28%. If the revenue
a. 3.3
this month is $246,990, then what was the rev-
b. 5.7
enue six months ago? Round your answer to
c. 8.1
the nearest cent. Write your answer in the box
d. 11.0
below.
y
24. $

5
4
3
2
1

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5

14

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27. The chart below represents the enrollment in 30. What are the two linear factors of the polyno-
an annual professional training program for mial 2x2 – x?
several nonconsecutive years. Circle the year a. x and 2x – 1
for which there was the largest difference b. 2x and x – 1
between the number of men enrolled and the c. 2x and x
number of women enrolled in the program. d. 2x and x – 2

women
31. A line P graphed in the x-y coordinate plane
crosses the x-axis at a point (–5,0). If another
men
line Q has an equation of y = 3x – 2, then
40 which of the following statements is true?
a. The x-intercept of line P is closer to the
Total Enrollment

30 origin than the x-intercept of line Q.

b. The x-coordinate of the x-intercept of line P
20 is smaller than the x-coordinate of the
x-intercept of line Q.
10 c. The x-intercepts of both lines lie to the right
of the y-axis.
d. The x-intercept of line Q cannot be
2000 2002 2004 2006
determined from the given information.
Year

32. A remote-controlled vehicle travels at a con-

stant speed around a testing track for a period
28. A line p passes through the point (–8,4) and
4 of 12 hours. In those 12 hours, the vehicle cov-
has a slope of 5 . Which of the following repre-
ers 156 kilometers. In terms of kilometers per
sents the equation for the line p?
hour, at what rate was the vehicle traveling?
a. 4x – y = –52
Write your answer in the box below.
b. 4x – y = –60
c. 4x – 5y = –60 km/hr
d. 4x – 5y = –52

29. x 0 2 4 6
y 1 4 7 10

The table above shows some points in the

x-y coordinate plane that the graph of a line
y = mx + b passes through. Based on this
information, what is the value of the slope m?
1
a. 2
2
b. 3
3
c. 2
d. 2

15

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33. The chart represents the number of households in selected cities that have subscribed to a new compa-
ny’s Internet service.

represents
2,500 households

Sacramento Los Angeles San Diego San Francisco

Based on this data, how many households have subscribed to the service in San Diego?
a. 13,750
b. 15,000
c. 18,750
d. 20,000

34. A teacher would like to pick 2 students from 36. Which of the following lines is parallel to the
her class of 30 (16 girls and 14 boys) to be class line y = 92 x – 51 ?
leaders. If she picks these students one at a 9
a. y = – 2 x + 1
time, without replacement, what is the proba- 3
b. y = 4 x + 5
bility that both class leaders are boys? Round
your answer to the nearest whole percent. c. y = 92 x – 8
3 1
a. 14% d. y = 4 x – 5
b. 21%
c. 47%
d. 91%

3
35. If 4 x = 12, then x =
a. 9
b. 11 14
3
c. 12 4
d. 16

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 –G E D ® M AT HEMATI CAL REASO NING DI AGNO ST IC TEST –

37. The figure below is a rectangle with a 40. Which of the following is the equation of the
half-circle attached. line that passes through the points (–8,1) and
(4,9) in the x-y coordinate plane?
2 19
a. y = 3 x + 3
2
b. y = 3 x + 9
3 21
c. y = 2 x + 2
3
d. y = 2 x + 13

41. The figure below represents a composite part

to be manufactured by fusing together two
3m
solid cubes.

8m

Given the indicated dimensions, what is the

area of the region in terms of π?
a. 14 + 4π meters
b. 14 + 16π meters
c. 24 + 8π meters 4 cm
d. 24 + 16π meters

38. What is the value of the expression –3x + 10y

when x = –4 and y = –2?
a. –34
b. 32
c. –8
d. 1

39. –x2(x + 1) – (x3 + 4x2) = 2 cm

a. –6x3 – x2 2 cm
b. –2x3 – 5x2
c. –2x3 + 3x2 If the cubes used are identical, what is the vol-
d. –2x3 + 4x2 + 1 ume of the resulting part?
a. 4 cm3
b. 8 cm3
c. 16 cm3
d. 40 cm3

17

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 –GE D ® M ATH E MATICAL R EASO NING DI AGNO STI C TEST –

42. An IT consultant charges a company $75 an Answers and Explanations

hour to analyze its current systems. Addition-
ally, he charges a 3% project fee and a 1% tele- 1. Choice b is correct. If the first integer is x, then
communications fee on the cost of the billed the second integer is x + 1 and their product is
hours. If a project requires 20 hours for the x(x + 1) = x2 + x = 42.
consultant to complete, what will be the final Choice a is incorrect. The second integer would
amount charged to the company? be x + 1, but the product of both integers
a. $1,515 should be included in the equation.
b. $1,545 Choice c is incorrect. The question asks for the
c. $1,560 product, not the sum.
d. $2,100 Choice d is incorrect. While there are two
integers, neither integer will be represented by
43. What expression is equivalent to the sum of 2x.
1 3
2 x and 4 x – 5? 2. Choice c is correct. The middle hash mark
Select from the numbers and expressions listed between one-half and one represents three-
below, and write the correct values into the fourths. Point C is between this mark and the
boxes to find an equivalent expression. one-half mark, indicating it satisfies the given
inequality.
5
4x Choice a is incorrect. This point is much
2
3x
smaller than one-half. In fact, it is smaller than
3 one-fourth.
4
5
Choice b is incorrect. This point is between
2 one-fourth and one-half.
1
2x Choice d is incorrect. This point is larger than
three-fourths.
–
3. Choice c is correct. Multiplying by 84 is the
first step, and this is represented by 84S. The
44. The ratio of full-time employees to part-time
1,065 is added to this term, leading to the
employees in a midsize law firm is 4:3. If there
model P = 84S + 1,065.
is a total of 20 full-time employees, how many
Choice a is incorrect. This model represents
part-time employees work at the firm?
multiplying the square footage by 1,149.
a. 15
Choice b is incorrect. This model represents
b. 19
multiplying by 84 as the last step and would
c. 23
produce different results.
d. 27
Choice d is incorrect. This model represents just
x − 5 adding 84 and then 1,065 to the square footage.
45. What is the value of 2
x + 1
when x = –3?
3
a. –2
4
b. –5
8
c. 5
d. 1

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 –G E D ® M AT HEMATI CAL REASO NING DI AGNO ST IC TEST –

4. y
7. Choice c is correct. 14 ( 52 − 16 ) = 14 (156 − 16 ) = 1 14
4( 6 ) = 7
12
1 15 1 1 14 7.
4 ( 6 − 6 ) = 4 ( 6 ) = 12
10

Choice a is incorrect. Denominators are never

subtracted when subtracting two fractions.
5 Choice b is incorrect. When rewriting the first
fraction with the common denominator of 6,
the numerator must also be multiplied by 2.
x
–10 –5 5 10 Choice d is incorrect. Parentheses indicate
(4,–2)
multiplication, not addition. Further, addition
–5
of fractions doesn’t involve adding the
denominators.
8. Choice a is correct. Dividing both sides by
–10 three shows that x – 5 = 1.
Choice b is incorrect. Multiplying the
expressions on the left side yields 3x – 15 = 3,
5. Choice b is correct. By the laws of exponents, not 3x – 15 = 9.
5
2 5 – 2 = 23.
2 = 2 Choice c is incorrect. Dividing both sides by
2
Choice a is incorrect. When subtracted three shows that x – 5 = 1. This can be further
according to the laws of exponents, there will be reduced to x = 6, not x = 5.
a final exponent larger than 1. Choice d is incorrect. Multiplying the
Choice c is incorrect. The laws of exponents expressions on the left side yields 3x – 15 = 3.
require subtraction here instead of addition. This can be further reduced to 3x = 18,
Choice d is incorrect. The laws of exponents not 3x = 8.
require subtraction here instead of 9. Choice a is correct. f(–8) = –2(–8)2 + 1 =
multiplication. –2(64) + 1 = –128 + 1 = –127.
6. Choice c is correct. For each possible value of Choice b is incorrect. The exponent on the a
m, there is only one possible value of n. indicates a should be squared, not multiplied
Choice a is incorrect. After and including the by 2. Further, the result of this will be positive
indicated point, there are two possible values of instead of negative.
n for each value of m. Choice c is incorrect. The exponent on the a
Choice b is incorrect. After the indicated point, indicates a should be squared, not multiplied
there are two possible values of n for each value by 2.
of m. Choice d is incorrect. The value of (–8)2 is
Choice d is incorrect. At the indicated point, positive, not negative.
there are two possible values of n for that value
of m.

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 –GE D ® M ATH E MATICAL R EASO NING DI AGNO STI C TEST –

10. Choice c is correct. After subtracting 3x from Choice b is incorrect. A graph with only one
both sides, the resulting inequality is x – 9 < 1. x-intercept would cross the x-axis exactly once.
Adding 9 to both sides results in the final This graph crosses the x-axis more than that.
solution of x < 10. Choice d is incorrect. A graph with infinitely
Choice a is incorrect. Since the sign of 3x is many x-intercepts would have to curve back
positive, it should be subtracted from both toward the x-axis and cross it in a regular pat-
sides. Similarly, in the next step, the 9 should tern. That behavior is not indicated by this
be added to both sides since it is subtracted graph since all the turning points are shown.
from 4x. 14. The correct answer is $798.75. The student will
Choice b is incorrect. After subtracting the 3x spend $375 × 2 = $750 on the two computers
from both sides, the 9 should be added to both and $750 × 0.065 = $48.75 on the tax:
sides since it is subtracted from 4x. $750 + $48.75 = $798.75.
Choice d is incorrect. Since the sign of 3x is 15. Choice b is correct. Dividing the number of
positive, it should be subtracted from both people by the area yields 236.29 ≈ 236.3.
sides. Choice a is incorrect. The term square miles
11. Choice b is correct. Using FOIL, (x – 5)(2x + 1) does not imply that the 86.8 must be squared. It
= 2x2 + x – 10x – 5 = 2x2 – 9x – 5. is instead a unit of measure for area.
Choice a is incorrect. Using FOIL involves the Choice c is incorrect. Since the final result will
multiplication of the inner terms instead of the be people per square miles, taking the square
addition of them. root before dividing is not a needed step.
Choice c is incorrect. This is the product of only Choice d is incorrect. Although the area is
the first two and the last two terms, but FOIL measured in square miles, the values of the
requires the product of the inner and outer population and the area do not need to be
terms be included. squared.
2 1
Choice d is incorrect. While the first term is 2x2, 16. Choice b is correct. x ( x − 1) + x − 1 =
2 x 2 + x
x ( x − 1) + x ( x − 1) = x ( x − 1)
the FOIL technique will add many more terms .
to the final product. Choice a is incorrect. The fractions must have a
12. The correct answer is 9. Adding 10 to both common denominator before they can be
sides yields the equation x2 – 14x + 45 = 0. added and once they do, only the numerators
The left-hand side of the equation factors into are combined.
(x – 5)(x – 9), resulting in solutions of 5 and 9. Choice c is incorrect. While the common
Nine is, of course, the larger of the two 2
denominator xis( xx(x +
− 1)– x1),
2 1
( x −x 1) + x
− 1 ≠=x ( x − 1) .
= x (2x +− x1)
solutions to the equation. Choice d is incorrect. The x terms in the
13. Choice c is correct. The graph crosses the x-axis numerator and denominator are not factors
at exactly two points, and the fact that all of the and therefore cannot be canceled.
turning points are shown indicates it will not 17. Choice d is correct. The perimeter is the sum of
cross it again. all side lengths: 2 + 4 + 3 = 9.
Choice a is incorrect. A graph with no Choice a is incorrect. The area of the triangle is
x-intercepts does not cross the x-axis at 3 square meters, not the perimeter.
any point. Choices b and c are incorrect. The lengths of all
sides must be added to find the perimeter, not
just two of them.

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 –G E D ® M AT HEMATI CAL REASO NING DI AGNO ST IC TEST –

18. Choice a is correct. 0.2 × 24.36 – 0.15 × 24.36 Choice c is incorrect. The 10 and 19 on the
= 1.22. horizontal axis represent distance, not
Choice b is incorrect. This represents a tip of frequency.
15%, not the difference between the two tips. 22. Choice a is correct. The slope of the line
Choice c is incorrect. This represents a tip of represents the unit rate. Using the start point
20%, not the difference between the two tips. (0,50) and the end point (8, 250), the slope is
250 − 50
Choice d is incorrect. The difference refers to 8 − 0 = 200
8 = 25.
subtraction, not addition. Choice b is incorrect. The point 50 on the
19. The scores are added to the dot plot by placing vertical axis represents the number of packages
repeated dots over the value on the scale. The loaded at the beginning of the day.
circled dots represent the four added students. Choice c is incorrect. There were 125 packages
loaded a little after 3 hours, so it cannot be the
hourly rate.
Choice d is incorrect. This cannot represent the
hourly rate because there were 250 packages
1 10 20 loaded after 8 hours.
Number of Species Observed 23. Choice c is correct. Using the Pythagorean
theorem, 72 + 42 = c2 where c is the length of the
20. Choice a is correct. Following the order of hypotenuse. Solving for c, c2 = 65 and c = 65
operations, the binomial must first be squared, ! 8.1.
the 3 distributed, and then like terms combined: Choice a is incorrect. The Pythagorean theorem
2x + 3(x – 2)2 = 2x + 3(x2 – 4x + 4) = 2x + 3x2 requires that all of the terms be squared, not
– 12x + 12 = 3x2 – 10x + 12. just the length of the hypotenuse.
Choice b is incorrect. FOIL must be used to Choice b is incorrect. When using the
expand the squared term: (x – 2)2 ≠ x2 + 4. Pythagorean theorem a2 + b2 = c2, a and b
Choice c is incorrect. When simplifying, the 3 represent the lengths of the legs.
must multiply each term within the Choice d is incorrect. While the Pythagorean
parentheses. theorem does contain a sum, the terms are also
Choice d is incorrect. When simplifying, the 3 squared.
must multiply the constant term 4. 24. Choice b is correct. The highest point in the
21. Choice d is correct. The bar representing graph is the maximum, which is 3. This occurs
distances from 1 up to 10 miles has a height of at x = –1. This is the vertex of the parabola.
3, meaning 3 students reported traveling less Choice a is incorrect. The highest point in the
than 10 miles to campus. graph is the maximum, which is 3. This occurs
Choice a is incorrect. The total number of at x = –1. This is the vertex of the parabola.
students surveyed can be found by adding the Choice c is incorrect. The highest point in the
frequencies. There were 3 + 6 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 16 graph is the maximum, not the minimum.
students surveyed. Choice d is incorrect. The highest point in the
Choice b is incorrect. While there was only one graph is the maximum, which is 3. This occurs
student who travels between 37 and 46 miles to at x = –1. This is the vertex of the parabola.
campus, there is no way to tell the exact number
of miles he travels using this graph.

21

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 –GE D ® M ATH E MATICAL R EASO NING DI AGNO STI C TEST –

25. Choice c is correct. If x is the number of miles the x term and the constant term. Further, when
2.5 in. 7.1 in.
between the two cities, then 10 mi = x mi . rewriting the equation in Ax + By = C form, the
Cross multiply and solve the resulting equation: –5 must be distributed to all of the terms.
2.5x = 71 Choice c is incorrect. In the point-slope
71
x = 2.5 = 28.4 formula, the slope must be distributed to both
Choice a is incorrect. This is a proportional the x term and the constant term.
relationship, so subtraction does not apply in 29. Choice c is correct. Using the first two points,
4 − 1 3
general. m = 2 − 0 = 2.
Choice b is incorrect. The final result must be in Choice a is incorrect. The slope formula is not
x1 − y1
miles, but multiplying two values that are x 2 − y 2 . In other words, the formula involves
measured in inches will yield a result in square subtracting values from different points.
inches. Choice b is incorrect. The change in y is
Choice d is incorrect. This would be the represented in the numerator of the slope
number of miles if each inch represented formula, not the denominator.
10 miles. Choice d is incorrect. The slope formula is not
x2 − y2
26. The correct answer is $192,960.94. If x x1 − y1 . In other words, the formula involves
represents the revenue six months ago, then subtracting values from different points.
the equation 1.28x = 246,990 must be true. 30. Choice a is correct. Both terms only share x as a
Dividing both sides by 1.28 yields factor. When this term is factored out, the
x = 192,960.94. resulting expression is x(2x – 1).
27. The correct answer is 2002. The largest differ- Choice b is incorrect. The second term does not
ence is indicated by the bars representing the have a factor of 2, so 2x cannot be factored out
enrollment in one year having the largest dis- of the polynomial.
crepancy in height. In 2002, the program had Choice c is incorrect. These two expressions are
an enrollment of approximately 34 male stu- the factors of the first term. Both are not factors
dents and 8 female students. This is the largest of the second term.
height discrepancy shown on the graph. Choice d is incorrect. The second term does not
28. Choice d is correct. Using the point-slope have a factor of 2, so 2x cannot be factored out
formula, the equation of the line must be of the polynomial. Further, x – 2 is not a factor
4
y – 4 = 5 (x – (–8)) of the polynomial.
4 31. Choice b is correct. The x-coordinate of
y – 4 = 5 (x + 8)
the x-intercept of line P is –5, while the
4 32 2
y – 4 = 5x + 5 x-coordinate of the x-intercept of line Q is 3 .
4 52
y = 5x + 5 Choice a is incorrect. The x-intercept of line P
To rewrite this in Ax + By = C form, bring the is 5 units away from the origin, while the
x term to the left-hand side and multiply both x-intercept of line Q is less than 1 unit away.
sides of the equation by –5. Choice c is incorrect. The x-coordinate of the
Choice a is incorrect. When rewriting the x-intercept of line P is negative.
equation in Ax + By = C form, the –5 must be Choice d is incorrect. The x-intercept of line Q
distributed to all of the terms. can be found by letting y = 0 and solving for x.
Choice b is incorrect. In the point-slope 32. The correct answer is 13.
formula, the slope must be distributed to both

22

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 –G E D ® M AT HEMATI CAL REASO NING DI AGNO ST IC TEST –

156
km
156 km 12 13 km
12 hr = 12
= 1 hr Choice a is incorrect. This line is perpendicular
hr
12 to the given line.
33. Choice a is correct. There are 5.5 house
Choice b is incorrect. Although the y-intercept
symbols used in the chart for San Diego,
is the negative reciprocal of the y-intercept of
indicating 5.5 × 2,500 = 13,750 subscribing
the original line, this has no effect on whether
households in that city.
the line is parallel.
Choice b is incorrect. There are 5.5 house
Choice d is incorrect. Although the y-intercept
symbols, not 6 (which would result in 15,000
is the same as the y-intercept of the original
subscribing households).
line, this has no effect on whether the line is
Choice c is incorrect. This is the number of
parallel.
subscribing households in Sacramento.
37. Choice c is correct. The area of the rectangular
Choice d is incorrect. This is the number of
region is 8 × 3 = 24 square meters, while the
subscribing households in San Francisco. 1 1 8 1
area of the half circle is 2 πr2 = 2 π( 2 )2 = 2 π(16)
34. Choice b is correct. Using the multiplication
= 8π.
rule for probability, the probability is 14
30 × 29
13
Choice a is incorrect. This is the perimeter of
! 0.21 or 21%.
the region.
Choice a is incorrect. Since the students are
Choice b is incorrect. This would be the
being selected from the entire class, the
perimeter of the region if the radius was 8
denominator should be 30 and not 14.
meters (this is the diameter) and if it was a full
Choice c is incorrect. This represents the
circle instead of a half circle.
probability that one girl is randomly selected.
Choice d is incorrect. The area of the half circle
The question is asking for a compound
is half of the usual area formula πr2. This is the
probability of both selected leaders being boys.
area if the full circle was used.
Choice d is incorrect. The probability of an
38. Choice c is correct. –3(–4) + 10(–2) = 12 – 20
“and” event should use the multiplication rule,
= –8.
not the addition rule.
Choice a is incorrect. This results from mixing
35. Choice d is correct. To isolate the x, multiply
up the substitution of x and y. The term multi-
both sides of the equation by the reciprocal
3 4 plied by –3 should be –4.
of 4 . Thus x = 3 (12) = 16.
3 Choice b is incorrect. The product of –3 and –4
Choice a is incorrect. To cancel out the 4 , both
is positive since both signs are negative.
sides should be multiplied by the reciprocal
Choice d is incorrect. When substituting values
instead of the original fraction.
into the expression, the notation –3x and 10y
Choice b is incorrect. Subtracting the fraction
indicates multiplication and not addition.
from both sides will not isolate the x since the
x is multiplied by the fraction.
Choice c is incorrect. Adding the fraction to
both sides will not isolate the x since the x is
multiplied by the fraction.
36. Choice c is correct. This line has the same slope
and therefore, by definition, is a line that is
parallel to the original.

23

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 –GE D ® M ATH E MATICAL R EASO NING DI AGNO STI C TEST –

39. Choice b is correct. –x2(x + 1) – (x3 + 4x2) = 42. Choice c is correct. 75 × 20 = 1,500,
–x3 – x2 – x3 – 4x2 = –2x3 – 5x2. 0.01 × 1,500 = 15, and 0.03 × 1,500 = 45 for a
Choice a is incorrect. The terms within the total of 1,500 + 15 + 45 = 1,560.
second set of parentheses are not like terms and Choice a is incorrect. This includes only the
therefore cannot be combined. telecommunications fee, but there is also a 3%
Choice c is incorrect. The negative must be project fee.
distributed to every term in the second set of Choice b is incorrect. This includes only the
parentheses. project fee, but there is also a 1% telecommuni-
Choice d is incorrect. The terms in front of both cations fee.
sets of parentheses must be distributed to every Choice d is incorrect. Three percent of a total is
term within the parentheses. found by multiplying by 0.03, not 0.3. Similarly,
40. Choice a is correct. The slope of the line is one percent is found by multiplying by 0.01
m = 4 9− −(−18) = 128 = 23 . Using this in the instead of 0.1.
5
point-slope formula along with the first point, 43. The correct answer is __4 x – 5.
1 3 2 3
the equation can be found with the following 2x+ 4 x – 5 = 4 x + 4 x – 5 = 54 x – 5.
steps. 44. Choice a is correct. To maintain the ratio, the
2 fraction of full-time employees to part-time
y – 1 = 3 (x – (–8))
2 employees must be equivalent to __43 . The
y – 1 = 3 (x + 8)
2
number of full-time employees can be found by
y – 1 = 3 x + 163 multiplying 4 by 5; therefore, the number of
2
y = 3 x + 193 part-time employees can be found by
Choice b is incorrect. In the point-slope for- multiplying 3 by 5 to get 15.
mula, the slope should multiply the entire term Choice b is incorrect. Although the difference
(x – x1). between 20 and 4 is 16, it can’t be used to find
Choice c is incorrect. The slope of the line the final answer. Ratios work with a common
should be the change in y divided by the change multiplier, not a common sum.
in x. Additionally, only one point should be Choice c is incorrect. This will not maintain the
used in the formula instead of an x value from ratio, since it did not use a common multiplier.
one point and a y value from another. Choice d is incorrect. This is approximately cor-
Choice d is incorrect. The slope of the line rect if the number of part-time employees was
2
should be 3 , the change in y divided by the 20 instead of full-time employees.
( −3) − 5 −8
change in x. 45. Choice b is correct. 2 = 10 = − 54 .
( −3) + 1
41. Choice c is correct. The volume of one of the Choice a is incorrect. The numerator of the
cubes is 2 × 2 × 2 = 8 cm3. Since the part con- fraction shows subtraction of 5 from x, not
sists of two cubes, the final volume is double multiplication.
this, or 16 cm3. Choice c is incorrect. The value of (–3)2 is 9,
Choice a is incorrect. This is the area of one face not 6.
of one of the cubes. Choice d is incorrect. The value of (–3)2 is 9,
Choice b is incorrect. This is the volume of only not –9.
one of the cubes used to make the part.
Choice d is incorrect. This is the surface area of
the final part.

24

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 3
NUMBER
FOUNDATIONS
C H A P T E R

PART I:
FRACTIONS
AND DECIMALS

I n this chapter you will begin to learn the arithmetic concepts that are the foundations of algebra. Since
algebra is used to model and solve complex problems, algebra is an important skill to have in your personal
life as well as in the work force. Solving problems accurately with careful math will help you make good
consumer decisions and avoid expensive mistakes on the job or at home—as well as do well on the GED® test!
This chapter covers:

n Vocabulary used to define arithmetic operations

n Least common multiples (LCMs) and greatest common factors (GCFs)
n Simplifying and creating equivalent fractions
n Operations with fractions
n Comparing and ordering decimals, fractions, and negative numbers in lists as well as on number lines

25

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 –N UMBE R FO UN D AT IONS PA RT I : F R A C T IO NS AND D EC I M A L S –

Throughout this chapter there are practice exercises The Language of Math
that will help reinforce the concepts in each section.
At the end of the chapter you will find a comprehen- In order to be ready to learn the arithmetic founda-
sive set of questions that model the types of questions tions of algebra, you must become completely com-
you will find on the GED® test. The answers and fortable with the language used to represent the four
explanations for all the practice questions and review basic math operations: addition, subtraction, divi-
questions can be found at the end of the chapter. sion, and multiplication. Let’s begin our exploration
by investigating which mathematical operations are
represented by various everyday words.

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

These Sneak Preview boxes will give you an idea of what you may see on your GED® Mathematical
Reasoning Test. Read the following section to learn how to answer these types of questions:

n What is triple the difference of 65 and 50?

n Use numbers and variables to represent the following: What is 7 less than the product of 10 and
a number x?

English-to-Math Translations Quotient: A quotient is the answer to a division

Algebra is used to model real world situations, but problem.
first you must get comfortable with translating words n The quotient of 18 and 6 is 3 (i.e., 18 ÷ 6 = 3).

into math. Let’s begin with the four key words that n If Jane is 30 and James is 15, the quotient of their

represent addition, subtraction, division, and multi- ages is 2.

plication. In this chapter we’ll use these words with
numbers, and we will review these terms in a later Product: A product is the answer to a multiplication
chapter once we begin applying them with variables. problem.
n The product of 8 and 9 is 72 (i.e., 8 × 9 = 72).

Sum: A sum of two or more numbers is the answer to n If Jane’s lucky number is 8 and James’s lucky num-

an addition problem. ber is 11, the product of their lucky numbers is 88.
n The sum of 3 and 5 is 8 (i.e., 3 + 5 = 8).

n If Jane has 4 guitars and James has 5 guitars, the Don’t expect to see the words above all the time—just
sum of their guitars is 9. like there are many ways to say “hello,” there are lots
of other ways to indicate the four operations. Let’s
Difference: A difference between two numbers is the consider 6 + 7, which could be described the follow-
answer to a subtraction problem. ing ways:
n The difference of 5 and 4 is 1 (i.e., 5 – 4 = 1).

n If Jane is 60 inches tall and James is 52 inches tall, n the sum of six and seven
the difference in their heights is 8 inches. n six plus seven
n six more than seven
n six increased by seven
n the total of six and seven
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 –N UMB E R F OUN DAT I ONS PA RT I : F R A C T I ONS A ND D E CI M A L S –

Each of these phrases contains a different keyword keywords that act as a clue to which operation will be
that signals addition: plus, more than, increased, and used.
total. The four basic operations have a handful of

The following chart lists several of the most common keywords for each operation:

ADDITION SUBTRACTION MULTIPLICATION DIVISION

sum difference product quotient
combine take away times percent
total less than of out of
plus minus every share
and decrease each split
altogether left factors average
increase fewer double (× 2) each
more than remove triple (× 3) per

Words That Symbolize Grouping DON’T DO THIS!

in Parentheses
Many students forget to use parentheses
In addition to words that indicate the four basic
when they are presented with the terms the
arithmetic operations, keep your eyes out for special
quantity of, the sum of, and the difference of.
words and phrases that combine more than one oper-
Remember that these special phrases require
ation and sometimes require parentheses:
grouping. Don’t fall for this common mis-
take! (Note: The symbol ≠ is read “does not
The quantity of: The quantity of indicates that there
equal” and you will see it in lots of these
are two or more terms combined to make one term.
Don’t Do This! boxes.)
This combination of multiple terms into a single
NO! 2 times the sum of 12 and
term requires parentheses.
n 6 times the quantity of 5 plus 10 is written
10 ≠ 2 × 12 + 10
YES . . . Instead, 2 times the sum of 12
6(5 + 10)
and 10 = 2(12 + 10)

The sum of and the difference of: These two terms

are like the quantity of in that they are used to sym-
bolize that parentheses must be used. Tricky Subtraction Clues
n 5 times the difference of 8 and 3 is written 5(8 – 3) Sometimes words for subtraction can be tricky. For
n The sum of 20 and 19 divided by 3 is written (20 + example, from and less than indicate subtraction, but
19) ÷ 3 the order of the terms must be reversed:

n From: Subtract 8 from 10 is written as 10 – 8 and

not 8 – 10. This is because the phrase indicates
that 8 is the number being subtracted, not 10.

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n Less than: 2 less than 20 is written 20 – 2 and not 1. 10 passengers increased by 20 and then
2 – 20. The phrasing indicates that 20 is the start- decreased by 7
ing number, which is being reduced by 2.
2. $85 is shared by three siblings

DON’T DO THIS! 3. Four less than the product of six and twelve
Many students forget that when translating
from and less than into mathematical equa- 4. Triple the sum of their $500 October sales and
tions it is necessary to flip the order that the their $700 November sales
numbers or terms are presented in.)
NO! 10 less than 5 ≠ 10 – 5 5. They split the difference of her expenses of
YES . . . Instead, 10 less than 5 = 5 – 10 $3,200 and his expenses of $2,800

6. $40 less than $100 is increased by $80 and then

doubled
Special Multiplication Words
The word twice represents multiplication by 2 and
triple signifies multiplication by 3:
Multiples, Factors,
and Simplifying Fractions
Twice: Twice as much as the original $50 price is
written as 2 × $50
Multiples and factors are important vocabulary words
Triple: Triple the number of last year’s 4,000
that are commonly used when explaining how to per-
attendees is written as 3 × 4,000
form important operations on numbers. Multiples
and factors are especially useful when working with
Practice
fractions and later, in algebraic equations.
Represent each phrase as a numerical expression. Do
not combine the numbers to evaluate them for a final
answer.

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

You may be asked a question like this on your GED® Mathematical Reasoning test! We haven’t
introduced variables yet, so you might not know how to answer this, but this also requires a solid
understanding of factors.

n What is the greatest common factor of 14x4yz2 and 35xy3?

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Multiples numbers evenly divide into 12. It is also true that 7 is

Multiples are numbers that result when multiplying a factor of 7, 14, 21, and 28. (Can you see the relation-
one number by whole numbers such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ship between factors and multiples?)
and so forth. For example, if we wanted to find the The greatest common factor, commonly
multiples of 6, we would start out with: referred to as the GCF, is a special factor that is shared
by two or more numbers. The GCF is the largest fac-
n 6×1=6 tor that the numbers being considered have in com-
n 6 × 2 = 12 mon. In order to find the GFC of two numbers, write
n 6 × 3 = 18 out the factor lists for both numbers and select the
n 6 × 4 = 24 greatest factor they have in common. For example,
let’s find the greatest common factor of 32 and 40.
Every number has an infinite number of multiples. Make factor lists for 32 and 40:
However, here, we will just list the first several multi-
ples of 6: Factors of 32: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32
Factors of 40: 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 20, 40
Multiples of 6: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54 . . .
Although 2, 4, and 8 are all factors of both 32 and 40,
The Least Common Multiple 8 is the GCF.
The LCM or least common multiple is the smallest Finding the GCF between two or more numbers
multiple that two different numbers or terms have in is necessary when reducing fractions, which we will
common. For example, in order to find the LCM of 8 discuss next. Being able to identify the greatest com-
and 12, write out the beginning of the multiple lists mon factor is also helpful when simplifying complex
for 8 and 12. algebraic expressions, which will be covered in later
First create multiple lists for 8 and 12: chapters.

Multiples of 8: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56

Multiples of 12: 12, 24, 36, 48, 60
VOCABULARY ALERT!
The least common multiple is the smallest
Looking at these lists, you can see 24 and 48 are both multiple that two or more numbers have in
multiples of 8 and 12. Since 24 is the smallest multi- common. 36 is the least common multiple of 9
ple 8 and 12 have in common, 24 is the least common and 12.
multiple of 8 and 12. The greatest common factor is the largest
Knowing how to find least common multiplies factor that two or more numbers have in
is critical for adding, subtracting, and comparing common. 10 is the greatest common factor of
fractions, which we will learn about later in this 10 and 20.
chapter.

The Greatest Common Factor

A number that divides evenly into another number is Simplifying Fractions
a factor of the second number. For instance, the fac- Before we jump into fractions, let’s review some
tors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12 since all these important vocabulary: the number on the top of a
fraction is called the numerator and the number on

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the bottom of a fraction is called the denominator.

Commit these terms to memory so that you can 24 4
Even though ___ 42
and __7
are equivalent, the
understand explanations and instructions in your 4
__
fraction 7 is in simplest form because it cannot
future math studies.
be reduced any further. All multiple-choice
answers will be presented in simplest form.
VOCABULARY ALERT!
The number located on the top of a fraction
is called the numerator and the number Practice
located on the bottom is called the denomi- 7. What is the least common multiple of 6 and
nator: 20?
numerator
____________
denominator
8. What is the least common multiple of 12, 18,
and 6?
Simplest Form
A fraction is in simplest form, or lowest terms, when 9. What is the greatest common factor of 15 and
its numerator and denominator cannot be divided by 60?
any like factor. In order to reduce a fraction into sim-
plest form, divide the numerator and denominator 10. Is there ever a time when the greatest common
by the greatest common factor. This is a critical skill factor of two numbers will be 1?
required for the GED® test since all answer choices 48
will be presented in lowest terms. Therefore, in order 11. Reduce the fraction __
72 to lowest terms.

to identify the correct answer choice from a multiple

choice list, you’ll need to reduce fractional answers to
simplest form. Working with Fractions

Example Fractions are one of the most important building

24
What is __ blocks of mathematics since we encounter fractions
42 in simplest form? 1 3
every day: in recipes (__ __
3 cup of milk), driving ( 4 of a
1
First identify that the GCF of 24 and 42 is 6. Then mile), land measurements (5__ 2 acres), money (half a

divide both the numerator and denominator by the dollar), and so forth. Many arithmetic problems
GCF: involve fractions in one way or another. Decimals,
percents, ratios, and proportions, which are covered
24
__ 24 ÷ 6
= ______ __4 in later chapters, require proficiency with fractions.
42 42 ÷ 6 = 7

24
Therefore, __
42 reduced to lowest terms is equivalent to
4
__
7 .

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GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

The GED® Mathematical Reasoning Test may ask you to represent the fractional total that certain
quantities represent. Read the following section to learn how to answer questions like this:

n If Emma uses 8 inches of a yard of fabric and Jackson uses 14 inches from that same yard, what
fraction of the yard of fabric did they use together?

Representing Measurements with DON’T DO THIS!

Fractions
When writing fractions, the numerator and
A fraction is a representation of a part to a whole. The
denominator must be in the same units. For
denominator represents the total number of units
example, consider a situation where Sophia
that make up one whole, while the numerator repre-
has 3 feet of ribbon and she uses 7 inches of
sents the number of units that are being considered.
it to make a bow. It would be incorrect to say
7
that she used __ of her ribbon since the 7
Example 3
would be in inches and the 3 would be in
What fraction of an hour does 15 minutes represent?
feet. Instead, both the numerator and the
denominator must be in the same units.
Start with the part to whole relationship and fill in
Therefore, turn the 3 feet into inches by mul-
the given and known information:
tiplying it by the 12 inches that are in each
part
_____ # of minutes being considered
_________________________ 15 foot: 3 ft. × 12 in. = 36 inches. Now we can
whole = # of minutes in one whole hour = __
60 7
__
say that Sophia used 36 of her ribbon since
15
__ both the numerator and denominator are in
So, 15 minutes is 60 of an hour. Now reduce that to
inches.
simplest terms:

15
__ 15 ÷ 15 1
60 = ______ __
60 ÷ 15 = 4
Proper Fractions, Improper
1
Therefore, 15 minutes is equivalent to __
4 of an hour. Fractions, and Mixed Numbers
You need to know some important terms used to
describe fractions so that you can understand the
instructions for adding, subtracting, multiplying, and
dividing fractions that will follow. Fractions are bro-
ken down into three types:

n Proper fractions have a numerator that is less

1 __2 4
than the denominator: __ __
3 , 5 , and 7 .
n Improper fractions have a numerator that is
3 __5 7
greater than the denominator: __ __
2 , 3 , and 5 . All
improper fractions have a value greater than one.

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n Mixed numbers contain a whole number along much clearer picture of his remaining supplies. Read
with a proper fraction written to the right of it: 4 on to learn how to convert a mixed number into an
1
__ 2
__ 1
__
2 , 7 3 , and 10 3 . improper fraction.

Similarly to how fractions are always reduced to sim- Changing Improper Fractions into
plest terms before giving the final answer to a ques- Mixed Numbers
tion, improper fractions are typically converted to In order to change improper fractions into mixed
mixed numbers when answering questions. A mixed numbers, use the following steps:
number is easier to understand in context than an
improper fraction. 1. Divide the denominator into the numerator.
Think about this: If Jimbo tells his employer he 2. If there is a remainder, change it into a fraction
7
__
has 3 bags of cement left to build a retaining wall, by writing the remainder over the original
this information is not entirely easy for his boss to denominator of the improper fraction. Write it
1
picture. However, if Jimbo tells her that he has 2__ 3 next to the whole number.
bags of cement remaining, that gives his employer a

Example
13
Change __
2 into a mixed number.

1. Divide the denominator (2) into the numerator 6

(13) to get the whole number portion (6) 2)13
of the mixed number: 12
2. Write the remainder of the division (1) 1
1
__
over the original denominator (2): 2
1
3. Write the two numbers together: 6__
2
4. Check: Change the mixed number back into an improper fraction (see below). If you get the original
improper fraction, your answer is correct.

Changing Mixed Numbers into 1. Multiply the whole number by the denomina-
Improper Fractions tor.
Mixed numbers must be turned into improper frac- 2. Add the product from step 1 to the numerator.
tions before you can multiply and divide them. Con- 3. Write that sum as the numerator of a fraction
vert mixed numbers into improper fractions using over the original denominator.
the following steps:

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Example
12
Change __
4 into a mixed number.

1. Divide the denominator (4) into the numerator 3

(12) to get the whole number portion 4)12
(3) of the mixed number: 12
2. Since the remainder of the division is zero, 0
12
you’re done. The improper fraction __ 4 is
actually a whole number: 3
3. Check: Multiply 3 by the original bottom number (4) to make sure you get the original top number
(12) as the answer.

Raising Fractions to Higher Terms Practice

We have already discussed simplifying fractions by 12. 25¢ is what fraction of 75¢?
dividing the numerator and denominator by their
GCF. The opposite of reducing a fraction is raising it 13. $20.00 is what fraction of $200.00?
to higher terms. It is often necessary to raise a frac-
tion to higher terms in order to create common 14. 8 inches is what fraction of a foot?
denominators, which are needed to add and subtract
fractions. To create an equivalent fraction that is in 15. 8 inches is what fraction of a yard? (Hint: 1
higher terms, multiply the numerator and denomina- yard = 36 inches)
tor by the same number and rewrite the products as a
new fraction. 16. 1,320 feet is what fraction of a mile? (Hint: 1
mile = 5,280 feet)
Example
2
Rewrite __ 3 as an equivalent fraction with a denomina-
17. 3 minutes is what fraction of an hour?
tor of 27:
2
Starting with __ 3 , determine that both the
18. 30 seconds is what fraction of an hour? (Hint:
numerator and denominator must be multiplied by 9 How many seconds are in an hour?)
in order to create a denominator of 27:
19. 80 minutes is what fraction of a day? (Hint:
2
__ 2×9 18
3 = _____ __
3 × 9 = 27
How many minutes are in a day?)

2 18 3
In this manner, __ __
3 can be rewritten as 27 , and they are
20. Convert 4 __
5 into an improper fraction.
equivalent fractions:
20
21. Convert __
3 into a mixed number.

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Operations on Fractions Making Common Denominators

Oftentimes, two or more fractions will not have com-
Now that you understand fractions as part to whole mon denominators and you will need to create com-
relationships and how to manipulate them into mon denominators by raising fractions to higher
equivalent fractions, let’s review how to add, subtract, terms. It is always a good idea to use the least com-
multiply, and divide fractions. mon multiple as the common denominator because
there will be less reducing required at the end. In this
Adding and Subtracting Fractions example, one of the denominators was a factor of the
Fractions must have common denominators before other denominator, so only one fraction needed to be
adding or subtracting them. When two fractions have changed:
the same denominator, it means that all the pieces are
the same size, and therefore you can just combine the Example
1
__ 7
__
numerators. When adding or subtracting two frac- 6 + 12
tions that have common denominators, add or sub-
1. Notice that the smaller denominator (6)
tract the numerators together and keep the denominator
1 1 evenly divides into the larger denominator
the same. For example, __ __
2 + 2 would be done as such: 1
(12), so find the LCD by raising __
6 to 12ths:
1
__ 1 × 2 __
____ 2
1
__ 1 1 1 2 6 = 6×2 = 12
2 + __ _____
2 = 2 = 2
__

2. Add the numerators and keep the denomina-

tor the same:
DON’T DO THIS! 2 7 9
__
12 + __ __
12 = 12
Remember, do NOT add the denominators!
Keep the denominator the same! 3. Reduce to lowest terms or write as a mixed
1 1 1+1 2 1 number, if applicable:
NO! __
2
+ __
2
≠ _____
2+2
= __
4
= __
2 9
__ 3
__
12 = 4
2 1
Since __
4
reduces to __
2
, it wouldn’t make any

sense for __
1
+ __
1
= __ .
2 In this next example, neither of the denomina-
2 2 4
tors were factors of each other, so both fractions get
1 1 1+1 2
YES . . . __
2
+ __
2
= _____
2
= __
2
=1 manipulated:
If you get confused about this rule, you can
1
always comes back to this example that __2
+
1
__ should equal 1, and not __ ! 1
2 2

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Example
2
__ 4
__
3 + 5

1. Here, 3 does not divide evenly into 5, so

find a common denominator by
multiplying the denominators by
each other: 3 × 5 = 15
2
__ 10
2. Raise each fraction to 15ths, 3= __
15
4
__ 12
the LCD: 5 = __
15
3. Add numerators and keep the
22
__
denominator the same: 15
4. Reduce to lowest terms or write as an
22
__ 7
equivalent mixed number, if applicable: 15 = 1__
15

Multiplying Fractions DON’T DO THIS!

The good news is that multiplication and division
When dividing fractions, do NOT use the
with fractions is actually much easier than addition
reciprocal of the first fraction. You must keep
and subtraction. Multiplication and division do NOT
the first fraction the same and use the recip-
require common denominators. When you multiply
rocal of the second fraction:
fractions, you can simply multiply both the numera-
5 1 7 1
tors and the denominators straight across: NO! __
7
__
÷ 10 ≠ __
5
__
× 10
5 1 5 10
YES . . . __
7
__
÷ 10 = __
7
× __
1
1
__ 2
__ 1×2
_____ 2
__ 1
__
2 × 3 = 2×3 = 6 = 3

After you multiply or divide fractions, always reduce

your answer to lowest terms. Adding Mixed Numbers
Mixed numbers, you remember, consist of a whole
Dividing Fractions number and a proper fraction. To add mixed
Dividing fractions is almost just as easy as multiply- numbers:
ing fractions! To divide fractions, multiply the first
fraction by the reciprocal of the second fraction. The 1. Add the fractional parts of the mixed numbers.
reciprocal is the flipped version of that fraction, If the sum is an improper fraction, change it to
where the numerator and denominator have switched a mixed number.
places. Notice in the following example that the recip- 2. Add the whole number parts of the original
2 3
rocal of __ __
3 is 2 once the problem has been changed mixed numbers.
from division to multiplication: 3. Add the results of steps 1 and 2.

1
__ 2 1 3 1×3 3
2 ÷ __ __ __ _____ __
3 = 2 × 2 = 2×2 = 4

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Example
3 4
2__ __
5 +15

1. Add the fractional parts of the

mixed numbers and change the
improper fraction into a mixed
3
__ 4 7 2
number: 5 + __ __ __
5 = 5 =15
2. Add the whole number parts of
the original mixed numbers: 2+1=3
2 2
3. Add the results of steps 1 and 2: 1__ __
5 +3=45

Watch Out! Subtracting Mixed is larger than the first

Numbers fractional part, rewrite
1 7
Consider the problem 5__ __
2 – 2 8 . Notice that the frac-
mixed numbers as
7 4 7 44 __ 23
__
tional portion of 2 8 is larger than the fractional por- improper fractions: 5__ 8 –28
__ __
8 – 8
1
tion of 5__
2 . There are a few different ways to handle
3. Subtract the
this type of situation, but the easiest and most reli- numerators and keep
able method is to turn both mixed numbers into the denominator the
improper fractions and then proceed with the same, then rewrite the
subtraction: answer as a mixed
44 – 23
______ 21 5
number: 8 = __8 =28
__

Example
1 7
Calculate: 5__
2 –28
__ Multiplying and Dividing
1. Make common Mixed Numbers
denominators to It is necessary to change mixed numbers into
1 1×4 4
subtract the fractions: 5__ _____ __
2 = 5 2×4 = 58
improper fractions before they can be multiplied or
2. After noticing that the divided.
second fractional part

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Example
2 1
4__ __
3 ×52
2 2 4×3+2 14
1. Change 4__
3 to an improper fraction: 4__
3 =
_______
3 = __
3
1 1 5×2+1 11
2. Change 5__
2 to an improper fraction: 5__
2 =
_______
2 = __
2
3. Multiply the fractions: 7
14
3 × 11
2
Notice that you can cancel a 2 from 1

both the 14 and the 2.

4. Change the improper fraction to a
77
__ 2
mixed number. 3 = 25__
3

DON’T DO THIS! When dividing mixed numbers, it is still necessary

to take the reciprocal of the second improper
When multiplying mixed numbers, it is
fraction:
tempting but incorrect to multiply the whole
numbers by each other and then multiply
the fractions by each other. Do not fall for
this common mistake! Instead, convert
mixed numbers to improper fractions before
performing multiplication or division!
1 1 1 1
NO! 2 __
3
× 5 __
2
≠ (2 × 5) + ( __
3
× __
2
)
1 1 7 11
YES . . . 2 __
3
× 5 __
2
= __
3
× __
2

Example
3 1
2__
4
__
6
3 3 2×4+3 11
1. Change 2__
4 to an improper fraction: 2__
4 =
_______
4 = __
4
11
__ 1
2. Rewrite the division problem: 4 ÷ __
6
1 3
3. Find the reciprocal of the __ 6 11 × 3
6 11
4
× 1 = 2×1 = 33
2
and multiply: 2

4. Change the improper fraction to a

33
__ 1
mixed number. 2 = 16__
2

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Practice Ordering Fractions

1 7
22. __ __
6 + 12 and Decimals
1
__ 1
23. 4 – __
6 On the GED® test it is likely that you will be asked to
put fractions, decimals, and rational numbers in
3
__ 5
24. 4 × __
6 order, either presented as a list or on a number line.
In this section you will learn how to how to read and
3
__ 5
25. 4 ÷ __
6 order decimals, how to compare fractions, and how
to order negative numbers.
1 2
26. 2__ __
3 ×45

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

On the GED test you need to be ready for ordering questions such as this:

n Click and drag these numbers so they are ordered from least to greatest: 0.2, –0.045, 0.06, 0.053,
–0.44

Understanding and (a whole number and a fraction), it is written like it

3
Ordering Decimals sounds: 4__10 .
Place values to the right of the decimal point repre- The second number listed, 3.45, is read as “three
sent parts of a whole. The names of the place values and forty-five hundredths.” As a mixed number, it is
45
look similar to those of numbers to the left of the written 3___
100 .
decimal point. However, note the -ths at the end of The third number listed in the chart, 523.5, is
each name in the chart. read as “five and two hundred thirty-five thou-
235
____
sandths.” It is written 5 1,000 .
To order decimals on the number line, you can
HS

use the previous strategy of writing decimals as frac-

S

DTH
DTH

NDT

tions with a power of 10 (10, 100, 1,000, 10,000, and

SAN
DRE

USA

so forth).
THS
S

For example, let’s order the following decimals

HUN
ONE

THO
TEN

TEN
THO

...

from least to greatest:

.

4 . 3
1.2, 1.40, 1.15, 1.67, and 1.53.
3 . 4 5
5 . 2 3 5
Each of these decimals has two digits to the right of
the decimal point except the number 1.2. However,
The first number listed in the table, 4.3, is read, “Four adding zeros at the end of a decimal number does not
and three tenths.” To illustrate this as a mixed number

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change the value: 1.2 is equivalent to 1.20, which is DON’T DO THIS!

also equivalent to 1.200. The pattern continues.
A common error made is to think that a
To make the comparison easier, simply add a
decimal like 0.09 is bigger than 0.2.
zero to 1.2 so that each number has the same number
NO! Don’t compare 0.09 to 0.2 and
of digits to the right of the decimal point. Then, note
think that 0.09 is greater than 0.2.
that each denominator will be 100 since there are two
YES . . . Do change 0.2 to 0.20, so
digits to the right of each decimal point (the hun-
that you can compare 0.09 to 0.20.
dredths place). 9
___
Then it is clear that 100 is smaller
20
___
20 than 100 .
1.20 = 1___
100
40
1.40 = 1___
100
15
1.15 = 1___
100
67
Comparing Fractions
1.67 = 1___ Which fraction is larger, __ __ 3 3
100 8 or 5 ? Don’t be fooled into
3
53
1.53 = 1___
100
thinking that __
8 is larger just because it has the larger
denominator. Use any of these three reliable ways to
Since each fraction has the same denominator, it is compare fractions:
easy to determine the order of the numbers: 1.15, 1.2,
1 3 3
1.4, 1.53, and 1.67. n Compare the fractions to __ __ __
2 . Both 8 and 5 are
1 3 1 3
It is also helpful to think about decimals in close to 2 . However, 5 is more than 2 , while __
__ __ __
8
1 3 3
terms of money. For instance, 1.2 is like $1.20. We all is less than __ 2 . Therefore, __
5 is larger than __
8 .
1
know that this amount is a little more than $1. Comparing fractions to __ 2 is actually quite sim-
3 4
Another example: 3.76 is like $3.76—it is about __
3
4 of
ple. The fraction __ __
8 is less than 8 , which is the
1 3
the way between $3 and $4. The following number same as __ __
2 ; in a similar fashion, 5 is more than
2.5
___ 1 ___
__ 2.5
line illustrates this concept. 5 , which is the same as 2 . ( 5 may sound like a
strange fraction, but you can easily see that it’s the
1
1.2 3.76 same as __ 2 by considering a pizza cut into 5 slices.
If you were to eat half the pizza, you’d eat 2.5
0 1 2 3 4
slices.)
n Raise both fractions to higher terms with the
same denominator. When both fractions have
the same denominator, then all you need to do is
compare their numerators.
3
__ 3×8 24 3 3×5 15
5 = ____ __
5 × 8 = 40 and __
8 = ____ __
8 × 5 = 40
24 15
Since 24 is greater than 15, __ __
40 is greater than 40 .
3 3
This shows that __ __
5 is greater than 8 .

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n Shortcut: cross multiply. “Cross multiply” means you perform the division. 3 ÷ 4 = 0.75, which is the
to perform diagonal multiplication between the decimal value of the fraction.
denominators of each fraction with the numera-
tors of the other fraction. To compare fractions Converting Decimals into Fractions
through cross multiplication, write the cross mul- Converting a decimal into a fraction can make it eas-
tiplication results above the fractions and com- ier to compare to other fractions. Earlier you reviewed
pare them. The cross product that was larger will the names of different decimal places: tenths, hun-
be sitting above the larger fraction. dredths, thousandths, and so on. To change a decimal
to a fraction:
!
24 !
15
3
↗ 83
↖ 1. Write the digits of the decimal as the top num-
5 vs
ber of a fraction.
3
Since 24 is greater than 15, this indicates that __
5 2. Write the decimal’s name as the bottom num-
3
is larger than __
8. ber of the fraction.

Comparing Fractions and Example

Decimals Together Change 0.018 to a fraction.
Sometimes the GED® test will ask you to order a list
of numbers that contains both decimals and frac- 1. Write 18 as the top of the
18
__
tions. There are two different ways you can approach fraction:
this: 2. Since there are three places to
the right of the decimal, it’s
1. Turn the fractions into decimals, so the list thousandths.
contains only decimals. 3. Write 1,000 as the bottom
18
____
2. Turn the decimals into fractions, so the list number: 1,000
contains only fractions. 4. Reduce by dividing 2 into the
18 2
_______ 9
top and bottom numbers: 1,000 2 = ___
500
These are both valuable skills to have for other math-
ematical tasks other than ordering lists of numbers, Ordering with Negative Numbers
so make sure you are comfortable with both of the When ordering values that include negative numbers,
following conversion techniques. it is critical to remember that the larger a negative
number is, the smaller its value is.
Converting Fractions into Decimals If negative numbers scare you, just think about
Convert fractions into decimals to make them easier them in terms of money. If you keep spending more
to work with or to compare to other decimals. This is money than you have in your bank account, you go
not a difficult task since a fraction simply means deeper and deeper into debt. If you have only $3 in
“divide.” The numerator of the fraction is divided by your bank account and you buy a sandwich for $5,
the denominator. Thus, __
3 you will be $2 in the hole. That number is located two
4 means “3 divided by 4,”
which may also be written as 3 ÷ 4 or 4)3 . The value spaces to the left of 0 on this number line:
3
of __
4 is the same as the quotient (result) you get when

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1
n –1__
4 . Be careful with negative numbers. Think
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 about spending money. If you spent a dollar
and change you have spent more than a dollar,
This is true for bigger numbers as well. If you have but you didn’t spend two dollars, so this num-
$100 in your checking account and you spend $150, ber will need to go between –1 and –2. Since
you owe $50. So your bank account—before over- 1
the fractional part of –1__
1
__
4 is less than 2 , that
draft fees, of course—is negative $50. On a number means the number will sit closer to the –1 on
line like the next one, –50 would be 50 spaces to the the number line:
left of 0.
1
–1 4
–100 –80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80 100

–2 –1 0 1 2

Ordering with Absolute Value

We will go more into absolute value in the next chap- 2
n 1__
5 is between 1 and 2. The fraction part of this
ter, but a basic way to think about the absolute value 1
mixed number is smaller than __ 2 , so it will be
of a number is the number without its sign. So the
closer to 1 than it is to 2:
absolute value of –8 is 8. Think about a negative tem-
perature on a freezing cold night. You can probably 2
imagine that it would be much colder on a –20 degree 15
night than on a –3 degree night. This is because –20 is –2 –1 0 1 2
a smaller number than –3. However, the absolute
value of –20, written |–20|, is actually a bigger num-
ber than the absolute value of –3, |–3|. This is because 7
–__
8 . Be careful with negative numbers. Think
n

|–20| is farther from 0 on a number line than |–3|. again about spending money. If you spend a
fractional part of a dollar, but you didn’t spend
Ordering on Number Lines a whole dollar, that means you spent between 0
Sometimes you’ll be given a question that requires and $1. Since __
7 1
__
8 is larger than 2 , you need to
you to place numbers on a number line or use a num- plot –__
7
8 closer to –1 than to 0:
ber line to estimate a value. This still tests your under-
standing of fractions and decimals. A good tool to – 7
1 8
keep in mind for this is the “comparing fractions to __2”
2
__
tip given previously. For example, if asked to plot 3 , –2 –1 0 1 2
1 2 7
–1__ __ __
4 , 1 5 , and – 8 on a number line, we would start
by considering each number and how it compares to
1
increments of __ 2: Now when you put all of these numbers together on
the number line you can see how they relate to one
2
__ 1
n
3is between 0 and 1, and is bigger than __
2 , so it another:
will be closer to 1 than it is to 0:
–1 4 –
1 7 2 2
8 3 15
2
3
–2 –1 0 1 2
–2 –1 0 1 2

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Practice Number Foundations Part I Review

Write the following lists in order of least to greatest. 1. What is the sum of 12.03 and 4.5?
a. 7.53
2 __
__ 5 __
3 __
4
27. 3, 2, 4, 9 b. 12.48
c. 16.53
28. –0.3, 3.29, 3.031, –0.03, 3.3 d. 57.03

29. 0.34, __
1 3
__ __ 1 2. The table shows Ms. Kayla’s GED® students’
5 , –0.4, – 2 , 3
results from a keyboarding quiz. What is the
difference in words per minute (wpm) between
CALCULATOR TIPS! the fastest- and the slowest-typing student?
__________
Although it is important to be able to per-
form all of the fraction and decimal skills NAME WORDS TYPED MINUTES
presented here by hand, many of these tasks Percy 90 2
can also be done on the TI-30XS calculator.
Derrick 67 2
This calculator will be a great help when
Toneshia 84 2
working with fractions and decimals, but it
Connie 70 2
will take some time to learn how to use all of
its features correctly. Do the following Chap- Frank 59 2
ter Review questions without using any of
the special calculator functions. After you 3. Using the table from the previous question,
have read through Chapter 12: Calculator how many words would Percy type in 5
Skills on the TI-30XS, you can complete them minutes?
again with the aid of your calculator. a. 450
b. 180
c. 350
d. 225

Summary 4. What expression represents 7 less than the

product of 10 and a number h.
After completing this chapter you’ll have a thorough
a. 7 – (10 × h)
understanding of the vocabulary used to describe
b. 7 – (10 ÷ h)
mathematical operations; how to break numbers
c. (10 × h) – 7
down in their factors and multiples; how to work
d. (10 ÷ h) – 7
with fractions in several different capacities; and how
to order decimals, fractions, and negative numbers.
5. What is the greatest common factor of 12, 24,
Practice the following questions, which are similar to
and 48?
what you will see on your GED® test day. Good luck!
a. 6
b. 8
c. 12
d. 48

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6. Gina sells __
5 __ 3 Answers and Explanations
8 of a mushroom pizza and 4 of an
onion pizza to the same family. How much
pizza in all did the family buy? Chapter Practice
3 1. 10 + 20 – 7. Start with 10 passengers. Then
a. 1__
8 remember that “increased” means addition and
1
b. 1__
2 “decreased” means subtraction.
8
c. __ 2. $85 ÷ 3. When something is “shared” it means it
12
15 is divided. Since the 3 siblings were sharing $85,
d. __
32
divide $85 by 3.
4 3. (6 × 12) – 4. The term “less than” means sub-
7. Katherine has 5__5 yards of red silk fabric. Steve
1 traction. “Less than” requires you to switch the
uses 1__
3 yards of it. How many yards of red silk
order that the items are presented in, so the 4
fabric are remaining?
5
comes last. The word “product” lets you know
a. 6__
8 that you have to multiply the two numbers in a
3
b. 4__
2 set of parentheses.
c. 4 __
7 4. 3($500 + $700). The word “sum” symbolizes
15
2 two numbers being added in a set of parenthe-
d. 4 __
5
ses, so the “sum of their $500 October sales and
$700 November sales” is ($500 + $700). Then,
8. Ryan has 30 pounds of cactus sand and is mak-
“triple that” means to multiply this expression
ing tiny pots of various succulents to sell at the
by three.
Mississippi Avenue Weekend Fair. If each tiny 1
1 5. __
2 ($3,200 – $2,800) or ($3,200 – $2,800) ÷ 2.
pot requires __
4 pound of sand, how many tiny
The word “difference” symbolizes two numbers
succulent pots can he prepare for the fair?
being subtracted in a set of parentheses. The
___________
“difference of her expenses of $3,200 and his
expenses of $2,800” is ($3,200 – $2,800). Then,
to “split” it means dividing that expression by
two. Dividing by two can also be expressed as
9. Put the following numbers in order from least 1
multiplying by __ 2 , so there are two possible
to greatest:
3 answers provided.
15, 1.0005, __
2 , 1.005. __________________
6. ($100 – $40 + $80)2; or 2($100 – $40 + $80).
First, interpret “$40 less than $100” to mean
10. Put the following list of fractions and decimals
$100 – $40, since “less than” means subtraction
in order of least to greatest:
in the opposite order. Increasing that by $80
2 8 2
0.068, __ __ __
3 , –1.7, 5 , 0.61, –1 3 means adding $80 to $100 – $40. Finally, “and
then doubled” is asking the $100 – $40 + $80 to
be put in parentheses before multiplying it by
(Note: This would be a drag and drop question on
two, so that everything is doubled, and not just
your GED® test, but instead, just list them in order.)
the first or last term.

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7. 60. Make two lists of the multiples for both 6 1

___
18. 120 . It
is important here to convert both mea-
and 20:
surements to the same unit: seconds. Since
6: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, 66
there are 60 minutes in an hour, and 60 seconds
20: 20, 40, 60
in each minute, multiply 60 by 60 to determine
60 is the least common multiple on these lists.
how many seconds are in an hour: 60 × 60 =
8. 36. Make lists of the multiples for 12, 18, and 6:
3,600. Now 30 seconds will be the part and
12: 12, 24, 36 part 30
3,600 seconds will be the whole: _____ _____
whole = 3,600
18: 18, 36 1
= ___
120
6: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36 1
__
19. 18 . It
is important here to convert both mea-
36 is the least common multiple on these lists.
surements to the same unit: minutes. Since
9. 15. Make lists of the factors for 15 and 60:
there are 24 hours in a day and 60 minutes in
15: 1, 3, 5, 15
each hour, perform 24 × 60 = 1,440 to get the
60: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60 part 80 1
number of minutes in a day. _____ _____ __
whole = 1,440 = 18
15 is the greatest factor on both of these lists.
23
__ 3
10. Yes. When working with two or more prime 20. 5 . Toconvert 4__
5 into an improper fraction,
numbers, the greatest common factor will be 1. multiply 4 by 5 , add that product to 3, and put
2
11. __ that sum over the original denominator, 5:
3 . Divide the numerator and denominator by ×5+3
4_______ 23
48 8
8 to start: _____
6
__ = __
72 8 = 9 . Then reduce again by 5 5
6 3 2 2 20
a factor of 3: 9 3 = __
_____
3 21. 6__ __
3 . To convert 3 into a mixed number, divide
1
12. __
3 . Since 25¢ is the part and 75¢ is the whole, 20 by 3 to get 6 with a remainder of 2. Put that
part
write these numbers in _____ whole format and reduce: remainder over 3: 20 ÷ 3 = 6 Remainder 2;
part
_____ 25
__ 1
__ 20
__ 2
__
whole = 75 = 3 3 =63
1
__ 3
13. 10 . Since$20 is the part and $200 is the whole, 22. __
4 . Notice that the smaller denominator (6)
part
write these numbers in _____
whole format and reduce: evenly divides into the larger denominator (12),
part
_____ ___20 1
__ 1
whole = 200 = 10 so find the LCD by raising __ 6 to 12ths:
2
__ 1
__ 1 ×
_____2 2
__
14. 3 . It
is important here to convert both mea- 6 = 6 × 2 = 12 . Add the numerators and keep
surements to the same unit: inches. Since there the denominator the same and then reduce
2 7 9 9 3 3
are 12 inches in 1 foot, write the part, 8 inches, your answer: __ __ __ _____ __
12 + 12 = 12 = 12 3 = 4
part 8 2
over the whole, 12 inches: _____ __ __
whole = 12 = 3 23.
1
__
12 . The least common denominator for 4 and 6
2
__
15. 9 . It is important here to convert both mea- is 12, so raise both of these fractions to 12ths:
surements to the same unit: inches. Now we are 1
__ 1×3
_____ 3
__
4 = 4 × 3 = 12
comparing 8 inches to 36 inches, since it takes 1
__ 1×2
_____ 2
__
part 8 2 6 = 6 × 2 = 12
36 inches to make 1 yard. _____ __ __
whole = 36 = 9 3
__ 2
__ 1
__
1 So 12 – 12 = 12 .
16. __
4 . It is important here to convert both mea- 5
__
surements to the same unit: feet. 1,320 feet is 24. 8 . When multiplying fractions, multiply
the part and since 1 mile = 5,280 feet, 5,280 is straight across the numerators and straight
3×5 15 5
part
the whole: _____
1,320
_____ 1
__ across the denominators: _____ __ __
4 × 6 = 24 = 8
whole = 5,280 = 4 9
1
17. __ 25. __
10 . When dividing fractions, multiply the first
20 . It is important here to convert both mea-
surements to the same unit: minutes. Since 1 fraction by the reciprocal of the second
hour = 60 minutes, use 60 as the whole and 3 as fraction:
3
__ 5
__ 3
__ 6
__ 18
__
4 ÷ 6 = 4 × 5 = 20
part 3 1
the part: _____ __
whole = 60 = 20
__
9
Then reduce this by 2 to get __ 10 .

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48
__ 3
__ Because 4.5 does not show as many decimal
26. 5 or 9 5 . Whenmultiplying mixed numbers,
places as 12.03, add a zero on the end of 4.5
turn them both into improper fractions and
to make 4.50. Then each number will show
then multiply straight across the numerators
1 7 2 22 the same number of places to the right of
and the denominators: 2__ __ __ __
3 = 3 and 4 5 = 5
7 22 144 48 3 the decimal. These will be easier to add.
and __ __ ___ __ __
3 × 5 = 15 = 5 or 9 5 .
4 __
2 __
3 __
5
12.03
__
27. 9, 3, 4, 2. To compare all of the given frac- +4.50
2
tions, turn them all into decimals: __ 3 = 0.66, Now add each column one at a time starting
5
__ 3
__ 4
__
2 = 2.5, 4 = 0.75, 9 = 0.44. on the right.
Now you can see that they should be arranged 12.03
4 __
2 __3 __
5
in the following order: __ 9, 3, 4, 2. +4.50
28. –0.3, –0.03, 3.031, 3.29, 3.3. To compare all of 16.53
the given fractions, add zeros to the right of all 2. 15.5 wpm. To answer this question, it is helpful
of the decimals so that they are all out of thou- to recall that words per minute is a rate. First,
sandths. The two negatives will come first with notice that the quiz results were for 2 minutes,
–0.030 being closer to 0 on the number line not 1 minute. We need to find words per min-
than -0.300, so the –0.300 is the smallest num- ute. To do this, simply divide each number of
31
____
ber. 31,000 is the smallest of the remaining three words typed by 2 to find the words per minute
300
____ 290
____
numbers and 31,000 is larger than 31,000 , so the for each person. Since each number is being
final order is –0.3, –0.03, 3.031, 3.29, 3.3. divided by the same number, we only need to
3 1 1
29. –__ __ __
2 , –0.4, 5 , 0.34, 3 . To compare these terms, do this for the greatest and the smallest number
turn all of them into decimals with the same 90 words
of words typed. 2________
59 words
________
minutes = 45 wpm. 2 minutes =
number of digits to the right of the decimal 29.5 wpm. To find the difference, simply sub-
sign: tract 29.5 from 45 to get 15.5 wpm. Alterna-
0.34 tively, subtract the smallest number of words
1
__
5 = 0.20 typed from the largest number and divide the
–0.4 = –0.40 difference by 2.
3
–__2 = –1.50 3. d. Since Percy typed 90 words in 2 minutes,
1
__
3= 0.66 divide 90 by 2 to see how many words Percy
The farthest number to the left of 0 on a num- typed per minute: 90 ÷ 2 = 45 words per
ber line would be –1.5, followed by –0.40. Then minute. To see how many words Percy would
for the positive numbers, the correct ordering is type in 5 minutes, multiply 45 words by 5:
0.20, 0.34, 0.66. 225
4. c. The phrase product of 10 and a number h
Number Foundations Part I Review implied that 10 and h should be multiplied
1. c. Sum is a key word that means add. You need in a set of parentheses. The phrase less than
to add the numbers 12.03 and 4.5. Place the means subtraction, but you have to switch
numbers one over the other and line up the the order of the terms, so the 7 will come
decimal points. last: (10 × h) – 7.
12.03
+4.5

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5. c. To find the greatest common factor of 12, 3

9. 1.0005, 1.005, __ 2 , 15. All of these numbers,
24, and 48, write out the factor lists for each
when rewritten, contain the digits 1 and 5.
of these numbers: 5
The number 1.005 = 1_____ 1,000 , the number 1.0005
12: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12 5
_____ 3 1
= 110,000 , and __ __
2 = 1 2 = 1.5. Therefore, 1.0005
24: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24
is less than 1.005, which, in turn, is less than 1.5.
48: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 48
The greatest number is 15.
12 is the greatest factor in all of these lists. 2 2 __
8
5 3 10. –1.7, –1__ __
3 , 0.068, 0.61, 3 , 5 . Convert the frac-
6. a. We need to add __ __
8 and 4 in order to see how tions into decimals and add zeros so that they
much pizza that single family bought. To
all have three places to the right of the decimal.
find the LCD, check to see whether the
Written in this fashion, they are all in thou-
smaller denominator (4) evenly divides into
sandths and can be compared:
the larger denominator (8). Since it does, we
____68
only need to raise the smaller fraction (__
3 0.068 = 1,000
4 ) to
2
__ ____ 667
higher terms to have common denomina- 3 = 0.667 = 1,000
tors. Multiply the numerator and denomina- –1.7 = –1.700 = ______
–1,700
3 6 1,000
tor by 2 to raise __ __
4 to 8 . Then add the 8
__ ____ 1,600
5 = 1.600 = 1,000
numerators and keep the denominator the
5 6 11 3 ____ 610
same: __ __ __ __ 0.61 = 0.610 = 1,000
8 + 8 = 8 . This simplifies to 1 8 .
2 –1,667
7. c. For this question, we need to subtract the –1__ ______
3 = –1.667 = 1,000
1 4
1__ __
3 yards of silk that Steve used from the 5 5 Since all the fractions above are now out of
yards of red silk fabric that Katherine has. 1,000, we can ignore the denominators and just
Use a common denominator of 15: focus on the numerators: –1,700, –1,667, 68,
4 12
5__ __
5 = 5 15
610, 667, 1,600.
1 5
1__ __
3 = 1 15
Since the second fraction has a smaller value
than the first fraction, we can perform the
subtraction by subtracting the whole num-
ber and the fractions separately:
12 5 7
5__ __ __
15 – 1 15 = 4 15
8. 120. Our task is to take 30 pounds of soil and
1
divide it into equal portions of __
4 pound each.
1
To do this, we need to perform 30 ÷ __ 4 . When
dividing with fractions, multiply the first num-
ber by the reciprocal of the second fraction:
1 4
30 ÷ __ __
4 = 30 × 1 = 120. Ryan will be able to
make 120 tiny succulent pots for the fair.

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 NUMBER

4
FOUNDATIONS
C H A P T E R

PART II:
NEGATIVES,
EXPONENTS,
AND PEMDAS

T his chapter expands upon the arithmetic concepts that were introduced in the previous chapter. Here
you will learn how to incorporate and work with negative numbers, which is a highly valuable skill.
Why? Because negative numbers come up in life just as much as positive numbers. Stock prices fall, money
gets spent, and temperatures drop—all of these are illustrations of negative numbers in action. Additionally, master-
ing the skills in this chapter is critical to your ability to perform the algebra skills in subsequent chapters. The
answers and explanations for all practice questions are at the end of the chapter.
This chapter covers:

n Rules for working with signed numbers

n Order of operations (PEMDAS)
n Laws of exponents
n Square roots and cube roots
n Absolute value
n Scientific notation
n Recognizing rational, irrational, and undefined numbers

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 –N U M BE R F O UN D AT IO N S PART I I : NE GAT IV E S , EX PO NE NT S , AND PE M D A S –

Signed Numbers from helping you reach your goal of passing the
GED® Mathematical Reasoning test, being able to
Signed numbers include all real numbers that are work with negative numbers will help you make well-
positive or negative. It’s very important that you feel informed career and financial decisions in your per-
totally comfortable adding, subtracting, multiplying, sonal life!
and dividing positive and negative numbers. Aside

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

You may have to evaluate expressions with signed numbers on your GED® Mathematical Reasoning
test. Read the following section to learn how to get this type of question correct:

n Evaluate –3 + –10(–5 – 14)

Adding Like Signs The scenario of spending money twice can be gener-
The term like signs refers to operations on either all alized as the rule that a negative plus a negative equals
positive numbers or all negative numbers. It’s helpful a bigger negative.
to think of positive numbers as money you’ve earned
and negative numbers as money you’ve spent. It
shouldn’t be a surprise that if you earn $20 and then
RULE: ADDING LIKE SIGNS
you earn $10, you have earned $30. A positive plus a Adding like signs always results in the same
positive always equals a bigger positive. sign of the numbers being added. A positive
Conversely, you can probably understand that if plus a positive will always be a positive. A
you spend $10 on a movie ticket and then you spend negative plus a negative will always be a
$5 on popcorn, you just spent $15. This scenario is negative.
modeled as such:
n Positive + Positive = Positive:
(–$10) + (–$5) = –$15 20 + 10 = 30
n Negative + Negative = Negative:
The parentheses in this equation do not have any –10 + –5 = –15
mathematical significance—they simply compart-
mentalize each negative number. The previous equa-
tion can also be written like this:
Adding Opposite Signs
–10 + –5 = –15 The term opposite signs refers to operations on both
positive and negative integers. In the following exam-
ples, earned money is a positive number, spent money
is a negative number, and debt is money you owe to
someone, so debt is a negative number too.

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Case 1: If you earn $25 and spend $20, you will have Subtracting Signed Numbers
$5 left over. This is modeled as: What do you do when asked to subtract signed num-
25 + (–20) = 5 bers? Don’t do it! It is way too easy to make careless
In this case, a positive plus a negative equals a errors when subtracting mixed numbers. Life is tough
positive. enough, and there are many things out there that will
try to ruin your day, so don’t allow subtracting signed
Case 2: If you earn $20 and spend $25, you are in integers be one of them! Look at how confusing the
debt by $5. You owe someone $5 so you have –$5. expressions 5 – (−3) and −26 – (−8) are. Luckily,
This is modeled as: there is an easy way to turn subtraction problems into
20 + (–25) = –5 addition problems:
In this case, a positive plus a negative equals a
negative. Turn subtraction problems into addition by
adding the opposite value of the number being
Looking at both cases, notice that each time the subtracted.
answer had the same sign as the larger number. When
adding numbers with opposite signs, ignore the signs For example, 10 – 9 is the same thing as 10 + (–9). We
of the numbers, subtract the numbers, and give the will refer to this technique as keep-switch-switch and
answer the sign of the larger number. it can always be used to turn subtraction into
addition:
RULE: ADDING
keep the sign of the first number,
OPPOSITE SIGNS
switch the subtraction to addition, and
When adding numbers with opposite signs, switch the sign of the second number.
sometimes the answer will be negative and
sometimes it will be positive. Follow these If you use keep-switch-switch to turn subtraction into
steps to add opposite signed numbers: addition, you just need to remember your rules for
adding signed numbers and you don’t have to worry
n Ignore the signs. about another set of rules for subtracting signed
n Subtract the two numbers. numbers.
n Give the answer the sign of the larger Of course you shouldn’t turn easy problems like
number. 10 – 2 into 10 + –2, but keep-switch-switch will help
turn odd-looking problems into problems that are
much more clear:

So, to perform 20 + (–25), we subtracted 20 from 25

5 – (−3) will become 5 + (3).
and gave the difference of 5 the negative sign from
−26 – (−8) will become –26 + 8
the larger number. This equation has the same answer
if the order of the numbers is switched around: –25 +
Notice in the first example of 5 – (–3), subtracting a
20 = –5. In addition problems, it is not significant if
negative is the same as adding a positive. That is a
the negative number is on the left or right.
really good fact to be comfortable with since it comes
up a lot. Once you have rewritten your subtraction
problem as addition, follow the rules for addition.

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RULE: TURN SUBTRACTION Multiplying and Dividing Opposite Signs

INTO ADDITION When you multiply or divide opposite signs, the answer
will always be negative. Think of –$5 × 4 as a model of
Turn odd-looking subtraction problems into
spending $5 on 4 separate occasions. In total, you
addition by using keep-switch-switch:
would have spent $20, which is expressed as –20.
n Keep the sign of the first number. Therefore, –5 × 4 = –20.
n Switch the subtraction to addition.
n Switch the sign of the second number. Multiplying and Dividing Like Signs
When you multiply or divide numbers with the same
Example:
signs, the answer will always be positive. Think of –$5
−30 – (−10) will become –30 + 10
× –4 as representing someone canceling out a $5 debt
Then follow the rules for addition.
you owe them 4 times in a row. (Having that debt
canceled would be like you earning $20.) Therefore,
–5 × –4 = 20 and the same relationship holds true for
Multiplying and Dividing division: –8 ÷ –4 = 2.
Signed Numbers
Multiplication and division follow the same rules for
signed numbers.

RULE: MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING WITH NEGATIVES

Multiplying and dividing signed numbers follow the same rules:
Opposite signs: Same signs:
(–) × / ÷ (+) = (–) (–) × / ÷ (–) = (+)
(+) × / ÷ (–) = (–) (+) × / ÷ (+) = (+)

Now read the information in the following box care- DON’T DO THIS!
fully, because it illustrates one of the most common
The most common mistake students make
mistakes made with signed numbers.
when working with signed numbers is to
apply the “two negatives yield a positive” to
addition, instead of limiting that rule to mul-
tiplication and division. It is a very easy mis-
take to make. Remember that adding two
negatives is like spending money twice, so
adding two negatives is always a bigger
negative!
NO! –8 + –2 ≠ 10
YES . . . –8 + –2 = –10

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Practice 5. A group of five people split a dinner bill of

1. –4.5 × 6 = _______ $110. Write an expression to represent how
they shared the bill and then show how much
2. –$6.60 – $18.50 = _______ money each person spent.

3. –18 + –10 – 12 = _______

Exponents
4. Olivia bought 20 T-shirts for her soccer team.
If the T-shirts cost $18 each, write an expres- You will be able to easily recognize when an exponent
sion to represent Olivia’s purchase and show is being used. An exponent is written as a small num-
how much money she spent in total. ber above the upper right-hand corner of a regular
sized number. The number being raised to an expo-
nent is called the base. In the expression 34, 4 is the
exponent and 3 is the base.

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

On the GED® test you will need to be able to evaluate expressions with exponents:

n Find the value of the following expression: (–5)2 – ( –4)3.

How to Use Exponents DON’T DO THIS!

Although students know that exponents are
Exponents are a mathematical shorthand notation
shorthand for repeated multiplication, it is
for representing repeated multiplication. Instead of
all too easy to make careless errors. 24 does
writing 3 × 3 × 3 × 3, an exponent of 4 can be used as
not equal 8! Do not multiply the base by the
an instruction that the number 3 be multiplied by
exponent!
itself 4 times:
NO! 24 ≠ 2 × 4
YES . . . 24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16
3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 34

The exponent always gives instructions for how many

times the base will be multiplied by itself. Therefore, Powers, Squares, and Cubes
106 means 10 multiplied by itself 6 times: Exponents are normally referred to as powers. The
expression 34 is said as three to the fourth power or
106 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 1,000,000 three raised to the power of 4. The exponents two and
three have their own special names:

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Squared: When a base is raised to a power of So, what is the 3 27 ? What number multiplied
two, the base is being squared. 52 is said as by itself three times yields 27? Three!
five squared. Since 52 = 5 × 5, 52 = 25.
Cubed: When a base is raised to a power of 3 × 3 × 3 = 27
three, the base is being cubed. 53 is said as 33 = 27
five cubed. Since 53 = 5 × 5 × 5, 53 = 125.
So, 3 27 = 3
Example It is also important to understand how to sim-
Write 4 × 4 × 4 in exponential form and evaluate it. plify expressions that contain roots. We will review
this process with two forms—whole numbers and
Since 4 is being multiplied by itself 3 times, the expo- fractions.
nential notation for this is 43. We can then write that
43 = 64. Whole Numbers
a ⋅b = a ⋅ b
Example
Write 2 to the power of five in exponential form and Example: Simplify 27. = 3 ⋅ 9 = 3 ⋅ 9 = 3 3
evaluate it. 27 = 3 ⋅ 9 = 3 ⋅ 9 = 3 3

2 to the power of five is 25: 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32 Fractions

a
a =
Square Roots and Cube Roots b b
Roots undo exponents. Square rooting and cube
rooting involve backwards thinking. For instance, if a 4 2
Example: Simplify 4.
9
= = 3
problem states, “What is the square root of 16?” it is 9

asking you for the number that equals 16 when mul- 4 2

4
9
= = 3
tiplied by itself. Mathematically, it is written 9

16 = ?
Laws of Exponents
There are six laws of exponents that are used when
working with exponents. For each law we’ll give a
So, what number, when multiplied by itself (i.e., when
general rule using variables and we’ll give an example
squared), yields 16? Four!
using numbers. These laws work the same regardless
of whether the bases and exponents are numbers or
4 × 4 = 16
variables. Notice that the first two rules only apply to
42 = 16
situations where the bases are the same.
So, 16 = 4.
1. Multiplying Like Bases: When multiplying like
Cube roots function in the same way. To find a
bases, simply add the exponents and keep the base the
cube root of a number, ask yourself, “What number
same to create a simplified term:
used three times in multiplication gives me this num-
General Rule: xa · xb = x(a+b)
ber?” Mathematically, cube roots are written like the
Example: 23 × 24 = 2(3+4) = 27
following: 3 27 .

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2. Dividing Like Bases: When dividing like bases, sub- 6. Negative Exponents: A base raised to a negative
tract the exponents and keep the base the same to create power is equivalent to the reciprocal of that base with
a simplified term. the positive value of the power.
1
xa
General Rule: __
xb = x
(a–b) General Rule: x–a = __xa
1
Example: __
26 (6–2) = 24 Example: 3–2 = __
22 = 2 32

3. Raising a Power to a Power: When a base with a Practice

power is raised to another power, multiply the expo- 6. What is the value of 5 squared?
nents and keep the base the same to create a simplified
term. 7. What is the value of negative 5 squared?
General Rule: (xa)b = xa·b
Example: (52)3 = 52·3 = 56 8. What is the value of negative 5 cubed?

4. Raising a Product to a Power: When a product is 9. Compare and contrast your answers to ques-
raised to a power, raise each factor inside the parenthe- tions 6, 7, and 8.
ses to the power outside the parentheses. (This rule may
often be combined with the previous rule. Don’t forget 10. What is the value of k if 54 × 52 = 5k?
to raise the coefficient to the power as well.)
General Rule: (xy)a = xaya 11. What is the value of k if 58 ÷ 5k = 52?
Example: (2x4y)3 = 23x4·3y3 = 8x12y3
12. What is the value of 3
−8 ?
5. Raising to a Power of Zero: Any base raised to a
power of zero equals 1. 13. Simplify 40 × 5.
General Rule: x0 = 1
Example: 780 = 1
Order of Operations

In order to correctly solve problems that include

more than one operation, there is a specific order of
operations that must be followed.

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

You will need to demonstrate a knowledge of correct order in which to do operations on the GED®
Mathematical Reasoning test. Read the following section to learn how to answer a question like
this:

4+3×2
____________
n Simplify: 7 – 14 ÷ 7

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PEMDAS Distributive Property

PEMDAS is an acronym used to remember the cor- A distribution center is the place from which some-
rect order to perform operations. You can remember thing is distributed, or sent, to many other locations.
PEMDAS by reciting Please Excuse My Dear Aunt In math, the distributive property distributes a
Sally. The Order of Operations to follow when evalu- number or term to other numbers or terms through
ating numerical or variable expressions is: multiplication. Whenever you see a set of parentheses
containing a sum or difference, and there is a number
1. Parentheses or variable directly before or after the parentheses,
2. Exponents and Roots* you can use the distributive property. In order to per-
3. Multiplication and Division* form the distributive property, multiply the term out-
4. Addition and Subtraction* side the parentheses by each of the terms separated by
*These operations are performed as they arise from + or – inside the parentheses.
left to right in a problem.
Example
PEMDAS will help you correctly evaluate mathemati- Expand the expression 3(4 + 1) and then solve.
cal expressions, but only if you pay attention to the
small, but very important asterisk at the end of the First we notice that there is a sum contained inside a
list above! It is critical that you treat the operations set of parentheses and there’s another number
that are on the same line together as equal partners directly outside the parentheses. We would distribute
that are evaluated from left to right. Doing multipli- the factor of 3 to the 4 and the 1 by multiplying 3 to
cation before division can get you in some hot each of those numbers. After doing this we will add
water—read on! the products:

DON’T DO THIS! 3 · (4 + 1) = 3 · 4 + 3 · 1
The most common mistake with PEMDAS is 12 + 3
doing multiplication before division instead 15
of going left to right. Notice that in solving
24 ÷ 6 × 2, you will get two different answers
depending on whether you prioritize multi- Of course, in the previous case, it is not necessary that
plication or move from left to right: you use the distributive property to simplify the
NO! Don’t think that you must always expression. However, the distributive property will be
do multiplication before division: required when dealing with expressions that have
24 ÷ 6 × 2 ≠ 24 ÷ 12 = 2 (Incorrect!) variables.
YES . . . Instead, perform multiplica-
tion and division from left to right: Example
24 ÷ 6 × 2 = 4 × 2 = 8 (Correct!) Expand the problem 5(x + 6) into an equivalent
Notice that each method gives a different expression.
answer. Therefore, only one method can be
correct: Move from left to right when per- In this case, it is impossible to add the x and 6 first
forming multiplication and division. since variables and constants cannot be combined.
Here, the only way to proceed is to multiply the 5 by

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each of the terms inside the parentheses and keep Negative Within Negative Without
your answer as two separate terms: Parentheses Parentheses
(–5)2 = –52 =
–5 × –5 = –1 × 5 × 5 =
5(x + 6)
25 –25
5x + 30
When the negative is When the negative is
within a set of paren- not within a set of
theses, it gets canceled parentheses, it acts as a
DON’T DO THIS! out when squared. –1 being multiplied by
the square of 5. In this
The distributive property is only used when
case, the negative does
the numbers or variables inside the paren-
not cancel out.
theses are being added or subtracted. Do
not make the common error of using the
When a negative value is subbed in for a variable, the
distributive property when the parentheses
problem is treated as if there are parentheses around
contain numbers that are being multiplied:
the negative number: if x = –6, then x2 will equal
NO! 7(4 × 8) ≠ 7 · 4 × 7 · 8
(–6)2 = 36.
YES . . . Instead, 7(4 × 8) = 7 × 4 × 8
Notice that a negative base raised to an odd
power will not cancel out since there will be one neg-
ative sign remaining, after all the pairs have canceled
Negative Bases with Exponents out:
Negative bases with exponents cause problems for
many students because a small change in notation (–2)5 = (–2) × (–2) × (–2) × (–2) × (–2)
results in a completely different answer. Look at how = 4 × 4 × –2 = –32
the two following examples produce opposite
answers depending on the presence or absence of
parentheses:

RAISING A NEGATIVE BASE TO A POWER

When a set of parentheses is around a negative number that has an exponent:

n Even exponents will cancel out the sign of a negative base: (–3)2 = (–3)( –3) = 9
n Odd exponents will preserve the sign of a negative base: (–2)3 = (–2)(–2)(–2) = –8

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Now let’s tackle a problem that combines what you’ve –2. You get choice c, 73, if you multiply 4 × –2 and
learn about signed numbers, exponents, PEMDAS, then square it, along with not computing the paren-
and the distributive property: theses first. You get choice d, 78, if you multiply 4 ×
–2 and then square75it =but5 still
3 3 5 2
compute the second
72 3
3 8 8 3
Example half correctly.
Solve 4x2 + 3(1 – x), when x = –2. 75 25 ⋅ 3 5 3
=
a. 21 Practice 72 9 ⋅ 8 3 8

b. 25 14. Solve (52 + 64 ) ÷ 10. ___________

c. 73
d. 77 15. Evaluate –3 + –10(–5 – 14)

4 3×2
First, let’s substitute –2 for every x and rewrite the 16. Simplify ________
7 – 14 ÷ 7
expression:
17. Evaluate 4(2)2 + (1 – (–2))3
4(–2)2 + 3(1 – –2)

While it may be tempting to go from left to right, we Absolute Value

need to be careful. We cannot multiply –2 × 4 and
then square the answer because Exponents come The absolute value of a number has a special notation
before Multiplication in the order of operations. Plus, of straight-lined brackets. Do not confuse |–5| with
we also have Parentheses in the second half of the (–5) since they have very different meanings.
problem, and the order of operations indicates we do
them first. Always. Distance from Zero
So let’s go through the steps one by one: The absolute value of a number tells us how far away
it is from zero. For instance, the number 8 is a dis-
1. We have Parentheses: (1 – –2). When subtract- tance of 8 from zero. The number 400 is a distance of
ing a negative number, the negatives turn into 400 from zero. What about the number –10? Think
addition. Thus, (1 – –2) really is (1 + 2), which about it. Even though it is a negative number, it is still
equals 3. Our problem now reads: a distance of 10 from zero—just to the left of zero
4(–2)2 + 3(3) instead of to the right.
2. We have Exponents: (–2)2. This is 4. Our prob- The absolute value is written mathematically
lem now reads: like the following examples:
4(4) + 3(3)
3. We have Multiplication: 4(4) and 3(3). 4(4) = n |8| = 8 (Read: the absolute value of 8 is 8)
16 and 3(3) = 9. Our problem now reads: n |–10| = 10 (Read: the absolute value of –10 is 10)
16 + 9
4. We have Addition: 16 + 9, which equals 25. You may be asked to find the absolute value of the
distance between two numbers. What does that
Therefore, the answer is choice b, 25! mean? It means to find the difference between the
You get choice a, 21, if you don’t do the paren- numbers (subtract) and then record the absolute
theses first and just multiply 3 × 1 and then subtract value of the answer.

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DON’T DO THIS! Practice

18. Find |x – y| when x = 3 and y = 8. __________
With parentheses, a negative on the outside
will cancel out a negative on the inside: –(–4)
19. Find the absolute value of the difference
= +4. However, with the absolute value
between 5 and 3. __________
bracket, you must take the absolute value of
the inside number first, and then apply the
20. Simplify: |–20 + 5| – |–40|
negative symbol on the outside. Therefore,
absolute values with a negative on the out-
side always return a negative answer. Don’t
Scientific Notation
make the mistake of canceling out the two
negatives with absolute values:
Scientific notation is a special format used to write
NO! –|–8| ≠ +8
extremely big or small numbers in shorthand. Sci-
YES . . . –|–8| = –8
ence, finance, and population research are just some
areas that involve very large or small numbers. Scien-
tists writing papers about outer space don’t want to
have to keep writing huge numbers like 93,000,000
miles (the distance from the sun to the Earth) and
300,000,000 (the speed of light in meters per second)
so scientific notation gives us a universally accepted
way to discuss and compare very large and small
numbers.

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

Be ready to express extremely large or small numbers in scientific notation on the GED® test:

n The sun is 93,000,000 miles from earth. Which of the following expressions represents this distance
in scientific notation?
a. 93 × 106
b. 93 × 105
c. 9.3 × 107
d. 0.93 × 108

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Scientific Notation Format Example

The general format for a number written in scientific Write the following number in standard notation: 8.5
notation is a × 10b, with specific requirements for the × 10–3
types of numbers a and b can be:
The 10–3 is giving instructions to move the decimal
1. a must always be a number greater than or point three places to the left. The expression 8.5 ×
equal to 1 and less than 10. 10–3 represents the decimal 0.0085 after moving the
2. b is a positive or negative integer. It determines decimal point three times to the left.
the number of spaces the decimal point moves
to the left or to the right. (b can also be 0) Converting from Standard Notation
to Scientific Notation
When b 0, the value of the scientifically notated Converting a number from standard notation to sci-
number is greater than 1. When b < 0, the value of the entific notation can be a little trickier for students.
scientifically notated number is a decimal between 0 Let’s convert 9,800,000 in scientific notation. Since
and 1. 9,800,000 must be written in the format a × 10b,
where a is between 1 and 10, our decimal must go
between the 9 and the 8, make a = 9.8. Since this
VOCABULARY ALERT! placement moved the original decimal 6 places six to
Scientific notation represents numbers in the the left, our scientific notation instructions must
format: a × 10b, where 1 a < 10 and b is an move the decimal 6 places to the right. Write
integer. When b 0 the number will be 9,800,000 as 9.8 × 106. Check the answer by sliding
greater than or equal to 1. Conversely, when the decimal point in 9.8 six times to the right. This
b < 0 the number will be less than 1. gives 9,800,000, indicating that we have the correct
scientific notation.
Suppose we have a really small number that
needs to be written in scientific notation, like
Converting from Scientific Notation 0.000047. We are going to approach this task the same
to Standard Notation way. First, select an a that is between 1 and 10: put the
To convert a number from scientific notation to stan- decimal between the 4 and 7 to get 4.7. Next, we need
dard notation, look at b to get the instructions on to multiply by a power of 10 to make the scientific
how many times to move the decimal right or left: notation represent the original number. To get to 4.7,
we moved the decimal point five spaces to the right.
Example To express a small number, use a negative exponent:
What is 5.9 × 104 in standard notation? 4.7 × 10–5. We can verify that this answer is correct by
sliding the decimal point in 4.7 five times to the left;
Since 104 has four zeros (10,000), the decimal in 5.9 since this gives us our original value 0.000047, 4.7 ×
will move to the right four times. 5.9 × 104 translates 10–5 must be the correct scientific notation.
to 59,000.
Negative exponents will move the decimal the
other direction.

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Practice undefined numbers. Pay close attention to the two

21. Translate 316.72 into scientific notation. important types of fractions in the following box:

22. Express 0.00205 in scientific notation.

DON’T DO THIS!
23. Pluto is 5,914,000,000 km from the sun. Repre- It is important to understand what “0” rep-
0 8
sent this distance in scientific notation. resents in a fraction. Is __
8
the same as __0
?
0
Definitely not! __
8
= 0, because there are 0
8
24. The width of a specialized medical probe is out of 8 parts. But __
0
is undefined, because
0.0008 centimeters. Represent this width in sci- it is impossible to have 8 parts of 0. (The
entific notation. symbol for undefined is “ ”). Zero is never
allowed to be the denominator of a fraction,
so don’t make the mistake of interpreting
Rational, Irrational, fractions with 0 in the bottom as having a
and Undefined Numbers value of 0!
8
NO! __
0
≠0
Before moving on to our next chapter, let’s cover 0
YES . . . __ =0
8
three important types of numbers that you should be 8
YES . . . __
0
= or undefined
familiar with.

Rational Versus Irrational Numbers

A rational number is any number that can be repre-
p CALCULATOR TIPS!
sented in the form __
q , where p and q are both integers
and q does not equal 0. In decimal form, rational Although it is important to be able to per-
numbers will either end or have a repeating decimal form all of the fraction and decimal skills
1
(example, __3 = 0.33). presented here by hand, many of these tasks
Irrational numbers have non-repeating deci- can also be done on the TI-30XS calculator.
mals that never end and they cannot be written as This calculator will be a great help when
fractions. A common irrational number is π, which working with negatives and scientific nota-
has a value of 3.141592 . . . Square roots often pro- tion, but it will take some time to learn how
duce irrational numbers. The first irrational square to use all of its features correctly. It is very
roots are 2 , 3 , and 5 , but there are infinite irra- easy to make mistakes with order of opera-
tional numbers. tions when using calculators, so these types
of questions are best done by hand. Do the
Undefined Numbers following Chapter Review questions without
Undefined numbers are very important in math— the special calculator functions. After you
these are numbers that cannot exist. An undefined have read through Chapter 12: Calculator
number occurs when any number is divided by 0. Skills on the TI-30XS, you can complete them
That quotient is undefined since it is impossible to again with the aid of your calculator.
split a quantity into 0 parts. Therefore, any fraction
with a denominator of 0 is undefined. Fractions are
the most common place where you will encounter

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Summary 5. How many units is h from 0 on the number

line below?
You have now completed the Number Foundations
h
Review and have some new skills under your belt:
working with signed numbers and exponents; using –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
PEMDAS to correctly navigate the order of opera-
tions; understanding absolute value; and converting 1
between scientific notation and standard notation. a. –4__
2
1
Practice these questions to get a feel for what you may b. –3__
2
1
see on your GED® test day! c. 4__
2
1
d. 3__
2
Number Foundations Part II Review
1. Evaluate the following expression: 6. Which of the following is the number 316.72
(5 – 3) × (4 + 4 ÷ 2) written in scientific notation?
a. 6 a. 3.1672 × 10–2
b. 8 b. 3.1672 × 102
c. 10 c. 3.1672 × 103
d. 12 d. 3.1672 × 101
5 3 3 5 2
2. Simplify the following problem:
75
72 .
= 3 7. Pluto is 5,914,000,000 km from the sun. This
3 8 8 3
5 3 3 5 2 distance can be written in scientific notation
75 =a. 75 25 ⋅ 3 5 3
72 3 8 8 3
3 = as:
72 9⋅ 8 3 8
5 3 3 5 2 a. 59.14 × 108
75 = b.
72 3 8 8 3
3 b. 5.914 × 109
c.
25 · 3
_____ c. 0.5914 × 1010
8·9
5 3 3 5 2
d. 5.914 × 106
d.
75
72
= 3
3 8 8 3
8. Which of the following is an irrational
3. Simplify. 3
−1,000 − 32 ________ number?
a. 12
4. Which absolute value expression illustrates the b. 9
distance between point A and point B on the 7
c. __
3
following number line? 0
d. __
11

A –9 –6 –3 0 3 B
9. For what two values of x is the following
12x
numerical expression undefined? ______
x2 – 25 .
a. |12 – 6| ______
b. |–12 + 6|
c. |–12 – 6|
d. |6 – 12|

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Answers and Explanations 12. –2. The cube root (–8) means the number that
will yield 8 when it is multiplied by itself 3
Chapter Practice times. Since (–2) × (–2) × (–2) = –8, the cube
1. –27. Multiplying opposite signs always results root of –8 must be –2.
in a negative answer, so –4.5 × 6 = –27. 13. 10 2. To simplify radicals, multiply the two
2. –$25.10. Adding two negatives always gives a terms under a single radical: 40 × 5 = 200.
5 3 3 5 2
bigger negative answer, so –$6.60 – $18.50 = Then, simplify this radical by 75
72
=
rewriting it as a
3
3 8 8 3
–$25.10. product with a perfect square: 200 = 100 × 2
= 10 2. 75 25 ⋅ 75
3 = 55 33 3 5 2
3. –40. To solve this problem, first add the –18 to 72 = 3 8 8 3 3
the –10 to get –28. Then the problem reads –28 14. 6. Taking the steps one by one: 72 9⋅ 8 3 8

– 12. Use keep-switch-switch to turn this into We have parentheses, (52 + 64 ). In the 75 paren-25 ⋅ 3 = 5 3
= a square root, so we need to 9 ⋅ 8
75 5 3 3 5 2
addition: –28 + (–12). Now we again are adding theses we have 72 3 8
72 3
3 8 8 3
two negatives, which will give us a bigger nega- solve that in order to add it to 52. The 64 = 8.
tive: –28 + (–12) = –40. 52 + 8 =7560. 25 ⋅ 3 = 5 3
4. 20 × –18 = –360. Spending money should be We have72division: 9 ⋅ 860 ÷ 10,3 which
8 equals 6, so
represented as a negative value. Since Olivia (52 + 64 ) ÷ 10 = 6.
bought 20 T-shirts at $18 each, express this as It is important that the order of operations is
20 × –18 = –360. followed to find the right answer.
5. –110 ÷ 5 = –$22. Paying a bill of $110 can be 15. 187. Use PEMDAS to help you perform the cor-
written as –110. Splitting it 5 ways means divid- rect order of operations.
ing it by 5: –110 ÷ 5 = –$22. Each person spent First do Parentheses: –3 + –10(–5 – 14)
$22. = –3 + –10(–19)
6. 25. Write five squared as (5)2. This is equivalent Then do Multiplication: –3 + –10(–19)
to (5)(5) = 25. = –3 + 190
7. 25. Write negative five squared as (–5)2. This is Lastly, do Addition: –3 + 190 = 187.
equivalent to (–5)(–5) = 25. 16. 2. Use PEMDAS to help you perform the cor-
8. –125. Write negative five cubed as (–5)3. This is rect order of operations. With complex frac-
equivalent to (–5)(–5)(–5) = –125. tions, the numerator and denominator must
9. When (–5) was squared, the negative sign can- each be done before the final addition. This is
4 3×2
celed out and gave the same answer as 52. How- because the equation ________
7 – 14 ÷ 7 is really equiva-
(4 3 × 2)
_________
ever, when (–5) was cubed, the final answer lent to (7 – 14 ÷ 7).
remained negative. Do multiplication and division first:
(4 3 × 2)
_________ 4 6
____
10. k = 6. Use the law xasxb = x(a+b) to rewrite 54 × (7 – 14 ÷ 7) = 7 – 2 .
52 as 54 + 2 = 56. Therefore k = 6. Then do the addition and substraction in both
4 6 10
11. k = 6. First use the law __xa (a–b) to rewrite parts of the fraction: ____ 7–2 = 5 .
__
xb = x 10
58 ÷ 5k = 52 as 5(8 – k) = 52. Now, since both the Lastly, perform the final division: __ 5 = 2.
left and right side of the equation are 5 to a
power, we can see that both of the powers must
be equal. Therefore, 8 – k = 2, which leads to
k = 6.

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17. 43. While it may be tempting to go from left to 23. 5,914,000,000 = 5.914 × 109. Scientific notation
right, we cannot multiply 2 by 4 and then requires the number to be written in the form
square it because Exponents come before a × 10b where a must be between 1 and 10.
Multiplication. Plus, we also have Parentheses Move the decimal nine times to the left to write
in the second half of the problem, and the order a as 5.914. Now b must dictate that the decimal
of operations indicates we do that FIRST. place be moved nine times to the right, so b
Parentheses: (1 – –2). Subtracting a negative must be 9: 5,914,000,000 = 5.914 × 109.
number is like adding a positive, so turn the 24. 0.0008 = 8 × 10–4. Scientific notation requires
subtraction into addition by using keep-switch- the number to be written in the form a × 10b
switch: (1 – (–2)) becomes (1 + 2) which equals where a must be between 1 and 10. Move the
3. The problem now reads: 4(2)2 + 33. decimal four times to the right to write a as 8.
Exponents: (2)2. This is 4. The problem now Now b must dictate that the decimal place be
reads: 4(4) + 33. Multiplication: 4(4) = 16 and moved four times to the left, so b must be –4:
33 = 27. The problem now reads: 16 + 27 so the 0.0008 = 8 × 10–4.
answer is 43.
18. |3 – 8| = |–5| = 5 Number Foundations Part II Review
19. 2. |5 – 3| = |2| = 2. If the numbers were 1. d. Order of operations says that you should
reversed, the absolute value of the difference first perform any operations in parentheses,
would be |3 – 5| = |–2| = 2. Either way you write and then perform all multiplication and
the numbers, as long as you are taking the abso- division, moving from left to right; then per-
lute value of the difference between the two form all addition and subtraction, again
numbers, you will always get the same answer. moving from left to right.
20. –25. Begin by taking care of the first absolute Start by simplifying the expressions inside
value bracket: |–20 + 5| – |–40| = |–15| – |–40|. both sets of parentheses, and in the second
Then take the absolute value of both numbers expression, be sure to divide 4 by 2 before
and subtract them to find the final answer: adding 4:
15 – 40 = –25. (5 – 3) × (4 + 4 ÷ 2)
21. 3.1672 × 102. Scientific notation requires the = 2 × (4 + 2)
number to be written in the form a × 10b where =2×6
a must be between 1 and 10. Move the decimal = 12
twice to the left to write a as 3.1672. Now b
must dictate that the decimal place be moved
twice to the right, so b = 2: 3.1672 × 102.
22. 2.05 × 10–3. Scientific notation requires the
number to be written in the form a × 10b where
a must be between 1 and 10. Move the decimal
three times to the right to write a as 2.05. Now b
must dictate that the decimal place be moved
three times to the left, so b must be –3: 2.05 ×
10–3.

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2. a. To simplify this expression, knowledge of the 5. b. Even though only even numbers are drawn
laws of roots is needed. The square root of a into this number line, we can see that each
5 3 3 5 2
72
=
fraction is75equivalent to the square root of the
3
tick mark represents 1. h is halfway between
3 8 8 3
numerator and the square root of the denom- the tick marks for –3 and –4, so the value for
25 ⋅ 3 h must be –3__
1
2 . Answer choices c and d are
75 5 3
inator: =
. It is also important to recognize
72 9⋅ 8 3 8 incorrect since these positive numbers sit on
75 if=we5 rewrite
that 3 3 5each 5 3as 3a product
752 =term 5 2 of
72 723 3 the right side of the 0 on the number line.
3 8 8 3 3
two factors, we may be able to further8 8 3 simplify. Answer choice a is not correct because if h
75 25 ⋅ 3 5 3 25 ⋅ 3
75 5 3 1
can be written = =
75 = 5as 3 3 5 .2 This can be
had a value of –4__ 2 , it would have to be sit-
72 9 ⋅ 8 72
3 8 9 ⋅ 8 3 3 8
72 3 8 8 25 3 and 9 are both ting on the left side of 4 on the number line.
further simplified because
75 25 ⋅ 3 5 3
6. b. Scientific notation expresses a number as the
perfect squares. = . Choice b product of a number between 1 and 10,
72 9⋅ 8 3 8
has the square root signs assigned to the including 1 but excluding 10, and a power of
wrong numbers. Option c reflects a factor- 10. If the number is greater than 1, then the
ization of 75 and 72 but lost the square root. exponent of 10 is non-negative. So, to write
Choice d suggests that this problem cannot 316.72 in scientific notation, move the deci-
be simplified, when in fact it can. mal point two places to the left to get a
3. –19. The cubed root of –1,000 is –10, since number between 1 and 10, and write the
–10 × –10 × –10 = –1,000. 32 is equal to 9, so power of 10 as 2 because you moved the
rewrite 3 −1,000 − 32 as –10 – 9. –19 is the decimal point two places to the left.
final answer. 7. b. A number in scientific notation is written as
4. c. To answer this question, it is helpful to a number that is at least 1 but less than 10,
remember that the absolute value of the multiplied by a power of 10. The power of
number is the distance between that number 10 is the number of places that the decimal
and 0. The scale of the number line is 3-unit is moved to transform the number into deci-
increments. Thus, point A is –12 and point B mal notation (regular numbers). If the deci-
is 6. To find the difference between these two mal point in the number 5.914 is moved
numbers, simply make a subtraction prob- nine places to the right, the number
lem and take the absolute value. Choice a becomes 5,914,000,000.
includes +12, not –12. Choice b reflects the 8. a. Irrational numbers cannot be written as a
sum, not the difference. For choice d to be fraction, so we know that answer choices c
0
correct, it should read |6 – (–12)|. and d are incorrect. (Remember that __ 11 has a
value of 0.) Irrational numbers have a deci-
mal value that does not terminate or repeat.
Since the value of 9 is 3, this means that
choice b can also not represent an irrational
number. Therefore, 12 is the only possible
choice for an irrational number.

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9. –5 and 5. We are only concerned with the

denominator when talking about undefined
expressions. We need to find the two values of x
75 = 5 3 3 5 2
that make
72
the denominator
3 equal to zero. Let’s
3 8 8 3
set up an equation and solve for x:
x2 – 25 = 0
x215
= 25
x 2 = 25
x = 5 and –5
Remember, a square root is the number that,
when multiplied by itself, gives you the number
you start with. In this problem, we are looking
for the number that when multiplied by itself
yields 25, which is 5. Also, when you square a
negative number, you get a positive answer.
So, –5 × –5 also equals 25. Therefore, the two
values of x that make the equation undefined
are 5 and –5.

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 5 RATES,
C H A P T E R

PROPORTIONS,
AND PERCENTS

I n this chapter, you’ll learn some extremely useful skills that can be applied to your personal and work life.
Rates, proportions, and percents are concepts that we encounter all around us: miles per hour, price per
pound, percentage discounts, and commissions. In addition to being useful in your everyday life, mastery
of the skills in this chapter will be critical to your success on the GED® test. The answers and explanations for all
practice questions are at the end of the chapter.
This chapter covers:

n Rates and unit rate

n Setting up and solving proportions
n Working with percentages
n Solving word problems with percentages

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2
Rates and Unit Rate 2:500 or ___
500 . If a class has 12 girls and 14 boys, the
12 12
ratio of 14 demonstrates that relationship. Since __
__
14
6
Before diving into rates and unit rate, we need to reduces to __7 , it can also be said that the ratio of girls
6
become familiar with ratios. A ratio is a fraction that to boys in the class is __ 7.
6
__
compares two numbers. We use ratios every day. A This ratio of 7 means that for every 6 girls in
city map might have a scale where 2 cm represents the class, there are 7 boys.
500 meters. This information could be recorded as

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

You will be using ratios and proportions to solve questions like this on the GED® test:

n Ava bought 2.5 pounds of organic grapes at the farmer’s market for $9. Liam bought 3.2 pounds
of organic grapes at the store for $12. How much more per pound were the grapes that Liam
bought at the store?

Rate and Unit Rate Defined VOCABULARY ALERT!

A rate is a special type of ratio that compares two
Unit rates are presented most commonly as
measurements that have different units. Consider this
a phrase in the per unit language. Questions
example of comparing lawns to days: Polina mowed
that contain the word per often require the
12 lawns in 3 days. The rate is 12 to 3.
unit rate to be found through division. Unit
A unit rate is a rate that compares the first
rate shows how many units of one type of
type of measurement to just 1 unit of the second
quantity correspond to one unit of a second
type of measurement. The rate of 12 lawns in 3 days
type of quantity. Some examples are words
can be expressed as a unit rate by reducing both
per minute, price per pound, and persons
numbers to simplest terms, by diving by 3: Polina
per square mile. In each of these, the sec-
mowed 4 lawns per day. Rates are often presented in
ond word is on the bottom of a ratio and has
fractional form and a unit rate is a fraction with a
been reduced to 1.
denominator of 1.

Although unit rate is used in many different

contexts, we are going to focus here on examples of
unit rate in speed, price, and population density.

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Speed Practice
It took Denise 1 hour and 45 minutes to walk a four- 1. Anita made 28 necklaces in 8 hours. How many
mile trail. How many miles per hour did she walk, necklaces does Anita make in an hour?
rounded to the nearest tenth of a mile?
To find how many miles per hour, we write our 2. Use the information from question 1 to deter-
fraction with the number of miles as the numerator mine how many necklaces Anita can make in a
4 miles
and the number of hours as the denominator: _________
1.75 hours . 40-hour workweek.
This is now a simple division problem: 4 ÷ 1.75 =
2.28. Rounded to the nearest tenth, Denise walked 2.3 3. Pete, Celia, and Lauren are planning a road trip
miles per hour. to Zion National Park. Pete’s car has a 12-
gallon tank that gets 540 miles per tank of gas.
Price Celia’s car has a 15-gallon tank that gets 585
Rick’s Market is selling 12-pound turkeys for $19.50 miles on one tank. Lauren’s car has a 21-gallon
each, and Mike’s Meats is selling 15-pound turkeys tank that gets 798 miles. Help them determine
for $23.85. Which store offers the better price per who should drive by calculating who gets the
pound of turkey? most miles per gallon with their cars.
To find the better price per pound of turkey, we
need to calculate the rate for each turkey. The price 4. A space shuttle orbits at a distance of 2,430
$19.50 1
per pound at Rick’s Market is ______
12 lbs , or $1.63/lb. The miles in 4__
2 hours. Find the shuttle’s average
$23.85
price per pound at Mike’s Meats is ______
15 lbs , or $1.59/lb. speed in miles per hour.
Even though a turkey costs more at Mike’s Meats, it
offers a better price per pound of turkey. 5. Eliseo made $90.00 babysitting for 12 hours for
the Goonan family. At that same rate, how
Density much will he earn if he works Monday through
An estimated 392,880 people live within 58 square Friday, 6 hours a day for the Goonan family?
miles in Minneapolis, MN. Approximately 3.82 mil-
lion people live within 503 square miles in Los Ange-
les, CA. What is the difference of people per square Proportions
mile between these two cities?
To find the persons per square mile in Minne- A proportion is an equation where two ratios are set
392,880 people
apolis, we need to first write our fraction: _____________
58 square miles . equal to each other. Proportions are commonly used
There are 6,774 people per square mile in Minneapo- to solve real world problems. If a recipe makes 12
lis (rounded from 6,773.79). cupcakes, but you want to make 36 cupcakes, know-
To find the people per square mile in Los Ange- ing that you need to multiply all the ingredients by 3
3,820,000 people
les, we write another fraction: ______________
503 square miles . There is actually utilizing proportions! Take a look at the
are 7,594 people per square mile in Los Angeles following sample GED® question and then read on to
(rounded from 7,594.43). see how to work with and solve proportions.
To find the difference of people per square mile
between Minneapolis and Los Angeles, we subtract
6,774 from 7,594.

7,594 – 6,774 = 820 people per square mile

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GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

A proportion question on your GED® test might look like this:

n Nine out of ten professional athletes suffer at least one injury each season. If there are 120 players
in a professional league, estimate how many of them experienced at least one injury last season.

Solving Proportions with are always equal. In the following illustration, you can
3 6
Equivalent Fractions see that the equivalent fractions __ __
5 and 10 have identi-
Let’s consider this Sneak Preview problem. The phrase cal cross products:
9
nine out of ten is the ratio __
10 , representing that 9 out
of 10 professional athletes suffer at least one injury 30 = 5 × 6 3 6 3 × 10 = 30
each season. Since we are considering a league of 120 5
= 10

players, we need to set an equivalent ratio that is

9 5 × 6 = 3 × 10
equal to __
10 , but representative of 120 players. A pro-
portion can be set up that puts the number of injured
athletes in the numerator and the total number of
athletes in the denominator: RULE: CROSS PRODUCTS
9_______
injured ? injured
_______ For all proportional relationships in the form
10 total = 120 total a
__ c
__
b = d , the cross products ad and bc will be
equal in value.
Now use equivalent fractions to determine what the
new numerator would be. In this case, multiply the a c
If __ __
b = d , then ad = bc
numerator and denominator by 12 to create an
equivalent fraction:

9_______
injured 12 108 injured
_________
10 total × __
12 = 120 total
Solving Proportions with
Therefore, in a league of 120 professional athletes, it
Cross Products
Let’s use cross products to consider a lemonade rec-
is likely that 108 of them suffered an injury last
ipe that calls for a sugar to lemon juice ratio of 3 to 4.
season.
If you have 50 tablespoons of lemon juice and want
to use it all to make as much lemonade as possible,
Understanding Cross Products
you could use cross products to solve for how many
In the previous example, it was easy to see that a fac-
tablespoons of sugar you would use.
tor of 12 would help us arrive at the equivalent ratio
we needed to obtain. When it’s not so easy to recog-
1. First, write the given ratio information in
nize how to create the required equivalent fraction, sugar 3
words and numbers: _____ __
lemon = 4
cross products are used to solve proportional equa-
2. Then, use the additional information to create
tions. The cross products of a proportion are the
a proportion that will allow you to solve for the
products when multiplying diagonally across the two
missing information. Make sure to fill in the
ratios. The cross products in a proportional equation

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given information into the correct part of the 8. A certain model of calculator is known to have
3 sugar
____
second ratio: __
4 = 50 approximately 8 malfunctioning calculators
3. Next, use the cross products to write an equa- out of every 2,000. If an office supply store in
tion: 3(50) = 4(sugar) Los Angeles is going to order 750 of these cal-
4. Solve the equation by dividing both sides by 4 culators to stock their stores for back to school
150
to get sugar alone: ___
4 = sugar, so 37.5 table- shopping in August, approximately how many
spoons of sugar will be needed. returns due to defect should they anticipate
having later in the fall?

DON’T DO THIS! 9. The Robb family wants to have the carpet in

When setting up a proportion, it is very their vacation home steam cleaned. They
important that both ratios are written with received a special offer in the mail advertising
like items in the same respective place. An $3 for every 10 square feet of carpeting
easy mistake to make when working quickly cleaned. If they don’t want to spend more than
through a proportion problem is to input $250, how many square feet of carpeting can
your given information incorrectly. Consider they have cleaned with this offer?
this problem:
10. Sandy’s Treasures sells used books in bundles
There are 3 red marbles for every 4 blue mar-
at a great discount. According to the table, how
bles in a drawer. If there are 24 blue marbles in
much would it cost to buy nine used books?
total, how many red marbles are there?
________________
3 24
NO! __
4
= ___
red
red 3 24 BUNDLES OF BOOKS PRICE
YES . . . ____ __ ___
blue = 4 = red
3 $15
Notice that in the mistaken proportion
6 $30
above, the 24 blue marbles were put in the
9 x
numerator of the second fraction, but that
12 $60
the 4 blue marbles had been represented in
the denominator of the first fraction. It’s a 15 $75
good habit to write your ratio out in words
red
first, as ____
blue , so that you are sure to input
your information correctly! Understanding Percents

What, exactly, is a percent? Let’s break down the word

to see. The prefix, per, means for every, and the root,
Practice cent, means 100. Put these two parts together and you
6. If K.P. can read 1,000 words in 5 minutes, how should see that the word percent means for every 100.
many words could he read in 12 minutes? A percent is a special kind of ratio that is out of 100.
______ Let’s see what kind of percent question you might see
on test day.
7. The ratio of men to women at a certain meet-
ing is 3 to 5. If there are 18 men at the meeting,
how many people are at the meeting?

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GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

Most of the percent questions on the GED® test will be word problems, but it’s possible you’ll
encounter a question like this:

n 320 is 40% of what number?

Percentages as Fractions DON’T DO THIS!

and Decimals
Percentages are only used in writing and are
Since a percentage conveys a number that is a fraction
never used in calculations. They must be
out of 100, all percentages can be written as fractions
converted into their decimal or fraction
or decimals. For instance, 5% means 5 for every 100
5 equivalent before being used in calcula-
or 5 out of 100. This is ___
100 as a fraction, which is
tions. Notice that the percent symbol (%)
equivalent to 0.05 as a decimal:
looks like a jumbled up “100.” Let that
5 remind you to change a percentage into a
5% = ___
100 = 0.05
fraction (by putting it over 100), or into its
decimal equivalent (by moving the decimal
Since percentage is really just a shorthand notation
2 spaces to the left), before doing any calcu-
for a fractional relationship out of 100, you must
lations. For example, when needing to take
always change a percentage to its fractional or deci-
40% of a number, you will not use “40” in
mal equivalent whenever performing mathematical
your calculations, but you will instead use
operations with percentages. To change a percentage 40
___
100
or 0.40:
to a decimal, simply move the decimal point two spaces
to the left. NO! 40% of 50 ≠ 40 × 50 = 2,000
YES . . . 40% of 50 = 0.40 × 50 = 20

Three Different Types of

Percentage Skills
There are three different percentage skills that you
will most commonly face. Each type is listed below
with an example and the method to solve it.

1. Finding a percentage of a whole

number
Example
You want to buy a suitcase that normally costs $70 and
is currently 20% off. How much will the discount be?

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Finding the percentage of a whole number is one of whole. To find the whole when the % and part are
the most useful skills to have with percentages. You given, set up and solve a proportion in the form
part
_____ %
___
will use this skill to calculate tax, sale prices, markups, whole = 100 .
and many other things. To find the percent of a If 30 is 15% of the whole, fill in 15% for the %
whole number, simply turn the percentage into a and 30 for the part:
decimal and multiply it by the number you’re find-
30 15
___
ing the percentage of: so _____
whole = 100

20% of $70 = 0.20 × $70 = $14 Now set the cross products equal to each other:

2. Finding what percentage one number 30(100) = whole(15)

is of another number 3,000
_____
15 = whole
Example 200 = whole
Customers in a supermarket are polled regarding their
preference between nonfat milk and low-fat milk. If 18 The entire order must have consisted of 200 eggs.
out of 60 people surveyed prefer nonfat milk, what per-
centage of customers prefer nonfat milk?
DON’T DO THIS!
If you’ve ever received a percentage grade on a test in A common error is for students to always use
school, then you are already familiar with this type of division instead of multiplication when work-
percentage application, since percentage grades are ing with percents. One way to avoid this
normally found by dividing the points you got cor- mistake is to remember that the word of
rect by the total points. To find what percentage one means multiplication in math. Be careful
number is of another number, divide the “part” by when you are working with percentage prob-
the “whole.” Then multiply the quotient by 100 and lems like what is 20% of 60?
add the % symbol:
NO! 20% of 60 ≠ 60 ÷ 20
18 out of 60 =
18
__
= 0.3; and 0.3 × 100 = 30% YES . . . 20% of 60 = 60 × 0.20 = 12
60

3. Finding the whole when the

percentage and part are given Practice
Example 11. What is 25% of 600 students?
If 15% of a shipment of eggs arrived broken, and 30
eggs arrived broken, how many eggs were in the total 12. What is __
1
2 % of 400,000 deer?
shipment?
13. 14 out of 80 customers got sick after eating
Although this particular type of problem is the least undercooked meat at a new restaurant. What
common, at times it is necessary to work backward by percentage got ill?
using the percentage and the part to figure out the

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14. 560 people were in the test audience for a film. Problem Solving
If 70 of them thought it was too violent for with Percentages
viewers under 18, what percentage thought the
movie was not too violent for viewers under Now that you are familiar with how to work with per-
18? centages in several different contexts, in this section
we will look at how to handle some common applica-
15. 15 red pens is 12% of how many pens? tions of percentages.

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

Not only do you need percentages for the GED® test, but they are also helpful to understand in
your everyday life.

n Lucas is buying a drill that costs $120 but on July 4 it is on a one-day sale for 30% off. If sales tax is
7.5%, what will the total price be after calculating the 30% discount and tax?

Simple Interest decimal. Remember, we just move the decimal point

It costs money to borrow money. Interest is the money two spaces to the left. So 6.5% becomes 0.065.
a bank or lending institution charges someone for When we substitute values into the formula, we
borrowing money. Lenders usually charge a percent- get the following equation:
age of the loan for every year it is borrowed. Princi-
pal is the initial amount of the money borrowed and I = (12,000)(0.065)(5)
interest is the charge the borrower pays for his or her I = 3,900
loan. Simple interest is a type of interest that is calcu-
lated by multiplying the following three components: Therefore, you will be paying a total amount of
$3,900 in interest over the course of the five-year
Simple Interest = (Principal) × (Interest Rate) loan.
× (# of Years Borrowed) Remember that $3,900 is just the fee you have to
pay to borrow that money. You’ll need to pay back the
Suppose you took out a five-year car loan for $12,000, $12,000 plus the $3,900 for your 5-year car loan.
with an interest rate of 6.5% per year. You might want
to figure out how much money you will be paying in Tax
interest. If you buy something that costs $100 in a city that has
To solve this problem, we need to use the simple an 8% sales tax, you will have to pay an additional fee
interest formula: I = prt, where p = the principal bal- of 8% of $100 for your purchase. That would be an
ance, r = the interest rate, and t = the duration or extra $8! Tax is always presented as a percentage. The
time. dollar amount of tax is calculated by multiplying the
Before we start substituting numbers to solve cost of an item by the percentage expressed as a
this problem, we need to convert the percentage to a decimal.

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Example $65 saved. The next week the shoes go on sale for
Elie buys a bike helmet for $38.50 and the tax is 7%. 25% off. Do you have enough money to buy them?
Calculate the total cost. To solve this problem, we need to figure out the
sale price of the shoes. The first step is to convert the
First, we can calculate the cost of the tax by multiply- percentage to a decimal. So 25% becomes 0.25 when
ing $38.50 by 0.07: we move the decimal point two spaces to the left.
Multiply 0.25 by 90, the price of the shoes, to figure
$38.50 × 0.07 = $2.695 out how much they are marked down to:
$2.695 rounds to $2.70
90 × 0.25 = 22.5
Then, find the total cost of Elie’s bike helmet by add-
ing the original price of $38.50 to the tax of $2.70: Remember, $22.50 is not the sale price of the shoes,
but the amount taken off the original $90. So, you
$38.50 + $2.70 = $41.20, so Elie’s total purchase need to subtract $22.50 from $90, which results in
will be $41.20. $67.50. If you have only $65, unfortunately you do
not have enough money.

DON’T DO THIS!
DON’T DO THIS!
Be careful to read the entire question care-
A very typical mistake that students make is
fully when doing questions involving tax.
to find the actual dollar amount for the
Sometimes you might be asked to find just
markup or discount and to mistake that for
the tax but it is more likely that you will be
the final price. Use common sense to help
asked to find the total cost. A common mis-
you recognize when you are making a mis-
take that students make is to forget to add
take. If a $70 desk is 20% off, that is not a
the tax to the original price—so pay special
huge discount, so it wouldn’t make sense for
attention to answering the question care-
the sale price to be $14!
fully!
Example: Find the final price of a $70 desk
that is 20% off:
NO! $70 × 0.20 = $14 (this is the dis-
Markups and Sale Prices count, not the final price)
Two common types of questions involve determining YES . . . $70 × 0.20 = $14, so $70 –
discounted sale prices or marked-up retail prices. To $14 = $56 is the final price
find a sale price, calculate a percentage of an item and
subtract it from the original cost. Markups require
you to find the percentage of an item and add that Commissions
answer to the original cost. Follow along in the fol- Commission is a form of job payment that is often
lowing example to get the hang of it: found in sales-oriented fields. Real estate agents, art
Every month you budget for fun money. You are dealers, and certain retail sales associates all earn
able to put aside $30 each month. You see a pair of commissions either as their entire paycheck or as a
shoes that you really want for $90, but you have only bonus payment. Commission is generally paid as a
percentage of the service rendered or a percentage of

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the product sold. Follow along in the next example to Example

understand how to answer commission questions: Your rent went from $800 a month to $875 per month.
Determine whether this rent hike is within the 6%
Example maximum increase allowed by city law by calculating
Terri is a real estate agent for a family looking for a new the percentage of increase.
home. She finds them a home they love for $380,000
and will earn a 2.5% commission from the seller of the Start with the Percent of Change formula:
home. How much money will Terri earn for helping to
amount of increase
negotiate this property sale? original amount × 100
Percent of change = ______________

Since Terri earns 2.5% of the $380,000, we need to Calculate the amount of change in the numerator by
find 2.5% of $380,000. To do this, change 2.5% to a subtracting the original rent from the new rent:
decimal and multiply that by $380,000:
875 – 800
Percent of change = ________
800 × 100
0.025 × $380,000 = $9,500 Percent of change = ___
75
800 × 100

Terri will earn $9,500 on the sale of that house. Being able to calculate your rent increase as 9.375%
allows you to tell your landlord that his rent hike is
Percentage Increase and Decrease illegal and that he needs to lower the increase. It liter-
If I tell you that something is $10 off, can you say for ally pays to know your math!
certain if this is a worthwhile discount? Since you
don’t know if I’m offering you $10 off a $12 meal or Practice
$10 off a $3,200 bike, your answer should be “no.” 16. What will the total payback be if Stan borrows
Without knowing what the original cost was, it’s not $68,000 at 4.5% simple interest for a period of
possible to judge if a $10 discount is a good deal. 8 years?
The concept we will now investigate is percent
of change. Percent of change is a measure that com- 17. What is the total price for a paper order if the
pares the amount of change to the original amount. tax is 8.5% and the paper costs $90?
Whether you are finding the percentage increase or
percentage decrease, the percent of change is easiest 18. Wilderness Sports gives their employees 60%
to find by using the formula: off gear for one weekend of the year. Sierra
amount of change
selects a collection of gear that totals $1,450.
original amount × 100
Percent of change = ______________ What will her discounted price be?

In this formula, the amount of change is the exact 19. Eleanor sold a full-page advertisement in The
amount of decrease or increase, which is calculated New York Times for $12,000. If she gets a com-
by subtracting the original and new amounts. The fol- mission of 7.25%, how much money did she
lowing problem illustrates how to calculate the per- earn for that sale?
centage increase:

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20. Last year, A Stone’s Throw sales were $56,000, Rates, Proportions, and
but this year the business’s sales were $60,000. Percents Review
What was the percentage increase rounded to 1. Suppose a jet can fly a distance of 5,100 miles
the nearest tenth? in three hours. If the jet travels at the same
average speed throughout its flight, how many
hours will it take the jet to travel 22,950 miles?
CALCULATOR TIPS! a. 4.5 hours
Although it is beneficial to have a fundamen- b. 13.5 hours
tal understanding of what percentages rep- c. 15.3 hours
resent, you are able to perform percentage d. 18 hours
calculations on the TI-30XS calculator. You
will still need to know how to set up the 2. Joe made $90 babysitting for 12 hours. At this
problems, but the calculator can turn the rate, how long will it take him to make an addi-
percentages into decimals for you, and vice tional $300?
versa. Do the following Chapter Review a. 25 hours
questions without the special calculator b. 7.5 hours
functions, and after you have read through c. 40 hours
Chapter 12: Calculator Skills on the TI-30XS, d. 28 hours
you can complete them again with the aid of
your calculator. 3. Jeremy purchased six cans of tomatoes for
$5.34. At this rate, how much would he pay for
11 cans of tomatoes?
a. $10.68
b. $9.79
Summary c. $9.90
d. $11.00
You now have a gamut of important and practical
8 x
___
new skills under your belt: understanding and work- 4. Solve for x: __
10 = 100. ______________
ing with rates; problem-solving with proportions;
and powerful calculating with percentages. Your 5. The scale on a state map is 1 inch:24 miles.
GED® test will most certainly have questions like How many miles apart are two cities if they are
these on test day, so take your time and review any 3 inches apart on the map?
sections that you need a little more focus on! a. 32 miles
b. 72 miles
c. 80 miles
d. 96 miles

6. A survey of 1,000 registered voters shows that

650 people would choose Candidate A in an
upcoming election. If 240,000 people vote in
the upcoming election, according to the survey,
how many votes will Candidate A receive?

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7. Samantha went to a local restaurant to celebrate Answers and Explanations

her birthday with a friend. The charge for the
meal was $15. Samantha paid with a $20 bill and Chapter Practice
tipped the waiter 15% of the cost of the meal. 1. 3.5. This question is asking us to find Anita’s
How much change did she have left? unit rate since it’s wanting to know how many
a. $2.25 necklaces she made in one hour. Divide the
b. $2.75 necklaces made by the time she worked:
c. $3.50 28 necklaces ÷ 8
______________ 3.5 necklaces
8 hours ÷ 8
= ___________
1 hour
. Anita made 3.5
d. $3.75 necklaces per hour.
2. 140. Since Anita makes 3.5 necklaces per hour,
8. If Veronica deposits $5,000 in her savings multiply 3.5 by 40 to see how many necklaces
account with a yearly interest rate of 9% and she can make in a 40-hour work week:
leaves the money in the account for eight years, 3.5 × 40 = 140.
how much interest will her money earn? 3. Pete has the best mileage at 45 miles per gal-
a. $360,000 lon. To find the miles per gallon for each car,
b. $45,000 divide the number of miles traveled by the
c. $3,600 number of gallons:
d. $450 540 miles ÷ 12
Pete: _____________
45 miles
= _______ = 45 miles per
12 gallons ÷ 12 1 gallon
gallon.
9. Mr. Jordan is planning to buy a treadmill. The 585 miles ÷ 15
_____________ 39 miles
_______
Celia’s: 15 gallons ÷ 15 = 1 gallon = 39 miles per
treadmill he wants is on sale at 10% off the gallon.
retail price of $700. Mr. Jordan has an addi- 798 miles ÷ 21
_____________ 38 miles
_______
Lauren’s: 21 gallons ÷ 21 = 1 gallon = 38 miles
tional coupon for 5% off after the discount has per gallon.
been applied. What is the final cost of the Pete gets the most miles per gallon in his car so
treadmill, not including any taxes or assembly he should drive.
fees? 4. 540 miles per hour. To find the miles per hour,
a. $587.50 divide the miles traveled by the space shuttle by
b. $598.50 2,430 miles ÷ 4.5
the hours: ______________
540 miles
= ________ = 540 miles
4.5 hours ÷ 4.5 1 hour
c. $630.00 per hour.
d. $668.50 5. $225. First find Eliseo’s hourly rate: $90 ÷ 12
hours = $7.50 per hour. A Monday – Friday
10. Alexis bought a gardening shed for $339. She workweek of 6 hours per day contains 5 days at
loved it so much that the next summer she 6 hours per day, so that is a total of 30 hours.
went to buy another one but the price had Therefore, multiplying 30 hours by Eliseo’s
gone up to $419. What was the percentage $7.50 hourly rate will show how much money
increase in price of her beloved garden shed, he will make in that one week: 30 hours ×
rounded to the nearest whole number? $7.50/hour = $225.
a. 24%
b. 36%
c. 19%
d. 80%

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6. 2,400 words. Let’s set up a proportional rela- 9. 833 square feet. Since every 10 square feet cost
tionship by writing two fractions. Let’s use x to $3, and the Robb family wants their maximum
represent the number of words per 12 minutes: cost to be $250, set up the following proportion,
1,000
_____ x
__
5 = 12 where f represents the number of square feet
Cross multiply to solve for x: that would correspond to a cost of $250:
cost
_____ $3
__ $250
____
1,000 × 12 = 5x sq. ft. = 10 = f
12,000 = 5x Begin to solve this proportion using cross
12,000
_____
5 = 2,400 products:
7. 48. The first step of the solution is to use the 10(250) = 3f
men
______
ratio women to record the given information of 2,500 = 3f
men
______ 3 2,500
there being 3 men and 5 women: women = __
5.
_____
3 = 833.3 = f
Next, we want to turn this relationship into a So the Robb family can clean up to 833 square
proportion where the second ratio shows 18 feet of carpet without spending more than
men. Since we don’t know the number of $250.
women at the meeting, we used w to represent 10. $45. One way to find the cost of nine used
men
______ 3 18
them: women = __ __
5 = w . Solve this proportion books is to figure out the relationship between
using equivalent cross products: 3w = 5(18). the number of books and the price of the other
Divide both side by 3 to get w = 30. This is not bundles. Do you notice a pattern? Do you see
our answer to the question though, which asked that each time the number of books is multi-
for the total number of men and women. Since plied by 5 to get the price of each bundle? If we
there are 30 men and 18 women, there are 48 multiply 9 by 5, the answer is $45.
people in total at the meeting. Another way to find the cost of the bundle of 9
8. 3. Since 8 out of every 2,000 calculators are books is to set up two equivalent fractions and
malfunctioning, and we are looking to see how solve for x:
6
__ 9
many calculators out of 750 will be likely to 30 = __
x
have a malfunctioning problem, set up the fol- 6x = 30 × 9
lowing proportion: 6x = 270
malfunctioning 8 m
_____________
total
= _____
2,000
= ___
750
270
x = ___
6
Begin to solve this proportion using cross x = 45
products: 11. 150. First, recall that the word of requires multi-
8(750) = 2,000m plication: 25% of 600 students will be solved by
6,000 = 2,000m doing 25% × 600. Next, remember that percent-
m = 3, so the store should expect to have ages must be changed to their decimal equiva-
approximately 3 returns if they sell all 750 lent before they can be used in calculations.
calculators. Do this by moving the decimal point twice to
the left and then perform the multiplication:
0.25 × 600 = 150.

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1 16. $92,480. First, calculate the simple interest

12. 2,000. First let’s rewrite __ 2 % as 0.5%. Next, let’s
using the simple interest formula:
remember that the word of means we need to
Simple Interest = (Principal) × (Interest Rate)
multiply 0.5% by 400,000 deer. Since we need to
× (# of Years Borrowed)
change percents to their decimal equivalents
Plug in $68,000 as the principal, 8 as the years
before using them in calculations, move the
borrowed, and 0.045 as the interest rate (change
decimal twice to the left and set up the problem
4.5% to its decimal equivalent):
as 0.005 × 400,000 = 2,000.
Simple Interest = (68,000) × (0.045) × (8)
13. 17.5%. To find what percent one number is of
Simple Interest = $24,480.
another number, divide the part by the whole.
Since we must find the total payback, add the
Then multiply the quotient by 100 and add the
simple interest to the $68,000 borrowed to cal-
% symbol:
14
__ culate the total payback as $92,480.
80 × 100 = 17.5%
17. $97.65. To find the cost of 8.5% tax on a $90
14. 87.5%. Watch out for the questions that give
purchase, multiply 0.085 by 90: 0.085 × 90 =
you the number of people who satisfy a specific
$7.65. Now add the tax to the original price of
criterion, but then ask you to find the percent-
$90: $90 + $7.65 = $97.65.
age of the opposite criterion! We are asked to
18. $580. Since Wilderness Sports gives their
find the percentage of the test audience that
employees a 60% discount, that means that
thought the movie was not too violent for view-
Sierra will pay 40% of the $1,450 of gear she’s
ers under 18. 70 out of 560 thought it was too
selected. (Since 100% – 60% = 40%.) Therefore,
violent, so subtract 70 from 560 to see how
Sierra’s discounted price be will be $1,450 ×
many thought it was not too violent. 560 – 70 =
0.40 = $580. Sierra will pay $580 for her gear on
490. To find what percent 490 is out of 560,
the discount weekend. Alternatively, you could
divide the part by the whole. Then multiply the
find 60% of the original $1,450, and then sub-
quotient by 100 and add the % symbol:
490
___ tract that from $1,450. This will give you the
560 × 100 = 87.5%
same answer, but it takes two separate calcula-
15. 125. To find the whole when the % and part are
tions instead of just one!
given, set up and solve a proportion in the form 7.25
part
_____ %
___ 19. $870. 7.25% = ____
100 = 0.0725. Find the 7.25%
whole = 100 . Fill in 15 as the part, 12 as the per-
commission Eleanor made on $12,000 by mul-
cent, and let w represent the whole you are solv-
15 12 tiplying 0.0725 by $12,000: 0.0725 × $12,000 =
ing for: __ ___
w = 100 . Now use cross multiplication
$870.
to simplify this to 15(100) = 12w. Dividing both
20. 7.1%. Since A Stone’s Throw sales went from
sides by 12 gives w = 125.
$56,000 up to $60,000, we know that the
amount of increase is $4,000. (We got this by
subtracting the previous sales numbers.) We
also know that the original sales were $56,000.
Find the percentage increase by putting these
figures into the Percent of Change formula:
amount of increase
original amount × 100
Percent of change = ______________
4,000
_____
Percent of change = 56,000 × 100 ≈ 7.1%

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Rates, Proportions, and 6. 156,000. Solve this word problem by setting a

Percents Review proportion that compares Candidate A Voters
1. b. Dividing 5,100 miles by three hours gives to Total Voters. The given information tells us
you the speed of the jet in miles per hour: that the first ratio will be 650 Candidate A Vot-
5,100
_____ ers to 1,000 Total Voters:
3 = 1,700 miles per hour
Candidate A Voters
________________ 650
Therefore, to fly a distance of 22,950 miles, Total Voters = _____
1,000
divide the distance 22,950 miles by Set this ratio equal to a ratio with 240,000 as the
1,700 miles per hour, which equals Total Voters and A as the Candidate A Voters:
22,950
______ Candidate A Voters
________________ 650 A
1,700 = 13.5 hours. Total Voters = _____ _______
1,000 = 240,000
2. c. Find how much Joe makes per hour: Now solve this using cross products:
$90 ÷ 12 = $7.50 650(240,000)=1,000A
Joe makes $7.50 per hour. 156,000,000 = 1,000A
To find how many hours he will need to A = 156,000.
babysit to earn $300, divide $300 by $7.50: Therefore, it can be anticipated that Candidate
$300 ÷ 7.50 = 40 A will receive 156,000 out of the 240,000 votes.
It will take Joe 40 hours to earn an addi- 7. b. A 15% tip on a charge of $15 equals $2.25.
tional $300. Therefore, the total amount that Samantha
3. b. To find the cost of one can of tomatoes, paid was $15.00 + $2.25 = $17.25. The dif-
divide the cost of six cans ($5.34) by 6: ference equals $20.00 – $17.25 = $2.75.
$5.34 ÷ 6 = $0.89 8. c. In the formula I = prt, the amount of money
Each can of tomatoes costs $0.89. deposited is called the principal, p. The
Next, to find the cost of 11 cans, multiply interest rate per year is represented by r, and
$0.89 by 11: t represents the number of years. The
$0.89 × 11 = $9.79 interest rate must be written as a decimal.
The cost of 11 cans of tomatoes is $9.79. Here, p = 5,000, r = 9% = 0.09, and t = 8.
8 x
4. x = 80. Solve the proportion __ ___
10 = 100 by setting Substitute these numbers for the respective
the cross products equal to one another: variables and multiply: I = 5,000 × 0.09 × 8
8(100)=10(x) = $3,600.
800 = 10x
800
___
10 = x
x = 80.
5. b. Because 1 inch on the map represents
24 miles, 3 inches on the map represent 3 ×
24, or 72 miles.

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9. b. This question requires taking your time and 10. a. Use the formula for % of increase by sub-
making sure you do all the required steps. tracting the original price from the new
Do one step at a time to arrive at the correct price:
amount of increase
answer. original amount × 100
% of increase: = ______________
First, find the sale price after the 10% has 419 – 339
% of increase = ________ × 100 = 23.59%
339
been deducted (remember, 10% is the same
So the percentage increase rounded to 24%.
as 0.10):
Answer choice c, 19%, is what you get if you
$700 – 0.10($700) = $700 – $70
divided the amount of increase by the new
= $630
price of $419, but instead you have to divide
Now, apply the 5% coupon to the dis-
it by the original price. Answer choice d,
counted price of $630. Remember, 5% is the
80%, is just the difference in price from last
same as 0.05. Be sure to subtract from $630,
year to this year, without it being divided by
not from the original price of $700.
the original price.
$630 – 0.05($630) = $630 – $31.50
= $598.50

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 6
ALGEBRA PART I:
C H A P T E R

VARIABLES
AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

N ow that you’ve completed the important foundational work in the past few chapters, you are ready
to move on to algebra. Algebra is an organized system of rules that is used to help solve problems
for unknowns. It is because of algebra that engineers can build bridges, cell phones, and engines.
In all of these cases, equations are written to determine the values of unknowns. As you work through this mate-
rial, be sure to pay special attention to any new words you may encounter. It is important that you build a strong
foundation for the more advanced algebraic concepts presented in the following chapters. Answers and explana-
tions for all practice questions are at the end of the chapter.
This chapter covers:

n +, –, ×, and ÷ algebraic expressions

n The distributive property on linear expressions
n Evaluating algebraic expressions through substitution
n Solving linear equations
n Modeling word problems with algebra

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The Language of Algebra algebraic expressions? Numerical phrases contain

only numbers while algebraic expressions contain at
In Chapter 3, you practiced translating words into least one unknown value. That unknown may often
numerical expressions. Here you’ll learn how to be referred to as a number, such as in 5 times a num-
translate words into algebraic expressions. What is ber. If there is a second unknown, it may be referred
the difference between numerical phrases and to as another number or a second number.

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

It is important to be able to model real-world situations with algebraic equations on your GED®
Mathematical Reasoning test. The following section will teach you how to answer this type of
question:

n Which expression models 4 times the quantity of 5 less than a number?

Using Variables in phrase twice a number plus four times another number
Algebraic Expressions would be written 2x + 4y, but it would also be correct
A variable is a letter or symbol used to represent an to choose any two different variables and represent
unknown number. Although the variable x is most the phrase as 2g + 4h.
commonly used to represent an unknown quantity in
algebraic expressions, any letter or symbol can be Recognizing Key Words
used. The phrase 5 more than 10 is translated as 5 + Remember to look for key words that represent addi-
10, and the phrase 5 more than a number can be writ- tion, subtraction, multiplication, and division. We
ten as 5 + x, 5 + m, or even 5 + K. When a phrase discussed these words and gave examples in Chapter
refers to two unknown values, it is common to repre- 3, so you may want to review this before moving on.
sent the first unknown number with x and the second Here is a reminder of words to keep your eye out for:
unknown number as y. Using this convention, the

ADDITION SUBTRACTION MULTIPLICATION DIVISION

sum difference product quotient
combine take away times percent
total less than of out of
plus minus every share
and decrease each split
all together left factors average
increase fewer double (× 2) each
more than remove triple (× 3) per

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Tricky Phrases Coefficient: The number or symbol multiplied by a

As discussed in Chapter 3, these phrases indicate that variable in an algebraic expression. It is very impor-
two items must be grouped together in parentheses: tant to remember that when a variable is on its own,
quantity, sum of, and difference of. its coefficient is 1:
Example: 4x2 + 3x + y + 2; 4, 3, and 1 are coeffi-
Example: 10 times the sum of five and a number cients, but 2 is a constant

The sum of indicates that 5 + x must be grouped Term: A number, a variable, or a coefficient multi-
together as a single term in parentheses: 10(5 + x) plied by one or more variables. Terms in algebraic
expressions are separated by addition or subtraction.
Also recall that some phrases for subtraction can be Example: 5t; there is one term: 5t
misleading. For example, from and less than indicate Example: –12x + 3y – 10; there are 3 terms:
subtraction, but the order of the terms must be –12x, 3y, and 10
reversed:
Factor: Numbers that are multiplied together in an
Example: What is 8 less than twice y? algebraic expression—because of PEMDAS, terms
that are added or subtracted within a set of parenthe-
Less than indicates subtracting in the reverse order ses are treated as a single factor.
that the expressions are presented. Since twice y Example: 9xy; there is one term with three
means 2y, represent 8 less than twice y as 2y – 8. factors: 9, x, y
Example: 9(x + y); there are two factors:
Defining the Parts of 9 and (x + y)
Algebraic Expressions
If I tell you how to do something in Latin, but you Algebraic Expression: A mathematical sequence
only speak English, then you will not know how to containing one or more variables or numbers con-
follow my instructions. Learning the correct math nected by addition or subtraction.
language is necessary in order to be able to follow Example: –12x + 3y – 10 is an algebraic expres-
mathematical instructions. Become familiar with the sion with three terms
following vocabulary since these terms will be used to
explain more involved procedures with algebraic Practice
equations: Represent each phrase as an algebraic expression.

Constant: An independent fixed number that 1. The sum of 5 and twice a number w
remains the same and does not change.
Example: y = 3x + 7; 7 is the constant 2. One-third of the difference of 6 and a number

Variable: A letter or symbol that represents a number 3. 30 more than a number squared
in an algebraic expression.
Example: –2x + 8y; x and y are variables

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4. The quantity 13 less than a number is tripled Evaluating Expressions

and then added to another number
Evaluating algebraic expressions means replacing the
5. Combine $48.90, $20.20, and a number; then variables in an expression with given numbers and
cut it in half performing the arithmetic operations in the expres-
sion. Although this sounds easy enough, it is critical
6. A dozen fewer than a cubed number to carefully follow the correct order of operations
dictated by PEMDAS, since it is easy to mix this up
and get an incorrect answer.

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

The GED® Mathematical Reasoning test wants you to demonstrate the ability to use real-life for-
mulas to make accurate calculations. You may get a question like this:
80 + 35n
n A jewelry design firm uses the formula r = ________
n to determine the price per ring, r, when n rings
are made. If the firm chooses to make 20 rings in August, determine the cost per ring.

Evaluating Single Sometimes there will be a single variable, but it will

Variable Expressions appear more than once. In this case, replace the vari-
The most basic algebraic expressions contain only able with its numerical equivalent each time the vari-
one variable and are called single-variable expressions. able appears. Then use PEMDAS:
You may already have experience evaluating single-
variable expressions since the perimeter of a square is Example
a single-variable expression. (Remember that the Evaluate the expression –3x2 + 10x for x = –5.
perimeter of a shape is the distance around it.)
Replace both x variables with –5 and follow the
Perimeter of square = 4s, where s represents the appropriate order of operations as dictated by
side length. PEMDAS:
–3(–5)2 + 10(–5)
If we want to find the perimeter of a square piece of
property that has a side length of 62 feet, we replace Take care of the exponent first: (–5)2 = –5 × –5 = 25
the s in the formula with the value of 62: –3(25) + 10(–5)

Perimeter = 4s, evaluate for s = 62 feet Next do the multiplication:

Perimeter = 4(62) –75 + –50
Perimeter = 248 feet
The last step is to add:
–125 is your final answer

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Subbing Negative Values in include the negative sign in the operation instructed
for Variables by the exponent. Therefore, even exponents cancel out
Notice that when –5 was substituted in for x2, the the negative sign of a negative base since the product
negative sign canceled out when (–5)2 was performed. of two negative factors is positive. Conversely, all odd
It’s critical to understand that when substituting a exponents will preserve the negative sign of a nega-
negative value in for a variable, use parentheses and tive base.

RULE: SUBBING NEGATIVE VALUES

INTO EXPONENTIAL EXPRESSIONS
When substituting a negative number in for a variable that has an exponent:

n Even exponents will cancel out the sign of a negative base: (–3)2 = (–3)( –3) = 9
n Odd exponents will preserve the sign of a negative base: (–2)3 = (–2)(–2)(–2) = –8

The information in the previous box sometimes mis- DON’T DO THIS!

leads students to think that an even exponent will
A common mistake students make is using a
always result in a positive answer. The information in
negative coefficient to cancel out a negative
the following box is one of the most difficult expo-
base before acting upon the exponent. This
nent nuances for students to master.
is an especially easy mistake to make when
the coefficient is –1! For example, when
evaluating –x2 for x = –4, be aware that the
coefficient of x2 is –1. PEMDAS requires that
negative four squared is done first, before
multiplying it by the –1 coefficient:
Example
Evaluate –y2 for y = –4
–y2 = –1 × y2
–y2 = –1 × (–4)2
–y2 = –1 × (–4)( –4)
–y2 = –1 × 16
–y2 = –16
Notice that even though the exponent is
even, the answer is negative since the coef-
ficient is negative. Test writers love to trick
students with this concept, so make sure you
understand how to avoid making this error!

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Evaluating Multivariable Expressions 10. Let w represent any real number other than 0.
Algebraic expressions that contain more than one Will the value of the expression –w2 some-
variable are called multivariable expressions. If times, always, or never be negative? Explain
you’ve ever calculated the perimeter of a rectangle your reasoning.
using the formula perimeter = 2l + 2w, then you
already have some experience with multivariable 11. Let v represent any real number other than 0.
expressions. To evaluate a multivariable expression, Will the value of the expression –v3 sometimes,
replace each variable in the expression with the given always, or never be negative? Explain your
value for that variable, then work through the correct reasoning.
order of operations.
12. Evaluate the expression –v2 + v3 for v = –3.
Example
Evaluate the expression –3m – 10n for m = –5 and 13. Marco and Polo are making props for the
n = –2 school play. The prop is a cube that will be
used as a pulpit. Marco wants to make a cube
Replace m with –5 and n with –2: that has a side length of 2 feet and Polo thinks
–3m – 10n it would be better to make a cube with a side
–3(–5) – 10(–2) length of 3 feet. How much bigger is the sur-
face area of Polo’s cube than Marco’s cube?
Now let PEMDAS guide you through the correct (Use the formula for the surface area of a cube,
order of operations. Do the multiplication first: Surface Area = 6s2, where s is the side length of
15 – (–20) the cube.)

Now use keep-switch-switch to rewrite subtraction as 14. Interest is the money an investment pays you.
addition: One formula used to calculate the new amount
15 + 20 of your money including interest is C(1 + r)t
where C stands for your beginning investment,
Add to get 35 as the final answer. r is the interest rate as a decimal, and t is the
time in years. If Paula invests $10,000 at an
Practice interest rate of 5%, what will the value of her
–10 3c
7. Evaluate _______
4c for c = –2 investment be after 4 years? Round your
answer to the nearest dollar.
8. What is the value of the expression 3.14r2h at
r = 10 and h = 2?
Performing Operations
9. Evaluate the expression 2(lw + wh + hl) for on Expressions
l = 6, w = 4, h = 2.
In this section you will learn how to add, subtract,
multiply, and divide algebraic expressions.

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®
GED QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!
You may be asked to multiply binomials on your GED® Mathematical Reasoning test.

n Multiply (2x – 5)(x + 8)

Although this question seems like it might be simple, it actually requires a lot of knowledge and
practice to be solved correctly. We will cover these skills in this section.

Keeping in the theme of operations, let’s look at the DON’T DO THIS!

rules and methods used to perform operations on
A difficult application of the distributive
algebraic expressions.
property is when a constant is being added
to an expression that requires the distribu-
Distributive Property with
tive property. One example of this is 2 +
Linear Expressions
7(3 – y). In this case, it is always tempting for
We looked at the distributive property in a previous
students to add 2 + 7 before distributing the
chapter. Remember, it does exactly what it sounds like
7 to (3 – y). However, since PEMDAS dictates
it does—distributes a number or term to other num-
that multiplication must come before addi-
bers or terms. Parentheses and multiplication are
tion, adding 2 + 7 is incorrect. Instead,
always involved.
refrain from doing the addition until the 7
For instance, if we needed to expand the prob-
has been distributed:
lem 5(3 + y), we would distribute the 5 to the 3 by
NO! 2 + 7(3 – y) ≠ 9(3 – y)
multiplying 5 × 3, and then distribute the 5 to the y
by multiplying 5 × y. The result would be 15 + 5y. YES . . . 2 + 7(3 – y) = 2 + 7(3 – y)
Sometimes the factor may be on the right side
2 + 7(3) – 7(y)
of a set of parentheses, but that doesn’t change how
2 + 21 – 7y
the distributive property will function. For instance,
23 – 7y
if we needed to expand the problem (9 – h)4, we
would distribute the 4 to the 9 and the h using multi-
plication:
A similar type of problem to the previous example,
(9 – h)4 = which also causes frequent errors, is when the term
(4)(9) – (4)(h) = needing to be distributed is being subtracted from a
36 – 4h constant. In the case of 10 – 2(w + 6), it’s not uncom-
mon for a student to forget to distribute the minus
sign to both terms within the parentheses. Carefully
follow the steps below to see how the subtraction is
first turned into addition through the keep-switch-
switch technique presented in Chapter 4. Using this

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method will help ensure that you distribute the nega- This looks complicated, but really it is just adding
tive sign to both terms inside the parentheses: and subtracting coefficients—the numbers in front of
the variables—of like terms. One thing important to
10 – 2(w + 6) = note in this problem is that we are subtracting a
10 + –2(w + 6) = 10 + –2(w + 6) quantity. This means that the minus sign needs to be
10 + –2(w) + –2(6) distributed to each of the terms in parentheses after
10 + –2w + –12 it. The minus sign will make each of the terms in
–2 + –2w parentheses its opposite. The first step in simplifying
this problem is to rewrite it with the distributed
Adding and Subtracting negative:
Polynomial Expressions
When adding and subtracting terms in polynomial (6x2 + 2xy – 9) – (4x3 + 2x2 – 5xy + 8)
expressions, only like terms may be added and sub-
tracted. Like terms are terms that have the same exact The second step in simplifying is to combine like
variables and exponents. Look at the following lists of terms.
like and unlike terms:
6x2 + 2xy – 9 – 4x3 – 2x2 + 5xy – 8
Like Terms: Unlike Terms: 6x2 – 2x2 = 4x2
3x and –40x x and x2 2xy + 5xy = 7xy
1 4 1 5
10m4 and __3m 10m4 and __3m –9 – 8 = –17
2rb and 0.5rb 2rb and 0.5b
x3y and 7x3y x3y and 7x3y2 –4x3 has no other term like it, so it stays the same.
The last step is to rewrite the expression with
the combined terms:
When combining like terms, add or subtract
the coefficients and keep the variables and –4x3 + 4x2 + 7xy – 17
their exponents exactly the same:
3x + –0x = –37x (Note: It’s helpful to write the terms so that the value
1 4 1
10m4 + __3
m = 10 __
3
m4 of the exponents goes from greatest to least as you
2rb and 0.5rb read from left to right. Also, remember that positive
7x3y – x3y = 6x3y numbers will have a plus sign in front while negative
numbers will have a minus sign.)

Multiplying Expressions
You will be expected to be able to add or subtract
When multiplying expressions, you don’t have to
more complex expressions on the GED® test:
worry about like terms. To multiply two expressions,
follow these steps:
Example
Simplify (6x2 + 2xy – 9) – (4x3 + 2x2 – 5xy + 8).

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Step 1: Multiply the coefficients. DON’T DO THIS!

Step 2: Multiply all pairs of like variables
It can be easy to forget to pay attention to
together by adding their exponents.
the exponents when multiplying two terms
Step 3: Combine the product of the coefficients
that don’t have exponents greater than l. In
with the products of the variables as one
the case of a question such as (4a)(9a), stu-
single term.
dents tend to make the mistake of multiply-
ing the coefficients but not the variables:
Here are two examples:
NO! (4a)(9a) ≠ 36a
(3v)(8v) = (3 × 8)(v × v) = 24v2 YES . . . (4a)(9a) = 36a2
(5wy)(4y2) = (5 × 4)(w)(y × y2) = 20wy3

Dividing Expressions
When dividing polynomial expressions, we are look-
ing for ways to reduce their coefficients and cancel
out some of their exponents to arrive at a simplified
answer. Let’s review how to divide like bases with
exponents:

RULE: DIVIDING LIKE BASES WITH EXPONENTS

When dividing like bases with exponents, subtract the exponents:
x7
____
x4 = x3

If the difference of the exponents is a negative exponent, we can move that base and exponent
into the denominator of the fraction and write the exponent as positive. (Review Chapter 4 for
clarification and practice with exponents.)
w 3x6
_____ x5
____
w7x = w(3–7)x(6–1) = w–4x5 = w4

Using this information, let’s take a look at the process the numbers first. Can we reduce at all? Yes! We can
used to simplify the following expression: divide 4 by 2, and then we are left with a 2 in the
numerator only:
4y3x2
_____
2yx
4y3x2
_____ 2y3x2
2yx = _____
yx
We need to call to mind our knowledge about reduc-
ing fractions as well as our knowledge about dividing Is there anything else we can simplify? There are x’s
exponents. To simplify this expression, let’s look at and y’s in both the numerator and the denominator,

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so we can divide the denominator into the numera- Multiply Lasts:

tor. Let’s take the terms one at a time: (x + 2)(x – 4) = x2 – 4x + 2x – 8

y3
__
y = y2 We get the final answer after combining the two like
terms, –4x and 2x:
x2
__
x =x
x2 – 2x – 8
Our complete answer is 2y2x.
Dividing Expressions
Multiplying Binomials with FOIL through Factoring
A binomial is an algebraic expression with two terms Similar to how multiplication is the opposite opera-
that are added or subtracted. Examples of binomials tion of division, factoring is the opposite of distribut-
are: ing. While distributing requires us to multiply a
common factor to two or more terms of an expres-
9+f sion, factoring requires us to divide out the greatest
x–7 common factor from two or more terms in an expres-
3y2 + 4x sion. Remember that the greatest common factor, or
GCF, is the largest number that divides evenly into all
When two binomials are written directly next to each terms.
other in two sets of parentheses, it indicates multipli-
cation. The product of x + 2 and x – 4 is written as Example
(x + 2)(x – 4). In order to perform this multiplica- Use factoring to rewrite 40m + 32 as the product of
tion, the acronym FOIL is used to keep track of which two factors.
parts must be multiplied. FOIL stands for the multi-
plication of: Starting with 40m + 32, identify the GFC as 8.
Divide both 40m and 32 by the GCF: 40m ÷ 8 = 5m
F: First terms in each binomial and 32 ÷ 8 = 4.
O: Outside terms in each binomial
I: Inside terms in each binomial Now reverse the distributive property by pulling the
L: Last terms in each binomial GCF outside of a single set of parentheses and put the
two quotients inside the parentheses:
Let’s use FOIL to guide us through the multiplication
of (x + 2)(x – 4): 40m + 32 = 8(5m) + 8(4) = 8(5m + 4)

Multiply Firsts: You can check your work by distributing, which

(x + 2)(x – 4) = x2 should return your original expression:
Multiply Outsides:
(x + 2)(x – 4) = x2 – 4x 8(5m + 4) = 8(5m) + 8(4) = 40m + 32

Multiply Insides:
(x + 2)(x – 4) = x2 – 4x + 2x

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Practice 21. 12y + 40x – 4

Simplify the following expressions:
22. 60f 4 – 18f
15. 40 – 8(9 – c)

16. (7xy2 + 8xy – 4) – (11x2y – 12xy + 10) Working with Linear Equations
1
17. (16a3b5c)(__ 2 3
2 ab c ) In this section you will learn how to solve linear equa-
tions. A linear equation is an equation with one or
18. (24a8b) ÷ (6a5b4) more variables to the first power. Examples include:

19. (5 – x)(9 + x) 3x + 7 = –5
y = mx + b
20. (y2 – 3)(y2 + 3) 4z – 3 + n = 2

Write the following expression as a product of two

factors:

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

On the GED® test you will be asked to solve for the value of variables in linear equations and this
section will show you how to answer questions like this.
5
n Solve for x: ___
2 x = –40

n Solve for m in terms of n and p: 5 – 20n + 6m = p

Solving Linear Equations 3 and 7: x is being multiplied by 3 and then added to

To solve linear equations with one variable, we need 7. To undo these operations, we need to use opposite
to get the variable by itself on one side of the equa- operations. Opposite operations are pairs of opera-
tion. For instance, to find what x is in the equation 3x tions that undo each other. Addition and subtraction
+ 7 = –5, we need to get x by itself. The goal is to get a are opposite operations and multiplication and divi-
mathematical sentence that reads “x = a number.” sion are also opposite operations.
How do we do this? By stripping away the other One other very important thing to keep in mind
numbers through performing opposite operations. In when solving linear equations: Whatever you do to
the following example, what is on the same side of the one side of the equation, you must do to the other.
equation as x? This is so that you maintain a balance on each side of
the equal sign.
3x + 7 = –5 The third critical step to keep in mind when
solving linear equations is that we always undo equa-

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tions in the opposite order of PEMDAS. That means When an equation has multiple variable terms on
that in order to get the variable alone, we perform one or both sides of the equal sign, there will just be
addition or subtraction first, and then we will move one or two additional steps to solving your equation.
on to the multiplication or division. Basically, what Follow these steps:
this looks like is moving the farthest number from x
first, using opposite operations. These are the three Step 1: Combine any like terms that are on the
cardinal rules for solving linear equations: same side of the equation by using the opera-
tions associated with them. (Do not use oppo-
site operations.)
THREE RULES: SOLVING
Step 2: Move the variable terms to one side of
LINEAR EQUATIONS
the equation by using opposite operations to
1. Use opposite operations to move num- combine them. (It doesn’t matter if you move
bers away from the variable. the variable terms to the left side or the right
2. Whatever operation you do to one side of side of the equal sign.)
the equal sign, you must do the same to Step 3: Isolate the variable by using opposite
the other. operations in the reverse order of PEMDAS.
3. Reverse PEMDAS when isolating the vari-
able in linear equations. Do +/– first and
then perform ×/÷ to get the variable
DON’T DO THIS!
alone. Do not use opposite operations to combine
like terms on the same side of the equation.
Use opposite operations only to move the
variable term to the other side of the equa-
So, looking at 3x + 7 = –5, let’s perform oppo-
tion. Students get confused and start using
site operations to get x by itself. Start from the num-
opposite operations on the same side of an
ber furthest from x on the same side and work your
equation once they start seeing more than
way to x.
one variable. Don’t do that!

3x + 7 = –5 Example: Given 10x + 9 + 2x = 4x + 5, what

–7 –7 is the first step?
3x + 0 = –12 NO! Don’t subtract the 2x from 10x to
3x
__ –12
3 = ___
3
write 8x + 9 = 4x + 5
x = –4 YES . . . Instead, add the 2x to 10x to
write 12x + 9 = 4x + 5
Equations with Multiple X-Terms
You may be asked to solve an equation that has more
than one x-term:

4x + 10 = 2x – 20 + 8x

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Example Writing and Solving

What value of x makes the equation true: 4x + 10 = 5x Equations from Word Problems
– 20 – 3x
You practiced translating English into algebraic
4x + 10 = 5x – 20 – 3x (underline like terms on right expressions earlier in this chapter. Now you’re ready
side) to write and solve algebraic equations from word
4x + 10 = 2x + –20 (combine 5x – 3x on right problems that represent real-world situations. The
side) most helpful tip when tackling word problems is to
–2x –2x (move the x terms to the left first use words to model the mathematical relation-
side) ship that exists between the working parts of the
2x + 10 = –20 word problem. The example below illustrates the
–10 –10 (move the constants to the 4-step process for translating word problems into
right side) algebraic equations.
2x = –30
2 2 (divide both sides by 2 to get Example
x alone) Jenna bought four identically priced nail polishes at the
x = –15 (arrive at final answer) local pharmacy and paid with a $20 bill. She remem-
bers receiving $2.80 in change but forgets the cost of
Solving Equations with Parentheses each individual nail polish. Write an algebraic equation
Some linear equations will have parentheses that that could be used to determine how much each nail
must be expanded before solving: polish costs.

Example Step 1: Read the question, underline the relevant

Solve for x: 2(x – 6) = 4x + 20 parts, and circle what you are being asked to solve for.

In this case it is necessary to distribute the 2 before Step 2: Determine how the parts of the problem relate
proceeding with the question. Follow along in the to one another and write out the relationship in
solution below: words and operations:
[Money paid] – [Cost of 4 nail polishes] =
2(x – 6) = 4x + 20 Change received
2(x) – 2(6) = 4x + 20 (distribute the 2)
2x – 12 = 4x + 20 Step 3: Define your variables and given information:
–2x –2x (move the x terms to the right Money paid = $20
side) n = cost of 1 nail polish
–12 = 2x + 20 4n = cost of 4 nail polishes
–20 –20 (move the constants to the Change received = $2.80
left side)
–32 = 2x Step 4: Replace the words in your equation from Step
÷2 ÷2 (divide by 2 to get x alone) 2 with the information you compiled in Step 3:
–16 = x (arrive at final answer) $20 – 4n = $2.80

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Now we have an algebraic equation that can be solved Algebra Part I Review
using the techniques already presented. Sometimes 1. Which algebraic expression represents each
the GED® test will want you to come up with an description? (Drag and drop question)
equation that represents the situation and other times 7 less than twice a number y: ____________
you’ll be expected to solve that equation for a final Twice the sum of 7 and a number y: ______
answer. 7 – 2y
(7 + y)2
Practice 2y + 7
23. Solve for y: 2y – 4 = 21 2×7+y
2(7y)
3
24. If __
4 x = 72, then x = ________ 7 + 2y
2y – 7
25. Solve for x: 7x + 20 = 13x – 4 (7 + y)2
2(7 – y)
26. Solve for x in terms of y, w, and v: xy + w = v
2. If n is any negative integer, complete the fol-
27. Find the value of w that makes the following lowing statements: (Note: This would be a
2
equation true: __
3 (w – 4) = 26 drop-down menu question on the GED test—
to complete this practice question choose from
28. Twice the sum of a number and ten is 42. Find sometimes/always/never.)
(–n)4
the number. A. The expression ____n
will sometimes/always/
never be positive.
–(n)4
29. The Free My Music store pays its sales associ- B. The expression _____
n
will sometimes/always/
ates a base rate of $525 per week plus an 8% never be positive.
commission on any sales the employee makes.
If an employee makes d dollars in sales one 3. What is the value of 4x2 + 3(1 – x), when
week, write an expression in terms of d to rep- x = –3?
resent her total paycheck for that week. a. 48
b. 156
c. –12
Summary d. 30

In this chapter you have built a solid foundation in 4. Simplify the expression 5x + 3(x – 4)2
algebra. You now know how to use variables to write
expressions and to model real-world equations. You 5. Expand and simplify the following expression:
can evaluate expressions and solve many different 7(x + 2y – 3) – 3(2x – 4y + 1)
types of linear equations. The following questions a. x + 2y – 18
will give you a good idea of how you will use these b. 13x – 2y – 2
new skills on test day! c. x + 26y – 24
d. x + 6y – 4

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6. If the sum of two polynomials is 8p2 + 4p + 1 11. Farhiyo and Jen sold T-shirts for a campus club
and one of the polynomials is 8p2 – 2p + 6, last Saturday. The club made $550 from selling
what is the other polynomial? these T-shirts. After donating some of the
a. 6p – 5 money to a local shelter, the club made $100
b. 2p + 7 more than it donated. How much money did
c. 16p2 – 2p + 7 the club donate? ______________
d. 16p2 + 2p + 7
12. Aaron owns a pretzel stand. After observing
7. Which of the following is equivalent to sales patterns for a few months, he realizes that
2x(3xy + y)? he needs to have three times as much cheese as
a. 6x2y + 2xy he does ranch dressing to fulfill customers’
b. 6xy + 2xy orders. For every 48 ounces of cheese Aaron
c. 5x2y + 2x + y buys, how much ranch dressing should he buy?
d. 3xy + 2x + y a. 144 oz.
b. 24 oz.
8. Which expression is the equivalent of c. 12 oz.
32x2 + 4x – 8? d. 16 oz.
a. 32(x2 + 4x – 8)
b. 4x(x + x – 8) 13. Johanna and Paolo just finished a three-day
c. 4(x2 + x – 2) promotional event for their new business. They
d. 4(8x2 + x – 2) distributed flyers to businesses and homes in
the neighborhood to let the public know about
9. Which of the following is a factored form of their new shop. They printed a total of 1,000
10x4y6 – 5x3y? flyers for this promotional effort and distrib-
a. 5xy5 uted them over the course of three days. They
b. 5x3y have x flyers left over. If they are expecting a
c. 5x3y(2xy5 – y) 15% response rate—meaning that, of the flyers
d. 5x3y(2xy5 – 1) handed out, 15% will bring in one person—
which expression illustrates how many more
10. A host for a party decides to buy three balloons customers they are expecting in the near future
for every guest, plus 20 balloons to decorate as a result of this promotional effort?
the hall. If g represents the number of guests a. 15(1,000 – x)
invited to the party and b represents the total b. 15(1,000x)
number of balloons to be purchased, which c. 15 + 1,000 – x
equation shows the relationship between the d. 0.15(1,000 – x)
number of balloons (b) and the number of
guests (g)? 14. The product of 16 and one-half of a number is
a. b = 3(g + 20) 136. Find the number. ________
b. b = 3g + 20
c. b = 60g
d. b = 23g

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Answers and Explanations 10. Always. The expression –w2 will always be neg-
ative for non-zero values of w. The even expo-
Chapter Practice nent will guarantee that w2 will be positive for
1. 5 + 2w. Since sum means addition, and twice all non-zero values of w, but the coefficient of
means multiplication by 2, “the sum of 5 and –1 will always make –w2 negative.
twice a number w” translates to 5 + 2w. 11. Sometimes. The expression –v3 will be negative
1 when v is positive. The expression –v3 will be
2. __
3 (6 – x). The word difference indicates to sub-
tract the two terms in a set of parentheses positive when v is negative.
before multiplying it by one-third: __
1 12. –36. Starting with –v2 + v3, sub in –3 for both v
3 (6 – x).
3. 30 + x . 30 more than indicates “30 +” and a
2 variables:
number squared indicates x2: 30 + x2. –(–3)2 + (–3)3
4. 3(x – 13) + y. The term the quantity indicates to Now evaluate both of the variables:
use parentheses around the information that –(9) + (–27)
follows. 13 less than a number indicates subtrac- Adding these two negatives gives –36.
tion in the opposite order: x – 13. Next, is tri- 13. Marco’s cube: 6s2 for s = 2: 6(2)2 = 6(4) =
pled means to multiply (x – 13) by 3: 3(x – 13). 24 square feet.
Lastly, add y (or any variable other than the first Polo’s cube: 6s2 for s = 3: 6(3)2 = 6(9) =
variable used) to the expression. 3(x – 13) + y. 54 square feet.
5. ($48.90 + $20.20 + n) ÷ 2. Combine means to Polo’s cube would have a surface area 30 square
add, and cut it in half means to multiply it by feet bigger Marco’s cube. (It would be more
one-half or divide it by 2: ($48.90 + $20.20 + n) than double.)
÷ 2. 14. $12,155. Starting with C(1 + r)t, replace C with
6. x3 – 12. A dozen fewer than means – 12 and a $10,000, r with 5%, and t with 4:
cubed number translates to x3: x3 – 12 $10,000(1 + 0.05)4
–10 + 3c
7. 2. Starting with _______
4c , sub in –2 for both c val-
First add the number in the parentheses:
–10 + 3(–2)
__________ $10,000(1.05)4
ues: 4(–2) . Then do the multiplication in
–10 – 6
the numerator and denominator: ______ –8 . Com-
Then raise 1.05 to the power of 4:
–16
___ $10,000(1.2155)
bine terms in the numerator: –8 . Divide to get
a final answer of 2. Then multiply:
8. 628. The expression 3.14r2h at r = 10 and h = 2 $12,155
will be 3.14(10)2(2) after 10 and 2 are subbed 15. –32 + 8c. Starting with 40 – 8(9 – c), use keep-
in. Perform the exponent first: 3.14(100)(2). switch-switch to turn the subtraction into addi-
Then multiplication yields 628. tion: 40 + –8(9 – c). Next distribute the –8:
9. 88. Substitute l = 6, w = 4, and h = 2 into the 40 + (–8)(9) – (–8)(c). Perform the multiplica-
expression 2(lw + wh + hl): tion: 40 + (–72) – (–8c). Simplify: –32 + 8c.
2[6(4) + 4(2) + 2(6)]
Then perform all of the multiplications within
the brackets:
2[24 + 8 + 12]
Now add all of the terms in the brackets and
multiply the sum by 2: 2[44] = 88.

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16. –4x2y + 20xy – 14. Distribute the minus sign to 22. 6f (10f 3 – 3). 6f is the greatest common factor
all of the terms in the second set of parentheses: for both terms in this expression. In order to
(7xy2 + 8xy – 4) – 11x2y + 12xy – 10 factor out 6f, put 6f on the outside of a set of
Now rewrite the expression with like terms next parentheses and write the quotients from 6f and
to each other: each of the 2 terms inside the parentheses:
7xy2 – 11x2y + 8xy + 12xy – 4 – 10 60f 4 – 18f = 6f (10f 3 – 3)
Lastly, combine like terms: 23. y = 12.5. Remember, reverse PEMDAS and use
–4x2y + 20xy – 14 opposite operations to get the variable alone. To
17. 8a4b7c4. Multiply the coefficients of move the –4 away from 2y, add 4 to each side of
1
(16a3b5c)( __ 2 3
2 ab c ) and multiply the like the equation:
variables by adding their exponents: 2y – 4 = 21
1
(16)( __ 3 5 2 3 4 7 4
2 )(a a)(b b )(cc ) = 8a b c +4 +4
18. Divide the coefficients of (24a8b) ÷ (6a5b4) and 2y + 0 = 25
divide the like variables by subtracting their Next, divide each side of the equation by 2 to
exponents: (24 ÷ 6) × a(8–5) × b(1–4) = 4a3b–3. isolate y:
2y
__ 25
__
Now remember that a term with a negative 2 = 2
exponent can get moved to the bottom of a y = 12.5
3
fraction, and then the exponent will be 24. 96. Given __ 4 x = 72, in order to get x alone, we
4a3 3 4
positive: ___
b3 . can multiply __ __
4 by its reciprocal, 3 , since they
19. –x – 4x + 45. Use FOIL to multiply
2 will cancel out to just 1x:
4 __ 3 4
(5 – x)(9 + x): ( __ __
3 )( 4 x) = ( 3 )72
Firsts: 5 × 9 = 45 1x = __
72 4
__
1 × 3
Outsides: 5 × x = 5x Conversely, you could choose to divide both
Insides: –x × 9 = –9x 3
sides by __
4 . Since dividing by a fraction results
Lasts: –x × x = –x2 in multiplying by that fraction’s reciprocal, the
Now combine the terms together: answer would be the same.
45 + 5x – 9x – x2 = –x2 – 4x + 45 25. x = 4. The first step is to move all of the vari-
20. y4 – 9. Use FOIL to multiply (y2 – 3)(y2 + 3): ables onto the same side of the equation by sub-
Firsts: y2 × y2 = y4 tracting 7x from both sides:
Outsides: y2 × 3 = 3y2 7x + 20 = 13x – 4
Insides: –3 × y2 = –3y2 –7x –7x
Lasts: –3 × 3 = –9 20 = 6x – 4
Now combine the terms together: Next, add 4 to both sides to get 6x alone:
y4 + 3y2 – 3y2 – 9 = y4 – 9 20 = 6x – 4
21. 4(3y + 10x – 1). 4 is the greatest common factor +4 +4
of all three terms in this expression. In order to 24 = 6x
factor out a 4, put a 4 on the outside of a set of Lastly, divide both sides by 6 to arrive at the
parentheses and put the quotients from 4 and final answer.
each of the 3 terms inside the parentheses: 24 = 6x
12y + 40x – 4 = 4(3y + 10x – 1) ÷6 ÷6
4=x

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v–w 29. $525 + 0.08d. First, write the relationship out in

26. x = _____
y
. When a question asks you to solve for
words. The employee’s commission will be 8%
a variable in terms of other variables, it simply
of her sales, so multiply 8% by the sales:
means to isolate the first variable on one side of
Total paycheck = [Base Rate] +
the equation. The first step to getting x alone in
[8%][Weekly Sales]
xy + w = v is to subtract the w:
Next sub in the given information, remember-
xy + w = v
ing to convert the percentage into a decimal.
–w –w
The base rate is $525, the commission is 8%,
xy = v – w
and the weekly sales is d:
Then, divide both sides by y:
Total paycheck = $525 + 0.08d
xy = v – w
xy v–w
__
y
= ____
y Algebra Part I Review
v–w
x = ____
y 1. 2y – 7 and (7 + y)2. Less than means subtraction
27. w = 43. The first step in this problem is to dis- in the reverse order from that stated and twice a
2
tribute the __
3:
number y means 2y, so the first expression, 7 less
2
__ than twice a number y is represented by 2y – 7.
3 (w – 4) = 26
2
__ 2
__ In the second expression, the phrase sum of 7
3 w – 3 (4) = 26 and a number y indicates that 7 + y should be
2
__ 8
__
3 w – 3 = 26 put inside a set of parentheses before being
8
Now, add __3 to both sides of the equation: multiplied by 2. Therefore, the expression that
2
__ 8
__ represents twice the sum of 7 and a number y is
3 w – 3 = 26
8
+ __
8
__ represented by the expression (7 + y)2. The
3 +3
___________ expression 2(7 + y) would also have worked,
2
__ 78 8
3w = __ __
3 + 3 but this option was not on the list.
2
__ 86
3w = __
3 2. never and always. Think about the rules for
Next, divide both sides by __
2 how negative numbers are influenced by expo-
3: (–n)4
2
__ 86
__ nents and parentheses. For statement A, _____ n
,
3w= 3
2
__ 2 the numerator will always be positive since the
÷ 3 ÷ __
________3 negative n will get canceled out by the negative
86 3 sign that is within the parentheses. The denom-
w = __ __
3 × 2
w = 43. inator will always be negative. The quotient of
28. 11. Let the number = n. Twice the sum of this a positive divided by a negative is never positive.
–(n)4
number and 10 is represented as 2(n + 10). For statement B, _____
n
, the numerator will
Set this equal to 42 and solve it by distributing always be negative since n4 will also yield a posi-
the 2 and then using opposite operations to tive value and then the negative sign on the out-
solve for n. side of the parentheses will make the numerator
2(n + 10) = 42 negative. The denominator will always be nega-
2n + 20 = 42 tive. The quotient of a negative divided by a
– 20 –20 negative is always positive.
2n = 22
n = 11

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3. a. We cannot multiply 4 × –3 and then square 5. c. This problem requires us to use the distribu-
the answer because exponents come before tive property for two parts of the expression.
multiplication in the order of operations. First, we need to distribute 7 to each of the
Plus, there are parentheses in the second half factors in the quantity after it: x, 2y, and –3.
of the problem, and PEMDAS indicates we This gives us 7x + 14y – 21. Next, we need to
do that first. distribute the –3 to each of the terms in the
4(–3)2 + 3(1 – –3) = quantity after it: 2x, –4y, and 1. This gives us
4(–3)(–3) + 3(1 – –3) = –6x + 12y – 3. Now, we need to combine like
4 × 9 + 3(1 + 3) = terms to simplify the expression: 7x + 14y –
36 + 3(4) = 21 – 6x + 12y – 3 = x + 26y – 24. Choice a
36 + 12 = 48. did not distribute the negative with the 3 in
Choice b is not the correct answer because the second half of the problem. Choice b
156 is the final answer received when 4 is reflects incorrectly distributing the coeffi-
multiplied to the –3 and then squared, rather cients and negatives to the other terms.
than doing the squaring first. Choice c is not Choice d did not distribute the coefficient to
the correct answer because –12 is the answer each term.
when you mistake (–3)2 for –6 instead of 9. 6. a. Deciding whether to add or subtract is the
Choice d is not the correct answer because trick to answering this question.
30 is the result of mistaking (1 – –3) as –2 Sum = first polynomial + second polynomial
instead of as 4. Since the sum is already given, do not add.
4. 3x2 – 19x + 48. To simplify 5x + 3(x – 4)2 we Instead, subtract the polynomial given from
must first think about what (x – 4)2 means: the sum to find the other polynomial. Be
5x + 3(x – 4)2 = 5x + 3(x – 4)(x – 4) sure to combine like terms, distribute the
Now use FOIL to expand (x – 4)(x – 4) to be subtraction, and be careful with negatives.
(x2 – 8x + 16) and plug that into the equation: (8p2 + 4p + 1) – (8p2 – 2p + 6)
5x + 3(x2 – 8x + 16) = (8p2 – 8p2) + (4p – (–2p)) + (1 – 6)
Now distribute the 3 to all the terms inside the = 0 + (4p + 2p) + (–5)
parentheses using multiplication: = 6p – 5
5x + 3x2 – 24x + 48 7. a. 2x(3xy + y) = 2x(3xy) + 2x(y) = 6x2y + 2xy.
Lastly, combine the two x terms. 8. d. This answer is equivalent to the original
3x2 – 19x + 48 because each of the terms was divided by 4,
and then accurately written as a product of 4
and the quantity 8x2 + x – 2. This, in effect,
is the un-distribution of a 4 from each term.
Choices a and b incorrectly factor out 32
and 4x, respectively, which leaves the
remaining terms incorrect. Choice c looks
very similar to choice d, but the 4 is not cor-
rectly factored out of the term 32x2.

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9. d. To factor means to divide out the largest fac- 12. d. Since we know that Aaron needs three times
tor that all of the terms have in common. as much cheese as ranch dressing, we know
First, consider the coefficients: 5 is a factor that the 48 ounces of cheese are three times
of both coefficients, so divide the 5 out. the needed ranch dressing. Either multiply
1
Next, consider the variable x: x3 is a factor of 48 by __3 or divide 48 by 3. They are essen-
both terms, so divide out the x3. tially doing the same thing. The answer is
Finally, consider the variable y: The second 16 ounces of ranch. Choice a multiplies 48
term has y raised to only the first power, so y by 3 instead of dividing 48 by 3. Choices b
is the largest factor. and c are factors of 48 and demonstrate a
After determining the largest factor, rewrite lack of understanding of how to calculate
the expression by dividing each term by the the answer to the problem.
factor: 13. d. In order to find out how many flyers
5x3y(2xy5 – 1) Johanna and Paolo passed out, we need to
10. b. The party host must buy three balloons for subtract x, the amount left over, from the
each guest, so 3g represents the correct num- total, 1,000. Once we get that value, we mul-
ber of balloons for all the guests. The host tiply by 15% by changing 15% to a decimal,
must also buy 20 more balloons for the hall, 0.15. Multiply 0.15 by (1,000 – x) to get the
so the total number of balloons is the num- number of new customers they will antici-
ber needed for the guests plus 20 more. This pate. Choices a and b do not convert the
is the equation b = 3g + 20. percentage to an equivalent decimal before
11. $225. A system of equations is needed to solve multiplying. In addition, choice b multiplies
this problem. If C = the amount of money the the total number of flyers by the number left
club profits and D = the amount of money over instead of subtracting it. Choice c
donated, the following two equations are true: reflects a lack of understanding of how to
C + D = 550 calculate the anticipated response rate.
C – 100 = D 14. 17. Let x equal the number sought. The word
When C – 100 is substituted into the first product tells us to multiply 16 by one-half x, or
equation for D, the equation reads (16)(0.5x), which we set equal to 136. There-
C + C – 100 = 550. fore, (16)(0.5x) = 136, which reduces to 8x = 136,
2C – 100 = 550 resulting in x = 17.
2C = 650
C = 325
When this value is substituted for C in the sec-
ond equation, the equation reads 325 – 100 =
225.

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 7
ALGEBRA PART II:
C H A P T E R

GRAPHS OF
LINEAR EQUATIONS
AND INEQUALITIES

N ow that you have become familiar with using linear equations, you’ll learn how to represent them
and interpret them in a coordinate plane. This is an important skill because it will help you become
familiar with representing information visually as well as understanding some key aspects when
interpreting visual relationships. You will also be introduced to inequalities, which allow for a range of answers.
Inequalities are valuable because they are used to model many real-world situations that don’t have just a single
correct value. Answers and explanations for all practice questions are at the end of the chapter.
This chapter covers:

n Understanding slope as a rate of change

n Calculating the slope from graphs, tables, and coordinate pairs
n Writing linear equations in slope-intercept form: y = mx + b
n Graphing linear equations
n Working with parallel and perpendicular lines in the coordinate plane
n Solving systems of linear equations
n Writing linear inequalities to represent real-world situations

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n Solving linear inequalities equation and displayed on a graph. Here are some
n Graphing linear inequalities on number lines examples of the different relationships that can be
represented in a graph:

Writing Linear Equations n How hours worked determine money earned

n How speed determines distance traveled
Graphs are a useful tool for understanding and com- n How minutes of exercise determine calories burned
paring relationships between two different variables.
When the value of one variable (such as time) deter- In this section we will learn how to take information
mines the value of another variable (such as pay), that is presented in a graph or table and represent it
that information can be represented in a linear with a linear equation.

®
GED QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!
In order to succeed on the GED® test, you must be able to determine the equation of a line when
given a graph:

n What is the equation that represents the line in the graph below:

2 4

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Graphing Points a runner travels over 4 hours versus the second graph,
Let’s discuss how to graph (x,y) points on a coordi- which illustrates the distance a biker travels over 4
nate plane. Graphs are made up of a horizontal num- hours. The graph for the biker has a steeper slope
ber line called the x-axis and a vertical number line because the biker has a greater speed, or rate of
called the y-axis. The point of intersection between change:
the x- and y-axis is called the origin. The origin has
an x value of 0 and a y value of 0 and is written as the Runner’s Distance
coordinate pair (0,0). There are four different quad- Traveled
rants that make up the coordinate plane. As you can
60
see from the following illustration, any y value below
the x-axis is negative. Any x value to the left of the 55
y-axis is also negative. 50
45
y
40
Miles 35
30
25
20
Origin
4 x
15
10
5

1 2 3 4

–5 Hours

What Is Slope?
The slope of a line is a visual representation of the
rate of change between the two different variables,
such as speed and distance. The steeper a line is, the
greater its rate of change is. A line with a moderate
slope is showing a slow rate of change. The following
two graphs are showing the different slopes for two
different situations. The first graph plots the distance

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Biker’s Distance miles. Notice how the mapping between the two dif-
Traveled ferent variables is done: Starting at a point on the
x-axis, move vertically up to a point on the line; then
60 from that point, move horizontally to the left to a
55 point on the y-axis. Be prepared to extract informa-
50 tion from graphs like this on your GED® test.

45
Runner’s Distance
40 Traveled
35
Miles

60
30
55
25
50
20
45
15
40
10
35
Miles

5
30
25
1 2 3 4
20
Hours
15
10
(2,13)
Interpreting Points on Graphs 5
In the previous graphs, Hours are on the x-axis and
Miles are on the y-axis. It is important to notice that
1 2 3 4
the information on the x-axis determines the infor-
mation on the y-axis. For example, the number of Hours
hours that someone runs determines the number of
miles she travels. Each point on a line is a coordinate
pair in the form (x,y) and gives information about
the relationship between the two variables in the
graph. Looking at the runner’s graph, let’s interpret
the coordinate pair (2,10). 2 is the x-value, represent-
ing 2 hours, and 10 is the y-value, representing 10
miles. Therefore (2,10) tells us that after 2 hours, the
runner has traveled 10 miles. Similarly, the coordi-
nate pair (2,30) on the biker’s graph shows us that
after 2 hours of biking, the distance traveled is 30

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Biker’s Distance
Traveled Formula: Slope
change in y y2 – y1
_______
__________
Slope change in x = x2 – x1
60
55
50
45 This formula illustrates that as long as you can deter-
40 mine two different (x,y) coordinate pairs in a rela-
tionship, you can calculate the slope, or rate of
35
Miles

change, of that relationship.

30
(2,30)
25
DON’T DO THIS!
20
When calculating slope, it is all too common
15
for students to subtract the x-coordinates in
10 the numerator and to put the y-coordinates
5 in the denominator. We guarantee that you
will make this easy mistake at least once, but
1 2 3 4 if you know to look out for it and be careful,
perhaps you’ll make this mistake just once!
Hours Watch how easy it is to make a mistake when
finding the slope between (1,2) and (10,20):
10 – 1
Calculating Slope from a Graph NO! ______
20 – 2
Now that we know how to use a graph to determine 20 – 2
YES . . . ______
10 – 1
coordinate pairs on the line, let’s look at how to use a
graph to determine a slope. Since slope is a measure
of the rate of change, it is calculated by comparing
the change in two y-coordinates to the change in the
two corresponding x-coordinates. There is a formula
used to find the slope between any two ordered pairs.
We will write the pairs as (x1,y1) and (x2,y2). (This sub-
script notation of the tiny 1’s and 2’s is just a method
for indicating which x-coordinate or y-coordinate is
being referred to.) Here’s the conventional slope
formula:

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Example
Find the slope of the following line:

12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3

Step 1: The first step is to identify two coordinate

12
pairs that sit on the line. We have identified (3,2) and
11
(5,10).
10
(5,10)
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
(3,2)
1

–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3

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Step 2: Put those two coordinate pairs into the slope Slope-Intercept Form: y = mx + b
formula. Make sure the y-coordinates are subtracted The slope-intercept form of a line is y = mx + b,
in the numerator and the x-coordinates are sub- where y always has a coefficient of 1. The variable m
tracted in the denominator: will be a number that represents the slope of the line.
The variable b will be a number representing the
change in y y –y 8 4
Slope = __________ ______
2 1 10 – 2
_____ __ __
change in x = x – x = 5 – 3 = 2 = 1 or 4 y-intercept. The y-intercept is the y-value at which the
2 1
line crosses the y-axis. (The y-intercept is also some-
Therefore, the slope of the line in the given graph is 4 times referred to as the starting point since it repre-
4
or __
1. sents the value of the relationship when x = 0.) The x
and y in y = mx + b are always kept as variables since
Calculating Slope from a Table they represent all the different (x,y) coordinate pairs
Sometimes you will be asked to compare the rate of that sit on the line. Here are examples of linear equa-
change between a relationship shown in a table and tions and their associated slopes and y-intercepts:
another relationship shown in a graph.
y = 3x – 8: This has a slope of 3 and a
Example y-intercept of –8.
1
__ 1
__
Mimi is a baker and on holidays she rents a booth at a 2 x + 20 = y: This has a slope of 2 and a
local shopping center to sell her delicious treats. Her y-intercept of 20.
sales and profits are shown in the following table. Deter- y = 14 – 5x: This has a slope of –5 and a
mine the rate of change displayed in the table and y-intercept of 14.
explain what the slope represents in real-world terms. 5y = – 6x + 8: This is not in y = mx + b form
since the y is being multiplied by 5. In the next
SALES PROFIT section you will learn how to deal with equa-
$1,000 $300 tions presented like this.
$1,800 $940
Notice that in all the equations above, y must be by
$2,500 $1,500
itself on one side of the equation, and the slope is
always the value that is multiplied by x.
Step 1: Identify two coordinate pairs in the table. We
will use (1,000, 300) and (2,500, 1,500) but any two
Manipulating Equations into
coordinate pairs could be used.
y = mx + b
You probably noticed in the examples above that
Step 2: Put those two coordinate pairs into the slope
sometimes you will get a linear equation that is not in
formula. Make sure the y-coordinates are subtracted
slope-intercept form. When dealing with lines that
in the numerator and the x-coordinates are sub-
are not in the y = mx + b format, isolate the y using
tracted in the denominator:
opposite operations to get it into the form y = mx + b.
change in y y –y 4 This is required to answer a question such as this:
Slope = __________ ______ 1,500 – 300
___________ 1,200
____ __
change in x = x – x = 2,500 – 1,000 = 1,500 = 5
2 1
2 1

4 Example
Step 3: Since the slope is __
5 , this means that for every
What is the slope of the line 3x + 4y = 12?
$5 increase in sales, Mimi’s profit increases $4.

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Use opposite operations to get y alone: Writing Equations in

Slope-Intercept Form
3x + 4y = 20 You may be required to write the equation of a line in
–3x –3x slope-intercept form when given a table, graph, or
4y
__ –3x + 20
4 = _______
4
two coordinate pairs. You already know how to do the
y = – __
3 3
__ first two steps, so this process just includes two extra
4 x + 5, so the slope of the line is – 4
steps:

FINDING THE EQUATION OF A LINE

Step 1: Identify two coordinate pairs and write them in (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) form.

Step 2: Use those two coordinate pairs to calculate the slope, or m, using the slope formula:
y2 – y1
_______
Slope = m = x2 – x1

Step 3: Starting with y = mx + b, substitute the slope you arrived at in Step 2 in for m, and use one
of the coordinate pairs to plug in values for x and y. Then you will have an equation where b is the
only unknown. Solve for b.

Step 4: Rewrite the equation y = mx + b by using your found values for m and b, but keep x and y
as variables.

Example Step 1: First, identify two coordinate pairs that sit on

What is the equation of the line represented as follows? this line. We will use (3,35) and (5,55), which you
should be able to verify by looking at the graph:
60
55 Step 2: Find the slope:
50 change in y y –y
Slope = m = __________ ______ 55 – 35
______ 20
__
change in x = x – x = 5 – 3 = 2 ,
2 1

45 2 1

40 so m = 10

35
Step 3: Starting with y = mx + b, use the coordinate
30 pair (3,35) to sub in x = 3, y = 35, along with m = 10
25 and then solve for b:
20 y = mx + b
15 35 = 10(3) + b
35 = 30 + b
10
–30 –30
5
5=b
0 1 2 3 4 5
–5 Step 4: Starting with y = mx + b, plug in m = 10 and b
= 5 to get y = 10x + 5.

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Note: When you have a graph, you can often simplify Example
2
Step 3 by just looking at the graph to see where the What will the equation be of a line that has a slope of __
3
line crosses the y-axis. and goes through the point (12,5)?

Finding y = mx + b from Since you already know m and a coordinate pair, you
Other Formats get to skip Steps 1 and 2 and start at Step 3!
Now that you know how to write an equation in
slope-intercept form from a graph, it is simple to Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
tackle the other types of questions you may encoun- Sometimes the GED® test will not give you either of
ter on the GED® test. Take a look at these three cases the 3 previous cases, but instead will give you infor-
and how you’d use the steps outlined earlier to answer mation about a line being parallel or perpendicular to
each question: another line. Two lines are parallel if they have the
same slope. For instance, y = 7x + 5 and y = 7x – 34
Case 1: You are given two points. are parallel. The slope of each line is 7.
Two lines are perpendicular if their slopes are
Example opposite reciprocals. For instance, if the slope of a line
1
What is the equation of the line that connects (8,–2) A is 2, then the slope of its perpendicular line B is –__
2.
and (6,10)? An infinite number of lines could be parallel and
perpendicular to a given line when you look only at the
Since you already know two coordinate pairs, start at slope as the determining factor. The only thing that
Step 2 and continue through Step 4. changes with each of these lines is the y-intercept—
where it crosses the y-axis.
Case 2: You are given a table. However, what if we wanted to find a particular
line that is parallel or perpendicular to a given line?
Example As long as we know the slope and a point through
Write an equation that models the data in this table: which the line passes, we can find a particular parallel
or perpendicular line.
x y
2 $24 Example
4.5 $52
Find the equation of the line that is parallel to 3y – 6 =
18x and passes through the point (0,–3).
8 $96
First, we need to get the given line into slope-
intercept form: y = mx + b:
Use that table to select any two coordinate pairs and
then start at Step 1.
3y – 6 = 18x
+6 +6
Case 3: You are given the slope and one point.
3y = 18x + 6
3y
__ 18x
3 = ___
3 +6
y = 6x + 2

Our slope is 6, so the slope of the parallel line is also

6. Since we know an x and a y value for this parallel

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line, we can substitute these values into the slope- Graphing Linear Equations
intercept form to find b, the y-intercept. Graphing linear equations is actually much more
simple than writing their equations. There are three
y = mx + b different cases you may encounter:
–3 = 6(0) + b
–3 = b Case 1: You are given two distinct points. These might
be as coordinate pairs, in a table, in the context of a
So, the equation of the parallel line to 3y – 6 = 18x word problem. In this case, simply plot the two (x,y)
that passes through (0,–3) is: coordinate pairs and draw a line through them
extending in both directions.
y = mx + b
y = 6x – 3 Case 2: You are given the slope and one distinct point.
Note that this may be in the context of a word prob-
lem where you will be given the rate of change and
RULE: PARALLEL AND
enough information to make a coordinate pair. In
PERPENDICULAR LINES
this case, first plot the distinct point on your graph.
When two lines are parallel, they have identi- Then write the slope as a fraction, and set it equal to
rise
___
cal slopes. run . Starting at your given point, move up (“rise”) the
Example: y = 6x + 2 and y = 6x – 7 are number of units in the numerator, and then move
parallel right (“run”) the number of units in the denomina-
When two lines are perpendicular, their tor. (Note: if your slope is negative, your first move
slopes are opposite reciprocals. (The slopes will be down and your second move will still be to the
are reciprocals of each other with opposite right.)
signs.)
3 4
Example: y = – ___ ___
4 x + 5 and y = 3 x + 9
are perpendicular.

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4
For instance, you are asked to graph the line that has a slope of __
3 and passes through the point (2,0). First, plot
the point (2,0):

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8

4
Now that the point is graphed, we need to find another point to draw a line. Since we know the slope is __
3 , write
4
__ rise
___
3 = run . Next, start at the plotted point (2,0) and go up 4 and to the right 3:

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8

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Last, draw a line that goes through both points:

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8

Case 3: You are given the equation of a line. First, use Since we know the slope is 2, we can follow the same
opposite operations to maneuver the equation into y procedure as in the previous example to graph the
= mx + b form. Once you have done that, you can line: start at (0,–1) and go up 2 and over 1:
graph it by using the y-intercept and slope values.
For instance, to graph the line y = 2x – 1,
first plot the y-intercept: 5
4
3
5 2
4 1
3
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
2 –1
1 –2
–3
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–1 –4
–2 –5
–3
–4
–5

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Last, draw a line that goes through both points: 6. The figure represents the cumulative number
of packages loaded onto trucks over the course
of 8 hours at a small warehouse. When the day
5 began, there were already 50 packages loaded.
4 Based on this graph, how many packages were
3 loaded each hour?
2
1

Packages Loaded
300
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 250
–1
200
–2 150
–3 100
–4 50

–5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Hours

Practice 7. What is the slope of the line represented by the

1. What is the slope of a line that goes through equation 10x – 4y = 2?
(8,–3) and (–2,2)?
8. Find the equation of the line that passes
2. What is the equation of a line that has a through (9,–5) and has a slope of 0.5.
2
y-intercept of 4 and a slope of __
3? ________________
2
3. The slope of line v is __
5 . If line v goes through 9. Find the equation of the line that is perpendic-
points (–4,7) and (6,x), find the value of x. 1
ular to y = __
4 x + 6 that passes through the
point (–2,8). ____________
4. Write an equation that represents a line that
crosses the y-axis at 8 and contains the point
(2,4).

5. x 0 2 4 6
y 1 4 7 10

The table above shows four points in the x-y

coordinate plane that lie on the graph of a line
y = mx + b. Based on this information, what is
the value m?

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10. Determine the slope of this line: Systems of Linear Equations

5 Now that you are familiar with linear equations we
4 are going to learn about systems of equations. A sys-
3 tem of equations is when two linear equations are
considered at the same time. In order to find the solu-
2
tion to the system of equations, we are looking for the
1 coordinate pair (x,y) that works in both equations at
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
the same time.
–1 For example, look to see how the point (4,8)
will work in both of these equations:
–2

–3
y = 2x
–4

–5 (4,8) works in this equation since when we plug in

–6
x = 4 and y = 8 we get the true statement 8 = 2(4).

12 = x + y
11. Make a graph for the equation 8x + 10y = 40.
(4,8) also works in this equation since when we plug
10 in x = 4 and y = 8 we get the true statement 12 = 4 + 8.
9 We could therefore say that (4,8) is the solution
8
to the system of equations y = 2x and 12 = x + y.
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
–10

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GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

There are three different methods used to solve systems of equations. In this section we will illus-
trate how each method can be used to solve this problem:

n What is the solution to the following system of equations:

y = 2x – 4
4y = 6x + 2

Before we move on to the three methods for solving 8x – 16 = 6x + 2

systems of equations, it must be understood that in + 16 + 16
order for a coordinate pair to be a solution to a linear 8x = 6x + 18
equation, it must create a true statement when subbed –6x –6x
into the equation. For example, (1,3) is a solution to 2x = 18
the equation 4 = x + y, since 4 = 3 + 1. However, (1,3)
is not a solution to 10 = x + y, since 10 ≠ 1 + 3. So To isolate x, we need to divide each side of the equa-
whenever you are asked if a coordinate pair is a solu- tion by 2.
tion to a system of equations, you can check by plug-
2x
__ 18
ging each of the coordinates into the equations to see 2= __
2
if they make both equations into true statements. x=9

Method #1: Substitution So, if x = 9, what is the y-coordinate that corresponds

In order to find the solution for this system of equa- with that x-coordinate? To find y, we substitute 9 for
tions using substitution, we first need to isolate one x into one of the original equations.
of the variables in one of the equations in order to
substitute an equivalent value in the other equation. y = 2x – 4
Luckily, one of the equations already has isolated y: y y = 2(9) – 4
= 2x – 4. So, the next step is to use 2x – 4 in place of y y = 18 – 4
in the second equation so we can solve for x: y = 14

4(2x – 4) = 6x + 2 The solution to this system of equations is (9,14).

Always write the x-coordinate first.
Distribute the 4 to each of the terms in the quantity
2x – 4: Method #2: Linear Combination
The method of linear combination is just what it
8x – 16 = 6x + 2 sounds like: We are going to combine the two linear
equations.
Next, get all the numbers on one side of the equation
and the x quantity on the other. Add 16 to both sides y = 2x – 4
and subtract 6x from both sides: 4y = 6x + 2

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The goal of combining the two equations is to elimi- Now that we know that y = 14, we can solve for x by
nate one of the variables. We do this by adding the substituting 14 for y into one of the original
equations together. However, sometimes just adding equations:
the equations together as they are written will not
cancel either variable out. Can we add y and 4y to get y = 2x – 4
zero? No. Can we add 2x and 6x to get zero? No. So 14 = 2x – 4
we need to do some manipulation.
Let’s focus on eliminating the x’s. If we have 6x Add 4 to each side to get all the numbers on one side
in one equation, then we need –6x in the other equa- and all the x’s on the other.
tion so that we get a sum of zero when they are added
together. Is there a way to make the 2x into a –6x? 14 = 2x – 4
Could we multiply by –3? Yes! If we multiply 2x by –3, +4 +4
then we must multiply the rest of the terms in that 18 = 2x
equation by –3:
Divide each side of the equation by 2 to isolate x.
(–3)y = –3(2x – 4)
18
__ 2x
2= __
2
Once the –3 is distributed to, or multiplied by, each 9=x
term, we have
The solution to this system of equations is (9,14).
–3y = –6x + 12 Again, we always write the x-coordinate first.

How does this help us? Well, let’s put the two equa- Method #3: Graphing
tions on top of each other again, this time using the y = 2x – 4
new, manipulated equation: 4y = 6x + 2

–3y = –6x + 12 To solve this system of equations by graphing, we

+4y = 6x + 2 need to graph each of these lines. The point where
these two lines intersect is the solution.
Notice that when we proceed to add each term How do we plot these lines? First, we need each
together, we add 6x and –6x, which equals zero. That line to be in slope-intercept form. That is, we need
is what we want! Then, we can solve for y since it will each line to mirror the format y = mx + b.
be the only variable:
The first equation is already in slope-intercept form,
–3y = –6x + 12 so we do not need to change it. However, we need to
+4y = 6x + 2 isolate y in the second equation to get it into slope-
y = 0 + 14 intercept form.
y = 14
4y = 6x + 2

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To get rid of the coefficient of 4, we need to divide 14. Solve the following system of equations using
each side of the equation by 4. combination:
y = 2x + 6 and y = x + 8
4y
__ 6x + 2
4 = _____
4
6 2 15. Use the coordinate plane provided to find the
y = __ __
4x+ 4
solution to the system of equations:
Notice that both of the fractions are not in lowest y = 3x – 2
form. We can reduce both of them by taking a factor –3x + 6y = 18
of 2 out of each equation:
5
3
__ 1
__
y= 2x + 2 4

This is now in slope-intercept form and can be 3

graphed. When you graph the two lines, you see that 2
the one solution that works for both is (9,14)—this is
the one place where the lines cross. 1

y –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
15
–1
13
3 1
(9,14)
11 y= 2 x+ 2 –2
9
–3
7
5 –4
3 y=2x–4
–5
x
–11 –9 –7 –5 –3 1 3 5 7 9 11 13
–3
–5
–7
Inequalities
–9
You now know that “14 less than 2y” is represented as
2y – 14. But what if the problem said instead, “14 is
Practice less than 2y”? That one word “is” changes everything
12. For which of the following systems of equa- into an inequality. A mathematical inequality is what
tions is (2,–3) a solution? (There may be more it sounds like—a mathematical statement where the
than one answer.) two quantities are not equal. Instead, one quantity is
A. 4x – 3y = 17 and x – y = –1 greater than (>) or less than (<) the other. The
B. –5x – y = 7 and y = 7x – 17 inequality “14 is less than 2y” is translated into 14 <
1
C. (y + 5) = __ 2y, where the open side faces the larger quantity. In
2 (x + 2) and 4x – 2y = 14
this section we will learn how to write, solve, and
13. Solve the following system of equations using graph inequalities.
substitution:
4x + 2y = 20 and x = 2 + y

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GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

Tes wants her average in Organic Chemistry to be between a 70 and an 80. Her teacher told her
that in order to know what her 4th test score needs to be to achieve this, she should solve the fol-
lowing inequality. Find the acceptable range of test scores for Tes’s 4th test.
75 + 35 + 80 + 50 + x
70 < ____________________
4 < 80

Writing Inequalities problems by keeping your eyes out for the following
Inequality symbols are used to model problems when phrases. Notice that the verb “is” from the first col-
there is not just one precise answer but instead, a umn can be replaced with any other verb such as
range of answers is acceptable. You should be able to weighs, earns, costs, eats, etc. when expressing an
recognize inequalities in the context of word inequality:

PHRASE REAL WORLD INEQUALITY

is at least Maya is at least 29 m ≥ 29
is at most Chris weights at most 180 c ≤ 180
is greater/more than Hercules earned more than $20 h > 20
is no greater/more than Hercules earned no more than $50 h ≤ 50
between Hercules earned between $20 and $50 20 < h ≤ 50

Notice in the table above, some of the inequality sym- Suppose Izzy wants to buy a wedding gift for a friend
bols are underlined. This symbolizes “or equal to.” that is at least $75 but no more than $150. The first
Close attention must be paid to when the number step to represent this is to put the smaller number on
highlight is or is not included in the inequality. For the left, the larger number on the right, and the vari-
example, if “Hercules earned more than $20” then he able representing the gift, g, in the middle:
could not have earned $20 so the inequality is not
underlined. However if “Hercules earned no more $75 g $150
than $50,” then it is possible that he could have earned
$50 so the inequality symbol is underlined. It is a Then the inequality symbols are added to signify
good idea to re-read inequality descriptions carefully whether the outside numbers are included in the
and ask yourself if the end number can or cannot be solution set or excluded. In this case, Izzy would be
included, based on the context of the question. comfortable spending $75 or $150, so the “or equal
to” symbols are used:
Two-Sided Inequalities
When a situation has an upper limit as well as a lower $75 g $150
limit, a 2-sided inequality is used to represent it.

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Solving One-Sided Inequalities Now, we must divide both sides by –5 in order to get
To solve most inequalities you will follow the same the x alone. Because of this step, when we carry the
exact steps used to solve linear equations. Let’s work inequality symbol down, we will have to switch its
through a problem: direction:

–5x
___ –50
Example –5 > ___
–5
Solve 2x + 4 0. x < 10

Just like when solving linear equations (i.e., 2x + 4 = This means that for any value of x less than 10, the
0), we isolate x on one side of the equation: original inequality, 10 – 5x > –40 should be true. We
can sub in 9 for x to test it:
2x + 4 0
–4 –4 10 – 5x > –40; x = 9
2x –4 10 – 5(9) > –40
2x
__ –4
__
2 2 10 – 45 > –40
x –2 –35 > –40

What does this number sentence mean? It means that This true statement indicates that our answer, x < 10,
to keep 2x + 4 0 a true statement, we can substitute is correct.
any value of x that is less than or equal to –2.
Solving Compound Inequalities
Watch Out—Inequality Curve Ball! Solving compound inequalities, like 7 < 5x – 3 < 22,
There is one tricky thing to remember about solving is not as tricky as you might fear. The goal is to isolate
inequalities: Whenever dividing or multiplying both the variable in the middle of the inequality symbols.
sides by a negative number, you must switch the When you perform an operation to the center of the
direction of the inequality symbol. This does not inequality to get x alone, perform that same opera-
hold true if you add a negative number, or if your tion to both the left side and the right side of the
answer itself ends up being negative—the direction compound inequality.
of the inequality symbol is only switched if you divide
or multiply by a negative. Example
Solve 7 < 5x – 3 < 22.
Example
Solve 10 – 5x > –40. Our first step to getting x alone is to add 3 to all three
parts of the inequality:
The first step is going to be the same as the previous 7 < 5x – 3 < 22
problem—we are going to subtract 10 from both +3 +3 +3
sides to get the –5x alone: 10 < 5x < 25

10 – 5x > –40
–10 –10
–5x > –50

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Our next step is to divide all three parts of the Graphing Compound Inequalities
inequality: The only difference with graphing compound
inequalities is that your number line will not have an
10
__ 5x
5 < ___
–5 < 25 arrow on one side and it will instead show a maxi-
2 < x < 5 is your final answer. mum and a minimum. The compound inequality
–2 < x < 3 is represented by Graph A below, and
Graphing Inequalities Graph B is an illustration of –2 x 3.
You may be asked to graph the solution to an inequal-
ity on a number line. Let’s use the example c > 3 to –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
illustrate how this is done. Here are the steps for mak- Graph A
ing an inequality number line:
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph B
Example
Graph the solution to c > 3.
Practice
Solution 16. Write an inequality to represent “When Jenni-
1. Make a number line that has your solution in fer wasn’t looking, Kai ate at least 7 Oreos.”
the middle and counts three units in both
directions. 17. Write an inequality to represent “Mika’s boss
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 asked her to pick up a gift for her client that
was no more than $100.”
2. Circle your numerical solution on the num-
ber line. If the symbol in your solution is 18. Charlotte is on the track team and it’s meet
or , shade in your circle to show that this day. She really wants to run her 400m race
number is part of the solution set. If the faster than her time from last week, which was
symbol is < or >, keep your circle open like 70 seconds. However, her coach told her that
an “o” to show that, NO, this number is not he didn’t want her running it any faster than 65
part of the solution set: seconds, since she also has to run the 1-mile
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 race at the end of the track meet. Write an
inequality to represent the time that Charlotte
3. The last step is to shade the number line so is aiming for.
that it correctly indicates your solution set. If
your solution is “greater than” the variable, 19. What is the solution set of the inequality
you will shade to the right, and if it is “less –x + 2 > 5?
than,” you will shade to the left. Since c > 3,
we shade to the right: 20. Solve the compound inequality:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 –15 < 3x – 6 < 18

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21. A factory is able to produce at least 16 items, 2. A specimen is removed from an arctic dig and
but no more than 20 items, for every hour the placed in a heating chamber where the temper-
factory is open. If the factory is open for 8 ature is increased steadily over a period of
hours a day, write an inequality to represent hours. The temperature of the chamber over
the possible range of numbers of items pro- time is represented on the following graph.
duced by the factory over a seven-day work What is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
period. Then solve the inequality and represent after 2 hours? _______
the solution set on a number line.
5

Summary 4

3
You now have a solid foundation in graphing and
2

Chamber Temperature (Fahrenheit)

interpreting linear equations and inequalities. The
following questions will test your ability to perform a 1
wide array of skills, so make sure you go back and
review any topics that you feel a bit uncertain of. –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1 Warming Time (Hours)
Algebra Part II Review
1. What is the slope of the following line? –2

–3
7
–4

6 –5

5 –6

–7
4
–8
3
–9
2
–10
1

–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
2
__
a. 3
2
b. – __
3
3
c. – __
2
d. 5

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3. Identify the rate of change from the following a. y = 1x + 3

1
table: b. y = __
3x+1

x –2 1 7
c. y = 3x – 1
d. y = 3x + 1
y –5 0 10

a.
5
__ 6. What line is parallel to the line y – 2 = 3x?
3
5 a. y = 2x – 1
b. – __
3 b. y = 3x + 3
3
__
c. –5 c. y = –2x – 6
3 –1
d. __
5 d. y = __
3x+9

4. Which of the following equations has a slope 7. What is the slope of a line perpendicular to
1 3
of __
2? y + __
4 x = 1?
–4
a. 2y = __
1
2 x + 10
a. __
3
1 b. –1
b. y = __
2 + 10x
c. 1
c. 3x + 6y = 10 4
d. __
3
d. 3x – 6y = 10

8. What is an equation of the line that passes

5. What is the equation of the line illustrated in 1
through (–4,3) and has a slope of __
2?
the following graph?
a. x – 2y + 10 = 0
6 b. 2x – 4y – 6 = 0
c. –4x – 3y – 7 = 0
5 1
d. –4x + 3y + __
2 =0

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1

–2

–3

–4

–5

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9. Which graph represents two relationships that

have the same rate of change?

y 10. What is the solution to the following system of

equations? ________

y = 3x – 5 and 2y + 2x = 14

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11. Which number line represents the solution set Answers and Explanations
to the inequality 2x < 24 + 8x?
a. Chapter Practice
1
–4 1. – __
2 . Use the two coordinate pairs in the slope
b. formula:
2 – –3 5 –1
–4 m = _____ ___ __
–2 – 8 = –10 = 2
1
c. So the slope is – __
2.
–4 2
2. y = __
3 x + 4. Since you are given the y-intercept
d. and the slope, plug both of these values into the
–4 2
y = mx + b equation. Putting 4 in for b and __ 3 in
12. Enya makes $1,500 a month after taxes. She has 2
__
for m gives y = 3 x + 4.
$1,000 of expenses, including rent, utilities,
3. x = 11. Since the slope is given, and 3 out of the
and food. She wants to put at least $325 in sav-
4 coordinates are also provided, plug all of these
ings each month so that she can buy a used car
values into the slope formula and solve for the
in a year or two. Which inequality accurately
missing x-coordinate:
represents how much spending money, m, y –y
Enya can potentially have each month while m = ______
2
x –x
1
2 1

still achieving her saving goal? 2

__ x–7
5 = _____
6 – –4
a. m $175 2
__ x–7
= _____
b. m $325 5 10
At this point, use cross products to solve for x,
c. m $325
making sure you put the quantity x – 7 in
d. m $175
parentheses so that the 5 gets distributed:
5(x – 7) = 2(10)
13. Find the solution set to the compound inequal-
5x – 35 = 20
ity: 3 < 4x – 9 < 23
+35 +35
a. x < 8
5x = 55
b. x > 8 or x < 3 55
c. 3 > x > 8 x = __5
d. 3 < x < 8 x = 11
4. y = –2x + 8. Start with the equation y = mx + b.
Since the line crosses the y-axis at 8, plug 8 in
for b:
y = mx + 8
Since we’re given the point (2, 4), replace the x
with 2 and the y with 4. Now there’s enough
information to solve for m:
4 = m(2) + 8
–8 –8
–4 = 2m
–2 = m
Lastly, rewrite the equation y = mx + b with the
values for m and b: y = –2x + 8

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3 10. m = 1. In order to find the slope, we must iden-

5. m = __
2 . To answer this question you may use
tify two coordinate pairs that sit on the line.
any two coordinate pairs in the slope formula.
(0,–2) and (2,0) are the points we will use in the
We will use the first two points (0,1) and (2,4):
y –y4–1 3 slope formula:
m = ______
2 1
= _____ = __ y2 – y1 0 – (–2) 2
x –x 2 2–01
2 slope = ______
x –x
= _______
2–0
= __
2 =1
6. 25 packages per hour. The slope of the line will
2 1

So the slope of the line is 1.

represent the number of packages loaded per
11. See the following graph. First we must manip-
hour. Use the starting point (0,50) and the end
ulate 8x + 10y = 40 so that it is in y = mx + b
point (8, 250) in the slope formula:
y –y
form:
m = ______
2
x –x
1
8x + 10y = 40
2 1

m= 250 – 50
200
_______
= ___ = 25 packages per hour –8x –8x
8–0 8 10y
5 ___ –8x + 40
7. __
2.To find the slope of the line with this equa- 10
= _______
10
tion, isolate the y-variable and put the equation –8 40
y = __
10
x + __
10
in the form y = mx + b, where m is the slope: 4
y = – __
5
x + 4
10x – 4y = 2
Now we can see that the y-intercept is 4 and
–10x –10x rise 4
that the slope, or ___ __
run . = – 5 . Begin by plotting
–4y = –10x + 2
–4y
___ –10x + 2 the y-intercept on the y-axis at 4. Then, starting
–4
= _______
–4
–10 2
at this point, go down –4 and right 5 and plot a
y = ___
–4
x + __
–4 second point at (5,0). Connect these points to
5 1
y = __2x+ 2
__
get:
8. y = 0.5x – 9.5. Substitute the known values into
the equation y = mx + b and solve for b. 10
y = mx + b 9
–5 = 0.5(9) + b 8

–5 = 4.5 + b 7
6
–4.5 –4.5
5
–9.5 = b (0,4)
4
The equation of this line, then, is y = 0.5x – 9.5. 3
1
9. y = –4x. If the slope of the given line is __
4 , what
2
1
is the slope of any line perpendicular to it? The (5,0)
opposite reciprocal: –4. Now that we have iden- –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
tified the slope, let’s substitute the given x and y –2
values into the slope-intercept equation to find –3

the y-intercept of this particular line: –4

y = mx + b
8 = –4(–2) + b
8=8+b
–8 –8
0=b
The equation of the line perpendicular to
1
y = __4 x + 6 that passes through (–2,8) is
y = –4x + 0, or just y = –4x.
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12. A. (2,–3) is a solution for 4x – 3y = 17, but it 14. (2,10). The combination method is easiest to
does not work in x – y = –1, so it is not a solu- use when both equations are in the same form
tion for this system of equations. and when either x or y have the opposite coeffi-
B. (2,–3) is not a solution for –5x – y = 7, but it cient in both equations, like 5x and –5x.
is a solution for y = 7x – 17, so it is not a solu- We are given y = 2x + 6 and y = x + 8, so we will
tion for this system of equations. multiply one of the equations by –1 so that
1
C. (2,–3) is a solution to both (y + 5) = __ 2 (x + either y will have the opposite coefficients.
2) and 4x – 2y = 14 so it is a solution to this sys- –1(y) = –1(2x + 6), so –y = –2x – 6. Now we can
tem of equations. add both of the equations together, so that the
13. (4,2). The substitution method isolates one y’s will cancel out:
variable in one of the equations, and substitutes –y = –2x – 6
its equivalent value (2 + y) into the other equa- y= x+ 8
tion. When this is done, only one variable exists 0 = –1x + 2
in the new equation and it can be solved for Since y has canceled out, we can solve for the
that variable. Notice that in the second equa- remaining variable, x:
tion, x is already isolated, so we can replace the 0 = –1x + 2,
x in the first equation with the (2 + y) value –2 –2
from the second equation: –2 = –1x
4x + 2y = 20 and x = 2 + y, so x = 2.
Replace the x in the first equation with (2 + y) Now that we have a value for x, plug x = 2 back
from the second equation: into one of the equations and solve for the y:
4(2 + y) + 2y = 20 y = x + 8, and x = 2, so y = 10.
Begin to solve 4(2 + y) + 2y = 20 for y by dis- So (2,10) is the solution to the system of
tributing the 4: equations.
8 + 4y + 2y = 20
Combine like y terms and move the 8 to the
right side to get, 6y = 12. This ends with y = 2.
Now that we have a value for y, solve for x by
substituting y = 2 into one of the original
equations:
x = 2 + y, and we know that y = 2.
So x = 2 + 2
And x = 4.
Therefore, the coordinate pair (4,2) is the solu-
tion to the system of equations.

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15. (2,4). The equation y = 3x – 2 is already in 18. 65 c < 70. Since Charlotte wants her time to
slope-intercept form so it can be easily graphed, be under 70 seconds, 70 will not be included in
but we must alter the second equation so that it her solution. Her coach doesn’t want her to go
is in the form y = mx + b: any faster than 65 seconds, but 65 can be
–3x + 6y = 18 included in the solution: 65 c < 70
+3x +3x 19. x < –3. First, subtract 2 from both sides:
6y
__ 3x + 18 2–x>5
6
= ______
6
1 –2 –2
y = __
2x+3
–x > 3
Now we can graph each equation by plotting
rise Now to get x alone, divide both sides by –1.
the y-intercept and using the slope’s ___
run instruc-
Since we are dividing by a negative, we must
tions to plot additional points.
switch the direction of the inequality sign:
x < –3
6
20. –3 < x < 8. The goal is to isolate x in the middle
5 of the two inequalities. Start to get x alone by
(2,4)
4 adding 6 to all three parts of the compound
inequality:
3
–15 < 3x – 6 < 18
2 +6 +6 +6
1 –9 < 3x < 24
Now, divide all three sides by 3 to get the x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 alone:
–1 –9 < 3x < 24
–9
__ 3x
__ 24
__
–2 3 < 3 < 3
–3 < x < 8
–3 21. 896 < w < 1,120. The inequality that would rep-
resent the number of items produced in 1 hour
The lines cross at (2,4), which is the solution. would be 16 h 20, where h = hours. Since
16. k 7. Since Kai ate at least 7 Oreos, that means the factory is open for 8 hours each day, multi-
he could have eaten 7, 8, or more! The impor- ply each term in the compound inequality by 8:
tant thing is to realize that 7 is part of the solu- (8)16 (8)h (8)20.
tion set so your inequality symbol must indicate This simplifies to 128 8h 160.
that. Represent this with k 7. Since 8 hours is equal to a single day, replace
17. g $100. Since the gift was to be no more than 8h with d:
$100, this means it could have been $100 or less. 128 d 160, where d = days.
It is important to realize that $100 is part of the In order to look at the production over 7 days,
solution set so the inequality symbol must indi- multiply each part of the new inequality by 7:
cate that. Represent this as g $100. (7)128 (7)d (7)160. This translates to
896 w 1,120, where w is the production per
week. The factory will produce anywhere from
896 to 1,120 items in a 7-day week of 8 hours
per day.

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Algebra Part II Review 2. –4 degrees. Looking at the graph, we can see

1. b. First, select two coordinate pairs that sit on that when x = 2 hours, the line has a y-value of
the line. We selected (3,3) and (6,1): –4 degrees:

6
5
5
4
4
(3,3) 3
3
2

Chamber Temperature (Fahrenheit)

2
(6,1)
1 1

–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–1 Warming Time (Hours)

–2
Now put these two coordinates into the
slope formula: –3
y2 – y1 –2
Slope = ______ 1–3
= _____ = __ (2,–4)
x –x2 6–3
1
3 –4
2
So the slope of this line is – __
b is the
3 , so
–5
correct answer. Choice a is not correct since
this shows a positive slope but the line is –6
clearly sloping downward from left to right.
–7
Choice c is the incorrect solution to arrive at
when the x-values are used in the numerator –8
of the slope formula instead of in the
denominator. Choice d shows the y-intercept –9

and not the slope and is therefore incorrect. –10

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3. a. The rate of change is the slope of the rela- slope, or m, in the equation will be 3. The
tionship. Use the coordinate pairs (1,0) and final equation will be y = 3x + 1 and d is
(7,10) in the slope formula to calculate the the correct answer. Choice a is not the cor-
rate of change: rect answer because here the slope and
y –y 10 – 0 10 5 y-intercept have been written in the wrong
Slope = ______
2
x –x
1
= _____
7–1
= __ __
6 = 3
2 1
5 places. Choice b is incorrect since the slope
So the rate of change is __ 3 . Choice b is not 1
is not equal to __
3 , but is instead 3. Choice c is
correct because the slope should be positive.
not the correct answer because that has a y
Choice d is the incorrect answer found when
intercept of –1.
the x coordinates are put in the numerator
6. b. The slope of the given line is 3, and the slope
of the slope formula and choice c is also a
of the line in option b is also 3. Parallel lines
result of that type of error.
have the same slope. Choices a and c mistak-
4. d. When an equation is in the form y = mx + b,
enly use the y-intercept value of 2, and
the coefficient of x, which is m, always repre-
choice d has a slope that renders it perpen-
sents the slope. Choice a is incorrect because
dicular to the given line.
the equation is not yet in y = mx + b form
7. d. To accurately identify the slope of a line per-
since it begins with 2y. When everything is
pendicular to the given one when the x term
divided by 2, the coefficient of x will no lon-
1 is on the other side of the equation, manipu-
ger be __2 . The slope in choice b is 10 because late the equation to put it in y = mx + b
that is the coefficient x. In choices c and d,
form.
manipulate the equations so that y is by 3
y + __
4x=1
itself. Here we isolate y in choice d: 3
__ 3
–4x – __
4x
3x – 6y = 10 –3
y = __4x+1
–3x –3x –3
__
The slope is 4 , so the perpendicular slope
–6y = –3x + 10
–6y –3x + 10
must be the opposite reciprocal—a positive
___ = _______ 4
__
–6 –6 3 . Choices b and c confuse the y-intercept
1
__ 10
__
y= 2x– 6 term for the slope. Choice a has the wrong
1
So choice d gives a slope of __ 2 . Choice c is sign because the x term was not moved to
not correct because that will yield a slope the other side of the equation before identi-
1
of – __
2. fying the slope.
5. d. First, recognize that this line has a An infinite number of lines could be parallel
y-intercept of 1. That will be the b in and perpendicular to a given line when we
y = mx + b. Next, you can see that from the look only at the slope as the determining
point (0,1), you must move 3 spaces up and factor. The only thing that changes with each
1 space over to reach the point (1,4) on the of these lines is the y-intercept—where it
rise
graph. Since slope is the ___
run of a line we can crosses the y-axis.
3
record this information as slope = __ 1 . So the

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8. a. Use the point-slope form of an equation and 10. (3,4). Since one of the variables is already iso-
the information given to answer the ques- lated in this equation, it can be solved most eas-
tion: y – y1 = m(x – x1). ily through substitution.
Given: y = 3x – 5 and 2y + 2x = 14.
x1 = –4 First, replace the y in the second equation with
y1 = 3 “3x – 5” from the first equation:
1
m = __2 2(3x – 5) + 2x = 14.
Equation: y – y1 = m(x – x1) Next, solve 2(3x – 5) + 2x = 14 for x by distrib-
1
Substitute: y – 3 = __
2 [x – (–4)] uting the 2 and then using the rules of opposite
1
__
Simplify: y – 3 = 2 (x + 4) operations to get x alone:
Multiply by 2 to clear fractions: 2y – 6 = x + 4 6x – 10 + 2x = 14
Add 6 to both sides: 2y = x + 10 +10 +10
Rearrange terms to look like choices: 8x = 24
0 = x – 2y + 10 x=3
9. d. Graph a shows two relationships that have Lastly, solve for y by substituting x = 3 into one
the same y-intercept, but one rate of change of the original equations:
is positive and the other is negative so their y = 3x – 5, and x = 3, so
rates of change are not equal. Graph b y = 3(3) – 5 = 4.
shows two relationships that have the same So (3,4) is the solution to the system of
x-intercept, but one rate of change is positive equations.
and the other is negative so their rates of 11. a. Given 2x < 24 + 8x, isolate x by using oppo-
change are also not equal. Graph c shows site operations.
two relationships that are perpendicular but Subtract 8x from both sides to move all the x
their rates of change are not equal. Graph d terms to the left:
shows two parallel lines and parallel lines –6x < 24
always have an equal rate of change so this is Divide by –6 to get x alone, and switch the
the correct answer. direction of the inequality sign:
x > –4
The graph of this inequality must have an
open circle at –4 to show that –4 is not part
of the solution set and it must be shaded to
the right to include values greater than –4,
so choice a is correct. Number line b shows
the inequality x –4. The number lines in
graphs c and d shows the inequality x < –4
and x –4. In this case, it was forgotten to
switch the direction of the inequality symbol
when dividing by a negative.

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12. d. This scenario indicates that you want to save 13. d. The goal is to isolate x in the middle of the
at least $325 per month. That means that two inequalities. What you do to the middle
after starting with $1,500 of income, and of the inequality, you must do to the left and
subtracting $1,000 for your expenses and right sides as well. The first step is to add 9
also subtracting m dollars for your spending to all three parts of the compound inequal-
money, you want to have at least $325 left ity. Then divide all three parts by 4 to get x
over. This can be represented as follows: fully alone:
$1,500 – $1,000 – m $325, 3 < 4x – 9 < 23
where m = spending money +9 +9 +9
Simplifying the left side yields 12 < 4x < 32
12
__ 4x
__ 32
__
$500 – m $325 4 < 4 < 4
Now move the m over to the right side and 3<x<8
bring the $325 over to the left side for a final x is the set of all numbers greater than 3 and
inequality of $175 m, which can also be less than 8. Answer choices b and c all have
written as m $175. This means that your aspects of the correct solution, but mistakes
monthly spending money must be $175 or have been made with the directions of their
less in order to meet your long-term goal of inequality symbols. Choice a only has half of
purchasing a car. Answer choice a doesn’t the solution, x < 8, but this must be paired
make sense because if she spends more than with x > 3 as well.
$175 per month her savings will go below
her $325/month goal. This would be the
answer for a student who divided by a –1 to
get m alone and then forgot to change the
direction of the inequality sign. Answer
choices b and c don’t work because here the
“saving money” is being used as the “spend-
ing money.”

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 8 ALGEBRA PART III:
C H A P T E R

QUADRATICS
AND FUNCTIONS

I n the previous chapter you learned about linear equations and now you will study quadratic equations.
Quadratics are important because they are used to model and solve many real-world problems that linear
equations cannot handle. Quadratic equations are used in problems involving finance, gravity, and area. You
will also learn about functions, which are special types of relationships that have their own unique notation.
Answers and explanations for all practice questions are at the end of the chapter.
This chapter covers:

n The standard form of quadratic equations

n Factoring quadratic equations
n The four methods to solve quadratic equations
n Using the quadratic equation
n Interpreting vertices and intercepts of real-world graphs

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n Recognizing functions Quadratic Equations

n Working with function notation
n Comparing functions A quadratic equation is an equation that has one
variable to the second power, most commonly, x2.
The standard form of a quadratic equation is y = ax2
+ bx + c, where a, b, and c are numerical coefficients.

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

When trying to solve a quadratic equation for the value of its unknown, there are often more steps
involved than when solving a linear equation.

n Find two values of x that satisfy the following equation: x2 + 6x = 16

If you try to do the above question in your head, you will find that it is extremely difficult. In this
section you will learn the techniques for solving quadratics.

Standard Form of QUADRATIC EQUATION

Quadratic Equations STANDARD FORM
Similarly to how all linear equations can be written in
When a quadratic equation contains y, its
the form y = mx + b, where m and b are coefficients,
standard form will be:
quadratic equations can all be written in the form ax2
ax2 + bx + c = y
+ bx + c = y, where a, b, and c are coefficients. When
When a quadratic equation does not contain
there is no y in the equation, it is best to represent
y, move everything over to one side, keep-
quadratics as an equation equal to 0: ax2 + bx + c = 0.
ing a positive and set it equal to 0:
For example, the previous equation, x2 + 6x = 16,
ax2 + bx + c = 0
should be rewritten as x2 + 6x – 16 = 0. It is impor-
tant to always make sure that the a, the coefficient of
the x2, is positive.
Factoring Quadratic Equations
It is likely that you will be asked to factor a quadratic
equation on your GED® test. You probably remember
from an earlier chapter that polynomials are factored
by pulling the greatest common factor outside a set of
parentheses. This process was like “undoing” the dis-
tributive property.

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Recall how the expression 10x3 + 5xy + 30x is factoring a quadratic x2 + bx + c, the quadratic will be
factored by dividing everything by the GCF, 5x: broken down into the product of two binomials, (x +
m)(x + n), for two real numbers m and n. When the
10x3 + 5xy2 + 30xz = 5x(2x2 + y2 + 6z) coefficient of the x2 term is 1, there are two easy tricks
to finding the values of m and n:
Factoring quadratic equations is done very differently
because there normally isn’t a greatest common factor 1. m and n must multiply to c
that divides into all the terms. Instead, when 2. m and n must add to b

RULE: FACTORING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS WHEN a = 1

When a = 1, a quadratic in the form 1x2 + bx + c will be factored into the product (x + m)(x + n) for
two real numbers m and n. To determine m and n:
1. m and n must multiply to c
2. m and n must add to b

Example Working Backward: Checking

Factor x2 + 2x – 15. Factored Form
We can always check our factored form by working
First, set up a product of binomials for the factored backward. If we apply FOIL to a factored answer, we
form of a quadratic: should arrive at the original quadratic. (You can actu-
ally use this method to find the correct answer to a
(x + m)(x + n) factoring question on the GED® test if it is a multiple
choice question.) Let’s check our factored form of
Next, make a list of factors that satisfy the first crite- x2 + 2x – 15 by applying FOIL to (x – 3)(x + 5):
rion, that m and n must multiply to c. So in this case,
m × n = –15: Multiply Firsts:
(x – 3)(x + 5) = x2
{1, –15}, {–15, 1}, {3,–5}, {–3,5}
(Note: these are not coordinate pairs, but just factor Multiply Outsides:
pairs that multiply to –15.) (x – 3)(x + 5) = 5x

Next, determine which of the pairs also satisfies the Multiply Insides:
second criterion that m and n must add to b. In this (x – 3)(x + 5) = x2 + 5x – 3x
case m + n = 2. Since –3 and 5 add to 2 we know that
our two factors must be {–3,5}. The final step is to Multiply Lasts:
write them in factored notation: (x – 3)(x + 5). (x – 3)(x + 5) = x2 + 5x – 3x – 15

Combine the x terms to simplify:

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x2 + 5x – 3x – 15 = x2 + 2x – 15 Example
Factor x2 – 4.
Since FOIL brought us back to our original quadratic,
we know that our factored form (x – 3)(x + 5) is First, rewrite x2 – 4 as x2 + 0x – 4, so that you can
correct. clearly see that b = 0.
Then, set up a product of binomials for the fac-
Special Case Factoring tored form of a quadratic:
Sometimes you will be asked to factor a quadratic
that does not seem to fit into the x2 + bx + c. For (x + m)(x + n)
example, how would you approach x2 – 4? In this
case, it is important to recognize that the b coefficient Next, m and n must multiply to c, which in this case
in this equation is equal to zero: x2 – 4 is the same as equals –4:
x2 + 0x – 4.
{1,–4}, {–4,1}, {–2, 2}

Next, determine which of the pairs above also satisfies

the second criterion that m and n must add to b,
which in this case is 0. Since –2 and 2 add to 0, our
two factors must be {–2, 2}. The final step is to write
them in factored notation: (x – 2)(x + 2).

QUICK FACTORING TIPS

You should now feel confident that many quadratics in the form 1x2 + bx + c can be factored into
the form (x + m)(x + n), where m × n = c and m + n = b. The signs of your factors will change when
the coefficients b and c are not both positive. Here are the 4 different cases for the signs of your
factors. Use these as you work through the practice problems. Your understanding of this will
deepen as you get more practice and by test day, you should be comfortable with recognizing
these cases:
Case 1: ax2 + bx + c m and n will both be positive
Case 2: ax2 – bx + c m and n will both be negative (since they must multiply to a positive c
and add to a negative b)
Case 3: ax2 + bx – c m and n will be different signs and the larger factor will be positive
(since they must multiply to a negative c and add to a positive b)
Case 4: ax2 – bx – c m and n will be different signs and the larger factor will be negative
(since they must multiply to a negative c and add to a negative b)

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Solving Quadratics Example

Aside from factoring quadratic equations, it is critical Solve x2 + 20 = 56.
that you know how to solve quadratic equations. Lin-
ear equations are solved by isolating the variable To use the square root technique, the first step is to
through opposite operations. Solving quadratic equa- get the x2 term alone so that we can then take the
tions normally requires a much different technique. square root of both sides of the equation:
Next, we will investigate the 4 different ways to solve a
quadratic equation: x2 + 20 = 56
–20 –20
2
x = 36
n Method 1: Square Root Technique
n Method 2: Factoring
n Method 3: Quadratic Formula Now, we can easily get x by itself by taking the square
n Method 4: Completing the Square root of both sides of the equation:

Method 1: Square Root Technique x2 = 36

When you are asked to solve a quadratic that does not
have an x-term, the process is quite straightforward. Remember, since (–6)(–6) = 36, we have to account
For example, if given x2 + 20 = 56, we can use the for a potential negative value of x. So don’t forget the
square root technique. ± sign when you write your answer:

x 2 x== 36 = ±6

Therefore, x = 6 and x = –6 are the two solutions to

the equation x2 + 20 = 56.

RULE: TAKING THE SQUARE ROOT

It is important to remember that when taking the square root of a number there will always be two
answers: a negative root and a positive root.

x 2 = ±x, 7 (x)(x) = x2 and (–x)(–x) = x2

16 since

x2
Example: 16 = 47and –4, since (4)(4) = 16 and (–4)(–4) = 16

xExample:
2
16x 2 = ±x 27 , xsince
716 2
16 (167 )( 7 ) x=2 7 and
x16
2
(– 16
7 )(– 7 ) = 7

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Method 2: Factoring x2 + 6x – 16 = 0
Most of the time you will be asked to solve a quadratic (x – 2)(x + 8) = 0
that does have an x-term. In this case, you will not be
able to just isolate x and you must instead go through a Since (x – 2)(x + 8) = 0, either the (x – 2) or the (x +
longer sequence of steps. If asked to solve a quadratic 8) term must have a value of zero. They don’t both
that can be easily factored into (x + m)(x + n), then need to be equal to zero at the same time. As long as
factoring is the best method to also arrive at a numer- one of them equals zero, their product will equal zero.
ical solution. Let’s work through the Sneak Preview Therefore, our two solutions can be found by consid-
problem from above to see how to solve a quadratic ering the equations:
equation through factoring. x – 2 = 0, and
x+8=0
Example
Find two values of x that satisfy the following equation: Our solutions are x = 2 and x = –8.
x2 + 6x = 16. We can check these solutions by inputting each
of them into the original equation, x2 + 6x = 16.
The first step is to rearrange the original problem so First investigate what happens when x = 2:
that all the numbers are on one side and the equation
is set to 0: x2 + 6x = 16
22 + 6 × 2 = 16
x2 + 6x = 16
–16 –16 4 + 12 = 16, which is a true statement, so this solution
x2 + 6x – 16 = 0 must be correct.
Next, test the equation when x = –8:
Now we will factor it by first writing out all the fac-
tors that multiply to –16: x2 + 6x = 16
(–8)2 + 6 × (–8) = 16
{–1,16} {1,–16} {4,–4} {2,–8} {–2,8}
64 + (–48) = 16, which is also a true statement, so this
Next, determine which of those pair of numbers also solution is the correct second solution.
add to 6. We see that –2 and 8 will satisfy that require-
ment so we can rewrite our equation in factored
form:

THREE STEPS FOR SOLVING QUADRATICS WITH FACTORING

When a =1 use these three steps to solve for x through factoring:

Step 1: Get the equation into the form x2 + bx + c = 0

Step 2: Factor it into (x + m)(x + n) = 0, so that mn = c and m + n = b
Step 3: Set (x + m) = 0 and (x + n) = 0 and solve for m and n.

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Method 3: Quadratic Formula Now we can see that a = 2, b = 11, and c = 12. Put
Although factoring is a great method to use when these values into the quadratic formula:
a = 1, factoring becomes considerably more difficult
when a doesn’t equal 1. Therefore, whenever a ≠ 1, −b ± b 2 − 4ac
consider using the quadratic formula. Although the x =
2a
quadratic formula looks very confusing, don’t
−11 ± 112 − 4(2)(12)
panic—this formula will be on your GED® test refer- x =
2(2)
ence sheet on test day:
−11 ± 121 − 96
−b ± b 2 − 4ac x =
x = 4
2a
−11 ± 25
x =
To use the quadratic formula: 4
−11 ± 5
x =
Step 1. Identify the values of a, b, and c in your 4
quadratic equation
Step 2. Substitute these values into the qua- At this point, we need to perform two separate equa-
dratic formula tions—one for addition in the numerator and
Step 3. Evaluate the expression by following the another for subtraction in the numerator:
order of operations in PEMDAS –11 +5 –6 3
______
x= 4 = __ __
4 =–2
Example x=
–11 – 5
______
=
–16
___
= –4
4 4
Find two values of x that satisfy the following equation:
2x2 + 11x = –12. Our two solutions are x = – __
3
2 and x = –4. That means
that both of these values work in the original equa-
In order to identify the values of a, b, and c in 2x2 + tion, 2x2 + 11x = –12.
11x = –12, we must first set the equation equal to
zero. Add 12 to both sides to do this:

2x2 + 11x = –12

+12 +12
2
2x + 11x + 12 = 0

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QUADRATIC FORMULA
To use the quadratic formula, put your quadratic equation into the form ax2 + bx + c = 0. Then plug
the values of a, b, and c into the formula, paying close attention to their signs, and evaluate it for
two solutions.

−b ± b2 − 4ac
x =
2a
Beware, the quadratic formula will not always give you two solutions! Why is that? Because the
−b ± b2 − 4ac . Look at these three different cases you might
quadratic formula contains the square root
x =
encounter when using the quadratic formula:2a

n Case 1: If b2 – 4ac equals a positive number, you’ll have two different solutions.
n Case 2: If b2 – 4ac equals a negative number, you’ll have zero solutions since it is impossible
to take the square root of a negative number.
n Case 3: If b2 – 4ac equals zero, you’ll have just one solution since adding and subtracting 0
to your –b term in the numerator will yield the same answer.

Method 4: Completing the Square Step 4: Now the left side of the equation can be writ-
1 2
We saved this method for last since this might be the ten as (x + __
2 b) :
least common method required on the GED® test. In x2 + 6x + 9 = 25
fact, you will not have to use this method to solve a (x + 3)2 = 25
quadratic for its answer; it is most commonly used to
rewrite quadratic equations in a different format. Step 5: Now this equation can be solved by taking the
Nonetheless, it can be used to solve a quadratic so let’s square root of both sides. Remember that when you
solve x2 + 6x – 16 = 0 by completing the square: take the square root of the right side, there will be a
negative and positive answer:
Step 1: Get the x2 and bx terms on one side of the (x + 3)2 = 25
equation with the constant on the other side: x2 + bx (x + 3)2 = 25
– c = 0 becomes x2 + bx = c x + 3 = ±5
x2 + 6x – 16 = 0
+16 +16 Now perform two separate calculations to get your
2
x + 6x = 16 final answers:
x + 3 = 5, so x = 2
1
Step 2: Then find half of b and square it to get (__
2 b)
2
x + 3 = –5, so x = –8
1 1
In this case, b = 6, so (__ 2 __
2 b) = ( 2 × 6) = 3 = 9
2 2

The values of x = 2 and x = –8 will both work in the

1
Step 3: Next add your found value of (__ 2
2 ) = to both
original equation, x2 + 6x = 16
sides of the equation:
x2 + 6x = 16
x2 + 6x + 9 = 16 + 9

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Real-World Context w = 6 and w = –6 are solutions to this equation. How-

There are times when real-world problems cannot be ever, since we are talking about dimensions of a tiled
modeled with linear equations and instead we must area, it does not make sense to have a negative solu-
model them with quadratic equations. Some com- tion. Therefore, w = 6.
mon situations requiring quadratics are problems If the width is 6, we simply multiply that by 2 to
involving area, volume, and gravity. For instance, let’s get the length.
consider the problem that Terry the mason has to Thus, the dimensions of the tile patio are going
tackle. to be 12 feet by 6 feet and the patio will have an area
of 72 square feet.
Example
Terry is given instructions to create a tile patio so that Practice
the length is twice as long as the width. The budget for 1. Factor the following expression: x2 + 6x + 5.
the project only pays for 72 square feet of tile, so he’s
trying to determine the exact dimensions of the tiled 2. Factor x2 – 11x + 24.
area. Write and solve a quadratic to determine the
dimensions of the patio. 3. Factor x2 – 81.

Let’s start by letting the width of the patio equal w 4. Determine whether (2x + 2)(x – 8) is the cor-
and the length of the patio equal twice that, or 2w. rect factored form of 2x2 – 6x – 16.
Here’s a picture to illustrate:
5. Solve x2 + 40 = 45. ____________
2w
6. Use factoring to find the solution to
w x2 = 24 – 2x.

7. What is the largest possible value of x if

The area of this rectangle is length × width, which is x2 – 14x + 35 = –10?
(2w)(w) = 2w2. Set this expression equal to 72 square
feet: 8. Solve the following equation by using the qua-
dratic formula: 3x2 – 11x = 20.
2w2 = 72
9. Theo has a square garden plot in his front yard
Since this quadratic doesn’t have a b term, this is an with side lengths of x feet. He has asked his
ideal opportunity to use the square root technique. parents if he can extend the length by 5 feet
Get w2 alone and then take the square root of both and the width by 2 feet. His parents are unsure
sides: because if he does this expansion his garden
will cover 100 square feet of their yard. Write a
2w2 = 72 quadratic equation that could be used to solve
___2
2w 72
__
2 = 2 for the current dimensions of Theo’s garden
2
w = 36 plot.
w 2 = 36
w = ±6

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Graphs of Quadratics

Now that you have learned how to factor and solve

quadratics, let’s take a look at the graphs of quadrat-
ics in the coordinate plane.

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

Although you don’t need to know all the specifics of graphing quadratic equations, you do need
to be familiar with their shape.

n Which of the following graphs could represent y = x2 + 2x + 4?

Graph A Graph B

Graph C Graph D

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Decoding Quadratic Equations The constant “c” will always represent the
When graphed, quadratic equations make the shape y-intercept of the parabola, or where the
of a parabola, which is a bell-shaped curve. Parabolas parabola crosses the y-axis.
can open upward and look like a smile, or downward
and look like a frown. Parabolas can be wide or The following is a graph of y = 3x2 + 4x + 2:
narrow.
Once a quadratic equation is in the standard 8
form, ax2 + bx + c = y, the variables a and c reveal 7
important characteristics about the appearance of the
graph: 6
5
The coefficient “a” determines the direction 4
and steepness of the parabola:
n When a is positive, the parabola opens
3
upward and looks like a smile. 2
n When a is negative the parabola opens
1
downward and looks like a frown.
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
a is positive a is negative –1
–2

Vertex: The Maximum or Minimum

opens upward opens downward The vertex of a parabola is the point at which the
slope of a parabola changes from negative to positive
n When a is a larger number (a > 1), the or vice versa. The vertex in an upward facing parab-
walls of the parabola are steep and it ola is where the parabola has a minimum, meaning it
makes a narrow bell shape. is the lowest point in the entire parabola. The follow-
n When a has a smaller value (a < 1), the ing illustration shows a parabola with a vertex at
walls of the parabola are gradual and it (–1,1), which is the minimum of the parabola:
is a wider bell shape.

a<1 a>1

5 5

–5 0 5 –5 0 5

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could represent the trajectory, or path, of the ball over

5 time:

y 4 20

15

Height in Feet
3
10

2 5

1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

Time in Seconds
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
Let’s consider the rea-world context of what the
intercepts and vertex mean:

If the parabola is downward facing, its vertex repre- n The y-intercept is (0,15). Since the x-axis is
sents the maximum, or highest point on the parab- showing Time in Seconds and the y-axis is repre-
ola. The following illustration shows a parabola with senting Height in Feet, we can interpret the point
a vertex at (3,1), which represents the maximum of (0,15) to mean that at 0 seconds (the time the ball
the parabola: was thrown), the ball was 15 feet high. Therefore,
we can identify that the deck from which the ball
was thrown was 15 feet off the ground.
3 n Similarly, we get information by observing the
vertex, which is approximately (0.55,20). This
tells us the ball reached a maximum height of 20
2
feet, 0.55 seconds after it was thrown.
y n Lastly, the x-intercept can also be decoded. The
1 point (1.7,0) tells us that at 1.7 seconds, the ball
was 0 feet off the ground, meaning that it landed
on the ground 1.7 seconds after it was thrown.
–1 0 1 2 3 4
x Interpreting Increasing and
–1 Decreasing Intervals
Notice that the vertex represents the highest point of
the ball’s path. From 0 seconds to 0.55 seconds, the
ball was getting higher, and the function was increas-
Interpreting Intercepts ing. You can recognize an increasing interval because
Parabolas can be used to represent situations involv- the slope of the curve will be going upward from left
ing force and gravity. For example, if you were stand- to right. Around 0.55 seconds the ball stopped mov-
ing on a second story deck and you threw a ball ing for a split second, as gravity stopped the ball’s
upward, but off the deck, the following parabola upward motion, and then the ball began falling

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toward the ground. From 0.55 seconds until 1.7 sec- 1 x-intercept
onds, the function was decreasing. You can recognize
a decreasing interval because the slope of the curve
will be going down from left to right. At 0.55 seconds,
the ball was still for a moment, so at 0.55 seconds the
ball was neither increasing nor decreasing. (We will
discuss the specific notation we use with increasing
and decreasing intervals in the next chapter.)

Identifying Intercepts from

an Equation
Parabolas will always have one y-intercept, which can
be easily found by identifying the c variable in the
quadratic equation. (Note that sometimes you won’t
be able to find c because it will be equal to 0. Two
such examples of that are y = x2 and y = 3x2 + x. Both
of these parabolas will have a y-intercept of 0.
All parabolas are not guaranteed to have
x-intercepts. Depending on where a parabola’s vertex
is, and if the bell curve opens upward or downward, 2 x-intercepts
quadratics can have 0, 1, or 2 x-intercepts:

0 x-intercepts

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It’s important to understand that whenever the

2
parabola hits the x-axis, the y-coordinate will have a
value of 0. This is because the curve does not have 1
any vertical movement off the x-axis. Therefore, to
solve for the x-intercepts when given an equation, set –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
y = 0 and solve the quadratic equation by one of the 4
–1
methods discussed.
–2
RULE: SOLVING –3
FOR INTERCEPTS
When given a graph, it’s easy to identify the –4
x-intercept and y-intercept by seeing where –5
the curve crosses the line. But if working
from a quadratic equation: –6
n Find the y-intercept by identifying the c
–7
when the equation is in standard form.
n Find the x-intercept by setting y = 0 and
then use one of the 4 methods dis-
14. The following illustration shows the flight path
cussed earlier to solve a quadratic
of a beanbag that Amara threw from the top of
equation.
a slide. Use the graph to answer the following
questions:
a. From what height was the bean bag thrown?
b. After how many seconds was the bean bag at
Practice
its peak and how high was it from the
10. If the quadratic equation 10x – 5x2 + 7 = y is
ground?
graphed on the coordinate plane, which direc-
c. After how many seconds did the beanbag hit
tion will the parabola open?
the ground?

11. What is the y-intercept of the quadratic y + 7 =

10x – 5x2? 15
Height in Feet

12. What are the x-intercepts of y = x2 + 8x + 16? 10

13. Identify the vertex of the following quadratic:

5

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Time in Seconds

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Functions example of a function is how hours worked corre-

spond with pay received. In this section you will come
A function is a mathematic relationship where every to see that functions are actually used in everyday life
x input corresponds to a unique y output. One more than you realize.

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

Although functions are commonly used to solve real-world problems, their notation is often initially
confusing to students. You will need to understand how to work with function notation on the GED®
test:

n If given the function f(x) = 4x + 10, what is the value of f(5)?

Definition of a Function In order for a relation to not be a function, the same

You are already familiar with a very common type of x-coordinate must correspond to two different
function: linear equations. In the equation y = 2x + 3, y-values.
the x variable is the input or the value for which you Relation A is a function because there are four
substitute a number. After you plug a number in for different x-coordinates.
x, the corresponding y-value you get after multiplying Relation B is a function because although two
that number by 2 and adding 3 is the output. An of the points have the same x-coordinate, those coor-
equation or relationship is a function if each input dinate pairs also have the same y-coordinate. This
value has only one possible output value. satisfies the rule that every x has one, and only one,
The relationship Distance = 50(time) is a func- corresponding y-value.
tion that relates the time a train has been moving (the Relation C is not a function since the points
input) to the distance it has traveled (the output). Any (3,1) and (3,4) do not abide by the rule that every x
group of variables can be considered a function as has one, and only one, corresponding y-value.
long as every x input has one, and only one, corre-
sponding y output. If the same x-value is paired with
two different y-values, that relation is not a function.
You may be be asked a question like this:

Example
Name all of the following relations that represent a
function:
A. (1,3), (3,1), (2,3), (4,1)
B. (1,3), (3,1), (2,3), (3,1)
C. (1,3), (3,1), (2,3), (3,4)

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VOCABULARY ALERT! Example

FUNCTIONS Given the function f(x) = 2x2 – 5x + 10, determine the
value of f(–3).
An equation or relationship is a function if
each input value has only one possible out-
This equation is asking what the value of the function
put value. As long as every unique x has one
is when x = –3. Therefore, we must substitute –3 in
and only one y, then a relation is a function.
for all the x’s in the equation:
If the same x values have two different y-
values associated with it, then the relation is
f(x) = 2x2 – 5x + 10
not a function.
f(–3) = 2(–3)2 – 5(–3) + 10

Now we need to carefully follow the correct order of

Working with Function Notation operations:
Functions are written using a notation, f(x). f(x) is
read “f of x,” and this notation represents the y-value f(–3) = 2(9) – (–15) + 10
of a function for a given x-value. Let’s consider f(x) = f(–3) = 18 + 15 + 10
2x + 5. The notation f(x) = 2x + 5 is simply another f(–3) = 43
way to write y = 2x + 5. The f(x) is used to show that
in this mathematical relationship, the input values for The answer, f(–3) = 43, is read “f of –3 is 43” and it
x are determining the output values for y. f(4) means means that when x is –3, the value of the function, or
the y-value of a function when x = 4. So f(4) is asking, y, equals 43. (Notice that the phrase “value of the
“What is the value of y when x = 4?” In order to cal- function” means the y-value.)
culate the value of f(4), replace all of the x-values in
an equation with 4 and evaluate the expression as is Comparing Functions
done below: You may be asked to compare the rate of change or
the starting points of two functions presented in two
Example different ways. If one function is represented as a
Given the function f(x) = 2x + 5, find the value of f(4). table of points and another function is displayed as a
graph or an equation, how can you compare their
Start with f(x) = 2x + 5, and plug in 4 for the rates of change or y-intercepts? Don’t let the function
x-coordinate. Then evaluate: notation or language of the questions confuse you—
you already have the skills to do this!
f(4) = 2(4) + 5
f(4) = 8 + 5 = 13 Equation: If you’re given an equation, put it
into y = mx + b form and the rate of change is
Sometimes you will need to substitute the value for x equal to m. The y-intercept will be the value
into more than place. Since all quadratic equations of b.
are functions, we’ll use a quadratic as our focus of the Table: If you’re given a table, use any two points
next example: to calculate the rate of change with the slope
y2 – y1
formula: slope = ______
x –x
. If one of the points in
2 1

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the table has x = 0, its corresponding y-value Using the slope formula for the points (4,7) and
will be the y-intercept. (You can also solve for b (10,10) we calculate that the rate of change for Func-
1 y2 – y1 10 – 7 3 1
by putting the slope and one of the coordinates tion B is __ ______ _____ __ __
2 : slope = x – x = 10 – 4 = 6 = 2
2 1
in the y = mx + b equation.)
Graph: If you’re given a graph, the y-intercept We see that the line passes through the origin (0,0) as
is easy to identify. The slope can be calculated well as the point (2,4). We can use these two points to
by counting the rise over the run between any determine the slope, or rate of change, by calculating
y2 – y1
______
two points or by plugging any two coordinate x –x
:
2 1
pairs on the line in the slope formula:
y2 – y1 4–0
____ 4
slope = ______
x –x
. 2–0 = __
2 =2
2 1

Example The rate of change of this line is 2.

Three linear functions are represented below. Order the Therefore, the correct order of their slopes is:
functions by their rates of change, from smallest to
largest. Function A, at m = –3
1
Function B, at m = __
2
Function A: f(x) = 10 – 3x Function C: at m = 2
Function B:
x f(x) Practice
4 7
15. Determine whether tables A, B, and C repre-
sent functions:
10 10
TABLE A: TABLE B: TABLE C:
18 14
m n p q t s

Function C: 2 5 1 5 5 1
3 10 2 5 5 2

1 1 3 5 5 3
4 0 2 4 5 5 4

3 10 5 5 5 5

2 16. If given the function f(x) = 4x + 10, what is the

value of f(5)?

17. What is the value of f(–1) if f(x) = 3x2 – 6x + 8?

2 4
18. For input k, the function f is defined as
f(k) = –2k2 + 1. What is the value of f(–8)?
After rewriting Function A as f(x) = –3x + 10, we can
see that the rate of change of this function is –3.

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19. Given the following equation, fill in the chart Quadratics and Functions Review
for all values of f(x). Note: Several of these questions are examples of drag
f(x) = 3x3 – 12 and drop questions you might see on your GED® test.
x f(x)
1. Factor x2 – 12x + 32 by dragging and dropping
1
numbers and operations from the list below.
3
(You may use each number or sign more than
5 once.)
7
(x __ _____)(x __ _____)
20. Evaluate the function f(x) = 2x2 + 5x when x = + – 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 16
3v.

21. Write a function to represent the following 2. Factor w2 – 36 by dragging and dropping num-
situation: bers and operations from the list below. (You
Greg is paid an hourly rate as well as a com- may use each number or sign more than once.)
mission for the number of refrigerators he sells
in one day. He gets $13 per hour and works (w __ _____)(w __ _____)
8-hour days. For every refrigerator he sells, he + – 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 16
gets $40. What function represents the amount
of money Greg earns on a given day?
______________ 3. Which of the following functions will have a
bell-shaped curve when graphed?
1
a. y = __
x2
Summary b. x3 + 2x2 + 8 = y
c. y = 8x – 3
Congratulations—you have just wrapped up your d. (x – 8)2 = 3x + y
third chapter on Algebra and have accumulated a rich
variety of new skills. Now you know how to recog- 4. What are the solutions to the equation
nize, factor, solve, write, and interpret quadratic 17 + x2 = 81?
equations. You also understand how to tell if a group- a. 9 and 9
ing of coordinates is a function and you can work b. ± 98
with function notation. Test your quadratic and func- c. 8 and –8
tion knowledge with these that closely model what d. 9 and –9
you’ll see on test day!

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5. What is the smallest solution to x2 – 15x = 100? 9. The graph shown here represents a function
y = g(x). What is the vertex of g(x)?
6. Find the two solutions to the equation
x2 – 5x = –6. y
a. 2, –3 5
b. 2, 3 4
c. –2, –3 3
d. –2, 3
2

7. Without repeating one of the existing coordi- 1

nate pairs, select two numbers that would
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
make the following a function:
–1

x f(x) –2

6 4 –3
5 3 –4
2 8 –5
1 9

10. Find the two solutions to 2x2 – 9x – 18 = 0.

1 2 3 4 5 6
11. Which of the following is an equivalent expres-
sion of 2y2 – yp – p2?
8. What function represents the information in a. (2y + p)(y – p)
the following table? b. (y + p)(y – p)
c. 2(y2 – yp – p2)
x f(x)
d. (2y – p)(y + p)
–3 –23
0 4
12. Where does the function f(x) = 5x2 – 25 inter-
3 –23 sect the x-axis?
6 –104 a. x = 5, x = –5
a. f(x) = 3x2 – 4 b. y = 5, y = –5
b. f(x) = –2x2 – 4 c. x = 5, x = – 5
c. f(x) = 2x2 – 4 d. y = 5, y = – 5
d. f(x) = –3x2 + 4

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Answers and Explanations 5. x = ± 5. Since the equation x2 + 40 = 45 only

has an x2 and does not have an x term, use the
Chapter Practice square root method. Isolate the x2 and take the
1. (x + 5)(x + 1). The factored form of x2 + 6x + 5 square root of both sides:
will be (x + m)(x + n) where mn = c and x2 + 40 = 45
m + n = b. Identify that c = 5 and b = 6 in the x2 = 5
given quadratic. The only factors of 5 are 5 and x2 = x 2 = 5
1 and they will multiply to 5 and add to 6, so x 2 x== 5 andx x2 ==– 5
substitute 5 and 1 into (x + m)(x + n): 6. x = 4 and x = –6. First rearrange x2 = 24 – 2x so
(x + 5)(x + 1). that a is positive, all the terms are on one side of
2. (x – 8)(x – 3). The factored form of x2 – 11x the equation, and it looks like ax2 + bx + c = 0
+ 24 will be (x + m)(x + n) where mn = c and x2 = 24 – 2x
m + n = b. Identify that c = 24 and b = –11 in –24 –24
the given quadratic. Since the two factors must x2 – 24 = –2x
multiply to a positive 24 and add to a negative +2x +2x
11, we can identify that both factors must be x2 + 2x – 24 = 0
negative. Come up with a list of factor pairs: The factored form of this will be (x + m)(x + n)
{–1,–24}, {–2,–12}, {–3,–8}, and {–4,–6}. The = 0 where mn = c and m + n = b. Identify that c
factors –8 and -3 will multiply to 24 and add to = –24 and b = 2. Since the two factors must
–11, so substitute –8 and –3 into (x + m)(x + n): multiply to a –24 and add to a positive 2, we can
(x – 8)(x – 3). identify that one factor will be negative and
3. (x + 9)(x – 9). The factored form of x2 – 81 will another factor must be positive. Create a list of
be (x + m)(x + n) where mn = c and m + n = b. factor pairs where the larger factor is positive
Identify that c = –81 and b = 0 in the given qua- (that way they will add to a positive b): {–1,24},
dratic. The factors 9 and –9 will multiply to –81 {–2,12}, {–3,8}, and {–4,6}. The factors –4 and 6
and add to 0, so substitute 9 and –9 into will multiply to –24 and add to 2, so substitute
(x + m)(x + n): (x + 9)(x – 9). –4 and 6 into (x + m)(x + n): (x – 4)(x + 6) = 0.
4. No. In order to determine whether Now solve for (x – 4) = 0 and (x + 6) = 0 to
(2x + 2)(x – 8) is the correct factored form of arrive at the two solutions of x = 4 and x = –6.
2x2 – 6x – 16, multiply the binomial by using
FOIL:
Firsts: (2x)(x) = 2x2
Outsides: (2x)(–8) = –16x
Insides: (2)(x) = 2x
Lasts: (2)(–8) = –16
Now combine all the terms from above and
simplify:
2x2 – 16x + 2x – 16 = 2x2 – 14x – 16. Since
(2x + 2)(x – 8) does not simplify to 2x2 – 6x
– 16, it must not be the correct factorization
of the quadratic.

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7. 9. This question requires you to solve x2 – 14x + 4

8. x = 5 and – __ 2
3 . First rearrange 3x – 11x = 20 so
35 = –10 and identify the largest solution. First
that a is positive, all the terms are on one side of
rearrange x2 – 14x + 35 = –10 so that a is posi-
the equation, it looks like ax2 + bx + c = 0:
tive, all the terms are on one side of the equa-
3x2 – 11x = 20
tion, and it looks like ax2 + bx + c = 0.
–20 –20
x2 – 14x + 35 = –10
3x2 – 11x – 20 = 0
+10 +10
Now identify that a = 3, b = –11, and c = –20.
x2 – 14x + 45 = 0
Plug these values into the quadratic formula:
The factored form of this will be (x + m)(x + n)
= 0 where mn = c and m + n = b. Identify that c −b ±
2
b − 4 ac
x = 2a
= 45 and b = –14. Since the two factors must
multiply to a positive 45 and add to a –14, we −( −11) ±
2
( −11) − 4(3)( −20)
can identify that both factors must be negative. x = 2(3)
Create a list of factor pairs that multiply to 45:
11 ± 121 + 240
{–1,–45}, {–3,–15}, and {–5,–9}. The factors –5 x = 6
and –9 will multiply to 45 and add to –14, so
11 ± 361
substitute –5 and –9 into (x + m)(x + n): x = 6
(x – 5)(x – 9) = 0. Now solve for (x – 5) = 0 and
11 ± 19
(x – 9) = 0 to arrive at the two solutions of x = 5 x = 6
and x = 9. Since the question asked for the larg-
11 + 19 11 – 19
est possible value of x, the correct answer will be Now solve for x = ______
6
and x = ______
6
:
11 + 19 30
x = 9. x = ______
6
= __
6
=5
11 – 19
______ –8
4
x= 6
= = – ____
6
3
4
So, the two solutions are x = 5 and x = – __3
.
9. 100 = x2 + 7x + 10. Theo’s current garden plot
is a square with side lengths of x feet. Since he
wants to extend the length by 5 feet and the
width by 2 feet, we can write:
new length = x + 5
new width = x + 2
With these dimensions, the new garden plot
would have an area of 100 square feet. Use this
information in the area formula to write a qua-
dratic equation:
Area = length × width
100 = (x + 5)(x + 2)
Use FOIL to multiply the right side of the equa-
tion to get x2 + 7x + 10:
100 = x2 + 7x + 10
This equation could be solved to find the cur-
rent dimensions of Theo’s square garden plot
with side length x.

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10. Parabola will open downward. First, get 10x – 14. a. 10 feet; b. 0.3 seconds; 12 feet; c. 1.1 sec-
5x2 + 7 = y in standard form, y = ax2 + bx + c, onds. In order to determine the height that
by rearranging the terms: y = –5x2 + 10x + 7. the beanbag was thrown from, look at the
Since a determines the direction that the parab- y-intercept. The y-intercept is at (0,10),
ola opens, identify a as –5. This tells us that the which means that at 0 seconds the beanbag
parabola will open downward and have steep was 10 feet off the ground. Therefore it was
walls and a narrow bell shape. thrown from 10 feet. The vertex can be used
11. y = –7. To identify the y-intercept of a quadratic to identify when the beanbag was at its peak
from its equation, move it into standard form, and how high it was from the ground. The
y = ax2 + bx + c, and identify c. vertex is approximately (0.3,12), which indi-
y + 7 = 10x – 5x2 cates that after 0.3 seconds, the beanbag
–7 –7 reached a maximum height of 12 feet. The
y = –5x2 + 10x – 7 x-intercept, (1.1,0), tells us that after 1.1 sec-
Since c = –7, the y-intercept of the quadratic onds, the beanbag was 0 feet from the
is –7. ground, so this was the point at which it hit
12. x = –4. To find the x-intercepts of y = x2 + 8x the ground.
+ 16, set y = 0 and use one of the 4 techniques 15. A and B yes; C no. Table A represents a function
to solve quadratic equations. The factored form since the only input values that repeat are 3 and
of 0 = x2 + 8x + 16 will be 0 = (x + m)(x + n) both of these input values have the same output
where mn = c and m + n = b. Identify that c = value, 10. Table B also represents a function.
16 and b = 8 in the given quadratic. Two factors Even though all of the output values are the
that will multiply to 16 and add to 8 are 4 and same at q = 5, every input value is unique and
4, so substitute 4 and 4 into 0 = (x + m)(x + n): has one-and-only-one output value. Table C is
(x + 4)(x + 4). Solving for (x + 4) = 0 gives not a function because there are repeated input
the answer x = –4. There is only 1 unique values that all have different output values, so
x-intercept for this quadratic since the solution this violates the function definition that every
(x + 4) = 0 repeats. input must have one and only one output.
13. (–2,–7). The vertex of a parabola is its mini- 16. f(5) = 30. Given the function f(x) = 4x + 10, f(5)
mum or maximum and is the turning point. means the y-value of the function when x = 5.
This parabola has a minimum of (–2,–7). Therefore, plug 5 into the equation for the x
variable and evaluate:
f(x) = 4x + 10
f(5) = 4(5) + 10
f(5) = 30, so f(5) = 30
17. f(–1) = 17. In order to find the value of f(–1) if
f(x) = 3x2 – 6x + 8, replace all of the x values
with –1 and evaluate the expression:
f(x) = 3x2 – 6x + 8
f(–1) = 3(–1)2 – 6(–1) + 8
f(–1) = 3(1) – (–6) + 8
f(–1) = 3 + 6 + 8
f(–1) = 17

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18. f(–8) = –127. In order to find the value of f(–8) 20. 18v2 + 15v or 3v(6v + 5). Notice that this ques-
if f(k) = –2k2 + 1, replace k with –8 and tion is not simply asking you to evaluate the
evaluate: function for a numerical value of x, but instead
f(k) = –2k2 + 1 you will substitute in the algebraic term, 3v, for
f(–8) = –2(–8)2 + 1 both x’s in the function and then simplify the
f(–8) = –2(–8)(–8) + 1 function by performing the required
f(–8) = –2(64) + 1 operations:
f(–8) = –127 f(x) = 2x2 + 5x
19. x f(3v) = 2(3v)2 + 5(3v)
f(x)
f(3v) = 2(3v)(3v) + 5(3v)
1 –9
f(3v) = 2(9v2) + 15v
3 69
f(3v) = 18v2 + 15v
5 363 f(3v) = 3v(6v + 5)
7 1,017 21. M = 104 + 40n (variables will vary). Let’s use
To find the output values, we need to substitute M for the total amount of money Greg earns on
our inputs into the function f(x). a given day. We know for sure that he gets paid
f(x) = 3x3 – 12 $13 per hour and that he works 8 hours per day.
f(1) = 3(1)3 – 12 So far,
= 3 – 12 M = (13)(8)
= –9 In addition, though, Greg gets a $40 commis-
f(3) = 3(3)3 – 12 sion for every refrigerator he sells. Let’s let n
= 3(27) – 12 stand for the number of refrigerators Greg sells.
= 81 – 12 This probably changes from day to day. When
= 69 we put this into the equation, we multiply it by
f(5) = 3(5)3 – 12 $40, since Greg gets $40 for each refrigerator he
= 3(125) – 12 sells.
= 375 – 12 M = (13)(8) + 40n
= 363 Simplified, the function is
f(7) = 3(7)x3 – 12 M = 104 + 40n
= 3(343) – 12 This is a function because the value M will
= 1,029 – 12 change depending on the value, n, that is substi-
= 1,017 tuted into the equation. Each input n will yield
Notice that f(x) is the y-coordinate. These a different output, M.
points could be plotted on a graph to see this
portion of the function.

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Quadratics and Functions Review 4. c. Since there are no x terms in the equation
1. (x – 8)(x – 4). The factored form of – 12x +
x2 17 + x2 = 81, this is a great opportunity to
32 will be (x + m)(x + n) where mn = c and m + use the square root technique. Get x2 alone
n = b. Identify that c = 32 and b = –12 in the and then take the square root of both sides:
given quadratic. Since the two factors must 17 + x2 = 81
multiply to a positive 32 and add to a negative –17 –17
2
x = 64
12, we can identify that both factors must be
negative. Come up with a list of factor pairs: Take the square root of both sides:
{–1,–21}, {–2,–16}, and {–4,–8}. The factors –8 x2 = 64
and –4 will multiply to 32 and add to –12, so
x 2 = 64
substitute –8 and –4 into (x + m)(x + n): so x = 8 and –8. Incorrect answer choices a
(x – 8)(x – 4). and d were gotten by taking the square root
2. (w – 6)(w + 6). The factored form of w2 – 36 of 81 instead of solving the equation for x.
will be (w + m)(w + n) where mn = c and m + n Incorrect answer choice b would be the
= b. Since there is no w term, this means that b answer arrived at if 81 and 17 were added
must equal 0: w2 + 0w – 36. However, c = –36. instead of subtracted.
The two factors that multiply to –36 and add to 5. x = –5. This question requires you to solve
0 are –6 and 6, so substitute –6 and 6 into x2 – 15x = 100 and identify the larger solution.
(w + m)(w + n): (w – 6)(w + 6). First rearrange x2 – 15x = 100 so that a is posi-
3. d. Since quadratics have bell-shaped curves, tive and all the terms are on one side of the
identify which of the following equations is equation:
a quadratic. The equation in choice a has an x2 – 15x = 100
x2 term in it; however, it is in the bottom of a –100 –100
fraction, so this is not a quadratic. The equa- 2
x – 15x – 100 = 0
tion in choice b has a leading term of x3 so The factored form of this will be (x + m)(x + n)
this is not a quadratic and is instead a cubic. = 0, where mn = c and m + n = b. Identify that c
The equation in choice c is in y = mx + b = –100 and b = –15. Since the two factors must
form, so it is therefore a linear equation and multiply to a negative and add to a negative, we
will not have a bell-shaped curve when can identify that one factor must be negative
graphed. The equation in choice d will have and the other must be positive. Create a list of
an x2 term in it on the left-hand side, after factor pairs that multiply to –100 with the
(x – 8)2 is expanded through FOIL multipli- larger factor being negative (that way they will
cation. This equation is a quadratic that will add to a negative b): {1,–100}, {2,–50}, {3,–25},
have a bell-shaped curve. {5,–20}, and {10,–10}. The factors 5 and –20
will multiply to –100 and add to –15, so
substitute 5 and –20 into (x + m)(x + n):
(x + 5)(x – 20) = 0. Now solve for (x + 5) = 0
and (x – 20) = 0 to arrive at the two solutions of
x = –5 and x = 20. Since the question asked for
the smallest solution, the correct answer will be
x = –5.

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6. b. This is a quadratic equation and can be 3

10. x = 6 and x = – __
2 . Since a ≠ 1 in 2x – 9x – 18
2
solved in several ways: factoring, completing
= 0, we will solve this using the quadratic for-
the square, or using the quadratic formula.
mula. First, identify that a = 2, b = –9, and
However, looking at the terms –5x and –6, it
c = –18. Plug these values into the quadratic
is apparent that factors of 6 can add to 5, so
formula:
we will factor this quadratic to get the solu-
2
tions. First, we set the equation equal to 0: −b ± b − 4 ac
x = 2a
x2 – 5x + 6 = 0. We want to find the two val-
ues of x where the equation is equal to 0. By −( −9) ±
2
( −9) − 4(2)( −18)
x =
factoring, we get (x – 2)(x – 3). Multiply it 2(2)

out if necessary to check that it in fact yields 9 ± 81 + 144

the original equation. Anything multiplied x =
4
by 0 is 0, so for what values of x would we
9 ± 225
get an answer of 0? When x = 2 and when x =
4
x = 3. Choices a, c, and d have incorrectly
9 ± 15
placed positive and negative signs. x = 4
7. Since you are not permitted to repeat one of the 9 + 15
Now solve for x = ______ 9 – 15
and x = ______ :
4 4
existing coordinate pairs, you cannot use 6, 5, 2, 9 + 15 24
x = ______ = __ =6
or 1 as x-values since those are the existing 4 4
9 – 15
______ –6
__ 3
x-values in unique pairings. Only the coordi- x= 4
= 4
= – __
2
3
nates 3 or 4 could be chosen for the x value and So, the two solutions are x = 6 and x = – __
2
.
then any of other terms could work for the cor- 11. a. Looking at the answer options, we can
responding y-values. deduce that we need to factor 2y2 – yp – p2.
8. d. By plugging the values from the table into Keeping in mind how to FOIL backwards,
each of the equations, it is clear that –3x2 + 4 we get the two factors (2y + p)(y – p). When
is the only equation that satisfies the these two binomials are multiplied, or
relationships between the inputs and FOILed, we get the original expression.
outputs. Without even substituting all of the Choice b does not have the necessary factor
inputs to check the outputs, the input 0 of 2 to get 2y2. Choice c incorrectly factors
makes it obvious that d is the only function out a 2 from the first term only. Choice c has
that satisfies the relationship. the addition and subtraction signs incor-
9. (1,3). The vertex of a parabola is its minimum rectly placed. The way d is written, we would
or maximum point. g(x) has a maximum at get +yp instead of –yp when multiplied out.
(–1,3).

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12. c. In order to determine where a function hits

the x-axis, set y = 0 and solve for x:
f(x) = 5x2 – 25
0 = 5x2 – 25
Since this quadratic doesn’t have a b term,
solve this equation with the square root
technique. To do this, isolate the b2 and then
take the square root of both sides:
0 = 5x2 – 25
+25 +25
25 5x2
__ = ___
5 5
5 = x2
Now put the x2 on the left and take the
square root of both sides:
x x2 2 === 55
x 2 x== 5 andx x2 ==– 5
So c is the correct answer. Choice d mistak-
enly sets the x-intercept equal to y, but y
must have a value of 0 at the point where the
curve hits the x-axis. Choices a and b came
about by somehow dropping a 5 and taking
the square root of 25.

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 9 INTERPRETING
C H A P T E R

DATA IN GRAPHS
AND TABLES

G raphs and tables allow us to present information visually on a wide range of subjects: the rising cost
of healthcare, historical fluctuations of the stock market, the number and types of people who live
in a community, and much more. Graphic information is everywhere—television commercials,
newspaper reports, and web pages, to name just a few sources.
This chapter shows you how to interpret graphs with precise language as well as how to manipulate data
to create tables that accurately portray key information. Answers and explanations for all practice questions are
at the end of the chapter.
This chapter covers:

n Increasing and decreasing intervals

n Positive and negative intervals
n Relative maximums and minimums
n Graph symmetry
n End behavior of functions
n Bar graphs and histograms

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n Pie charts describe what is happening in a real-world situation.

n Dot plots, box plots, and scatter plots Key features can also help identify the equation of
the function being represented. In this section we
are going to take a closer look at intercepts, increas-
Key Features of Graphs ing and decreasing intervals, positive and negative
intervals, relative maximums and minimums, sym-
Every graph tells a story of the data it is represent- metries, and end behavior.
ing. Graphs have many features that can be used to

®
GED QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!
You learned about maximums and minimums in the previous chapter and here you will also learn
how to answer these types of questions on relative maximums and minimums:

n Click on the graph to indicate the position(s) of the relative maximum(s). You may indicate more
than one spot if necessary:

–4 –2 0 2 4

–2

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Finding Intercepts on Graphs movement—of the function. Therefore, the value of x

There are x-intercepts and y-intercepts, which are must be 0.
points at which the graph line intersects an axis. As Sometimes functions have more than one
you would imagine, x-intercepts intercept, or cross x-intercept and/or y-intercept. Look at the following
over, the x-axis, and y-intercepts intercept, or cross graph.
over, the y-axis.
Look at the following graph of y = x + 4. y

4
y

6
2

4
x
–2 2

–2

x
–4 –2 2

–2 How many y-intercepts does this parabola have?

One: When x = 0, y = 4.

At which point does the line cross the x-axis?

How many x-intercepts does this parabola have?

(–4,0)
Two: When y = 0, x = 2 and –2.

The x-intercept of this function is –4. What do you

Finding Intercepts from Equations
notice about the y-value? It is 0. If a function crosses
You should now be familiar with these two facts:
the x-axis, then at that exact point there is no height—
upward or downward movement—of the function.
n x-intercepts will always have a y-value of 0
Therefore, the y-value must be 0.
n y-intercepts will always have an x-value of 0
At which point does the line cross the y-axis?

Therefore, if you are asked to determine the inter-

(0,4)
cepts from an equation instead of a graph, follow
these steps:
The y-intercept is 4. What do you notice about the
x-value? It is 0. If a function crosses the y-axis at that
exact point, there is no width—left or right

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RULE: CALCULATING Increasing and Decreasing Intervals

INTERCEPTS A way to think about the concept of increasing and
decreasing intervals is to observe whether the graph is
When finding the intercepts of a function
rising or falling from left to right. It is important to
from an equation:
remember that graphs are read like words, from left
n Find the x-intercept by setting y = 0 and
to right, and not the other way around! A function is
then solve the equation for x.
increasing during intervals over which the graph
n Find the y-intercept by setting x = 0 and rises from left to right. Functions have a positive
then solve the equation for y. slope during increasing intervals. Conversely, a func-
tion is decreasing during intervals over which the
graph falls from left to right. Functions have a nega-
Example
tive slope during decreasing intervals. It is important
Find the x-intercepts and y-intercepts of the function
to recognize that the points where the function
f(x) = x2 + 10x + 9.
changes from increasing to decreasing (or vice versa)
The notation f(x) is the same as “y.” So find the are points where the function is neither increasing nor
x-intercept by replacing f(x) with 0 and then solve decreasing. In graphs, these non-increasing and non-
for x: decreasing points looks like the tops of peaks or the
bottoms of valleys.
0 = x2 + 10x + 9 When discussing intervals, we name the x-values
over which a certain behavior exists. For instance, the
Let’s use factoring to solve this quadratic. Since 9 and function graphed next is increasing from before we
1 multiply to 9 and add to 10, we can factor this into: can even see the graph (from the negative x values)
until it reaches a peak when x = 0. Since it appears
0 = (x + 9)(x + 1) that this graph goes on forever, we use – to repre-
sent infinite negative x-values. We say that this func-
Now, set each binomial factor equal to zero and solve tion is increasing over the interval (– , 0).
for x:
y
x+9=0 4
x = –9

x+1=0
x = –1 2

So the two x-intercepts are at x = –1, and x = –9.

Next, solve for the y-intercept by setting x = 0 x
and solving for y: –2 2

f(x) = (0)2 + 10(0) + 9

–2
y=0+0+9
y=9

So the y-intercept occurs at y = 9.

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Looking at the previous illustration, we see that this y

graph has a downward slope from x = 0 until what x
appears to be infinity, so we say that this function is –2 2
decreasing over the interval (0, + ), where it has a
negative slope. It is very important to notice that we –2
are using parentheses ( ) instead of brackets [ ]. Since
the function is neither increasing nor decreasing at
x = 0, 0 must not be included in either the increasing –4
or decreasing intervals. Parentheses indicate that the
value is not included in the interval, whereas brackets
do include the number in the interval. Since and –6
– are not exact numbers, parentheses are always
used with these symbols.
–8
RULE: INTERVAL
NOTATION
–10
Intervals represent the x-values over which a
function is exhibiting a certain behavior
(increasing, deceasing, constant). The point
Notice that this function is sloped downward to the
at which the behavior changes should not be
right and never curves upward. Therefore, there are
included in the interval and parentheses are
no intervals where f(x) is increasing. However,
used to show when a point is not included in
another important feature to notice is where the
an interval.
function crosses the y-axis. At this point, f(x) flattens
(– ,8) signifies the interval from which out momentarily and it is neither increasing nor
x begins at negative infinity up until decreasing. With the exception of this point (0,–5),
(but not including) x = 8. where the graph is neither rising nor falling, the
graph is decreasing. In order to exclude x = 0 from
[–2, ) signifies the interval from which
the decreasing interval, we need to describe the
x begins at –2 up until (but not includ-
decreasing intervals as a union of the two separate
ing) x = . Note that –2 is included in
decreasing intervals (– ,0) and (0,+ ). We write
this interval.
these two decreasing intervals joined with a to
illustrate this concept:

Let’s look at another function to illustrate increasing The function f(x) decreases (– , 0) (0, + ).
and decreasing intervals:
Positive and Negative
Example Functions are considered positive or negative based
Over which interval(s) is the f(x) increasing? on the y values. That is, we can tell during which
Over which interval(s) is the f(x) decreasing? interval(s) the function is positive or negative by
looking for portions of the graph that are above or
below the x-axis. Any part of the function above the

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x-axis means the y value is positive. Any part of the Sneak Preview question from earlier in this chapter is
function below the x-axis means the y-value is one illustration of this that we’ll come back to later.
negative. For now, work through the following example:

y Example
9 Identify the relative maximums and relative minimums
in the function f(x):
7

5
12 f(x)
3
10
8
–9 –7 –5 –3 –1 1 3 5 7 9 x
6
–3 4
(-5,
(–5,2)
2)
–5 2
–7
–20 –15 –10 –5 0 5 10 15 20
–2

This function is positive on the intervals ( ,–7) –4

(5, ) and is negative on the interval (–7,5). Notice –6
that parentheses are used here to show that –7 and 5
–8
are not included in these intervals. This is because (9,–8)
(9, -8)
–10
when x = –7 and x = 5, the value of y is 0, so the value
of the function is neither positive nor negative at
these two points. Since the point (–5,2) is relatively higher than all the
points immediately surrounding it, (–5,2) is a relative
Relative Maximums and Minimums maximum. Notice that it is at a peak in the graph.
In the previous chapter you learned that the maxi- Since the point (9,–8) is relatively lower than all
mum or minimum in a parabola is its peak or valley. the points immediately surrounding it, this point is a
Other types of functions can have relative maximums relative minimum. Notice that it is at the bottom of a
and relative minimums. The word relative refers to the valley in the graph.
region of the graph where a peak or valley is located.
For example, if you were the tallest person in your Symmetries
class, but not the tallest person in the school, we Some graphs are symmetrical about the x-axis or
would say that relative to your class, you are the tallest. y-axis. Creating symmetry is like looking in a mirror.
Relative maximums and relative minimums If you were given half of the information of a sym-
occur where the slope of the function changes direc- metrical function, you would be able to complete the
tion; they’re easy to recognize since they form a peak graph. For instance, look at this graph:
or valley. There can be more than one relative maxi-
mum and/or relative minimum in a function. The

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Consider this next graph:

4

6
2
4

2
If this function is symmetrical about the x-axis, you
can mirror the relationship and sketch the rest of the
graph. 2 4

–2
4

–4
2

If you were told it is symmetrical about the y-axis,

2 4 6 8 10 how would you complete the graph?

–2

–4 6

4
If the same original graph had symmetry about the
y-axis, it would be mirrored horizontally and look
like this:
2

2 –4 –2 2 4

–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 –2

–4

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End Behavior The following two examples illustrate the behavior of

End behavior refers to what the function is doing as even degree functions:
the x-values approach + and – . Generally, you will
be concerned with determining if the y-values are
going to + and – as x gets infinitely large or small.
If you look at a graph, it is easy to tell what is happen-
ing to the y-values as the x-values approach + or
– . However, what if you do not have a graph, but are
only given a functional equation?
There are two features that are used to deter-
mine a function’s end behavior. Let’s define degree
and leading coefficient:

The degree of a function is the largest exponent

in a function.
The leading coefficient is the number that is
being multiplied to the term with the largest
exponent.

For instance, y = –4x3 + 2x – 7 is a third degree func- Positive Leading Coefficient of a

tion with a leading coefficient of –4. There are two Function with an Even Degree
different sets of rules to follow for functions with
even degrees and functions with odd degrees:

Even Degree Functions

All functions that have an even degree (x2, x4, x8, etc.)
will have a parabolic shape with identical end behav-
ior occurring in each direction.

n Even functions with a positive leading coeffi-

cient will open upward. The value of y will
approach + as x approaches + or – . This is
written as x + , y + , and also as x – ,
y + .
n Even functions with a negative leading coeffi-
cient will open downward. The value of y will
approach – as x approaches + or – . There-
fore, as x + , y – and as x – , y – .

Negative Leading Coefficient of a

Function with an Odd Degree

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Odd Degree Functions Here is an illustration of an odd degree function with

All functions that have an odd degree (x3, x5, x7, etc.) a negative leading coefficient:
will have a cubic shape with opposite end behavior
occurring in each direction.
–2 2

n Odd functions with a positive leading coeffi-

–2
cient will start from the bottom left of the graph
and go up toward the right. The value of y will
approach + as x approaches + . The value of y –4
approaches – as x approaches – . This is writ-
ten as x + , y + , and also as x – ,
–6
y – .

Here is an illustration of an odd degree function with –8

a positive leading coefficient:

–10
2

Practice
1. Identify the x-intercept and y-intercept of the
6 function f(x) = 3x + 4.

2. Where will the function g(x) = 10x3 – 5x2 – 15x

–2 2 + 20 cross the y-axis?

–2

–4

n Odd functions with a negative leading coeffi-

cient will start from the top left of the graph and
go down toward the right. The value of y
approaches – as x approaches + . The value of
y approaches + as x approaches – . Therefore,
as x + , y – and as x – , y + .

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Use the following illustration to answer questions 8. Over what intervals is this function decreasing?
3–9:
9. Name the intervals for which the function is
5 positive and the intervals for which the func-
tion is negative.
4.5

4
10. What is the end behavior of the function
3.5 x4 + 3x3 – 2x as x – ? _____________
3

2.5
11. What is the end behavior of the function
–2x5 + 3x3 + x2 as x + ? _____________
2

1.5

1 Representing Data with

0.5 Different Types of Graphs
–4 –3.5 –3 –2.5 –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 One set of data can be represented in many different
–0.5
graphical formats. The GED® test will ask you to
–1 answer questions based on information presented in
–1.5 bar graphs, circle graphs/pie charts, dot plots, box
–2 plots, histograms, and scatter plots.
–2.5
Bar Graphs
–3
Bar graphs are used to represent and display data
with differing values for each category. The differing
heights of the bars offer a quick-glance comparison
3. Name the coordinates of all of the relative of data. There are two types of bar graphs: vertical
maximums. and horizontal.
Vertical bar graphs display the categories along
4. Name the coordinates of all of the relative the x-axis and the values along the y-axis.
minimums. For example, the following bar graph shows the
average number of children per household for Caro-
5. Name the coordinates of the x-intercepts. lyn Dexter’s family. The data includes the past four
generations in addition to the current generation of
6. Name the coordinates of the y-intercepts. the Dexter clan.

7. Over what intervals is this function increasing?

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Average Number of Children per Household Average Number of Children per Household
for the Past Five Generations in for the Past Five Generations in
the Dexter Family the Dexter Family

12
Generation 5
(current)
Average Number of Children

Dexter Generation
10
Generation 4
per Household

8 Generation 3

6 Generation 2

Generation 1
4

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
2
Average Number of Children per Household
0
1

re 5
n

ur n
)
nt
io

io

io

io

(c ratio
at

at

at

at

Here, you can see, the categories—Generation 1,

er

er

er

er

e
en

en

en

en

en
G

Generation 2, Generation 3, Generation 4, and Gen-

Dexter Generation
eration 5 (current)—are now placed along the y-axis.
The data values—the average number of children per
As you can see, the categories—Generation 1, Gener-
household—are now placed along the x-axis. Still, it
ation 2, Generation 3, Generation 4, and Generation
is easy to see at a quick glance that the average num-
5 (current)—are placed along the x-axis. The data
ber of children per household has decreased from
values—the average number of children per house-
generation to generation.
hold—are placed along the y-axis at equal intervals.
On the GED® test, you may be asked to inter-
At a quick glance, you can see that the average num-
pret information presented in bar graphs or finish
ber of children per household has decreased from
constructing a bar graph by dragging and dropping
generation to generation.
the correct bar height to complete the graph accord-
Horizontal bar graphs display the categories
ing to a given set of data.
along the y-axis and the data values along the
x-axis. Using the same data as before, we can also
Practice
make a horizontal bar graph. It would look like the
12. On average, how many more children did
following:
households have in the first generation than
the current Dexter generation, according to the
graphs? ______________

13. If the current trend in family size continues for

the Dexter family, which is the least likely num-
ber of children for the 6th generation?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3

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There are five different categories of books at the Ever- malnourished, a circle graph could easily display
dale Library. Use the following bar graph to answer this data.
questions 14 and 15:
Percentage of Malnourished Children
Books at Everdale Library in Developing Countries
1,000
950
900
850 Malnourished
800
750 80%
Number of Books

700
650
600
550
500
Nourished
450 20%
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Reference Mystery Sci-Fi Children’s Biography

Type of Books

The 80% of malnourished children in developing

14. Everdale Library seems to have about the same
countries plus the 20% of nourished children under
number of which two categories of books?
five years old in developing countries equals a whole
100% of children. The circle graph provides a visual
15. Complete the following statement from the
representation of the statistic.
choices that follow: “The number of Sci-Fi
On the test, you may have to identify the correct
books at the Everdale Library seems to be
piece of the circle to complete a graph, similar to the
about _____ the number of Reference books.”
bar graph example. Or you may have to find percent-
a. twice as many as
ages of data to correctly construct the circle graph, or
b. half as many as
at least recognize the correct graph.
c. three times as many as
d. one-third as many as

Circle Graphs/Pie Charts

Circle graphs, or pie charts, are used to express
data that collectively makes a whole. This is best
used when looking at percentages out of 100%. It’s
good for getting a comparison of a particular piece
of information against the whole. For instance, if
80% of all children in developing countries are

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Practice c.
16. Based on the values in the table, which circle Single-Father
Families
graph accurately represents this data? 80%
U.S. Census Bureau Statistics, 2012
Single-Mother
SINGLE MOTHERS SINGLE FATHERS Families
WITH CHILDREN WITH CHILDREN 20%
UNDER 18 UNDER 18
10.322 million 1.956 million

a.
Single-Mother
Families
84.1%

Single- d.
Father
Families Single-Mother
15.9% Families
80%

Single-Father
Families
20%

b.
Single-Father
Families
84.1%

Single-
Mother
Families
Use the pie chart below to answer questions 17 and 18:
15.9%

Breakdown of Ethnic Groups in Undisclosed Country

American
2 or More Indian
Races
Other Hispanic/Latin Origin
Asian

Black

White

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17. If the pie chart represents the breakdown of It doesn’t take long to get a variety of information by
ethnic groups in a country of 10 million peo- looking at this dot plot:
ple, what is the best estimate for the number of
people of Hispanic/Latin origin in that n The fewest number of miles biked was 1 mile,
country? which was the commute of 2 teachers.
a. 5 million n The longest commute was 12 miles, which was
b. 3 million done by one teacher.
c. 2 million n The most common distance biked to work was
d. 1 million 4 miles.
n The range of miles biked was from 1 mile to
18. Approximately what percentage of the popula- 12 miles
tion is white in this country? n If we count all the x’s we can see that 24 teachers
a. 30% – 40% participated in Bike to Work Week at Windmere
b. 40% – 50% Academy.
c. 50% – 60%
d. 60% – 70% On the GED® test, be prepared to create dot plots
with drag and drop questions as well as interpret
Dot Plots information presented in dot plots.
Dot plots are used to display numerical or categorical
data along a horizontal line. Numerical data placed Practice
along the horizontal line might represent “the num- 19. This list of data represents the number of dis-
ber of minutes students commute to school,” while posable coffee cups the members of a local
categorical data could show “favorite flavor of ice police force reported using in a given week.
cream.” The number of dots or x’s above each cate- Make a dot plot to accurately represent this
gory represents the frequency of the data being repre- data: 7, 5, 7, 2, 10, 0, 7, 5, 12, 0, 7, 5, 1, 14, 8
sented. Dot plots are a great way to quickly see how
data is distributed. The following dot plot represents
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
the number of miles teachers from Windmere Acad-
emy biked to school during Bike to Work Week:
20. Use your dot plot from question 19 to deter-
mine whether each of the following statements
is true, false, or cannot be determined:
A. The majority of the police force averages at
least one disposable coffee cup per day.
B. Two people on the police force do not drink
coffee.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
C. Three people on the police force use three or
Windmere Teacher Bike to Work Week fewer disposable coffee cups per week.
Participation

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Box Plots now, know that the median of a data set is the middle
Box plots are similar to dot plots in that they also dis- number when that data is listed in chronological
play data along a horizontal line. However, box plots order.) Looking at our chronological list of data, what
are more useful for summarizing a large amount of is the median, or very middle number?
data. Once data is organized in a box plot, it is easy to
see all the quartiles, or numbers that divide the data 55, 65, 67, 69, 75, 76, 78, 79, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86,
into quarters. At a glance, box plots show us where 87, 87, 89, 90, 91, 91, 91, 92, 93, 93, 93, 100
the top 25% of the data sits, where the top (and bot-
tom) 50% of the data sits, and where the lowest 25% The number 86 is the median because there is an even
of the data sits. Let’s take a look at the recent test 12 numbers on each side of it in the data set.
scores in Miss Betty’s class of 25 students: Next, let’s find the lower quartile, the median of
the lower half of the data set. The first 12 values are:
25 Scores from Miss Betty’s Class Test:
55, 65, 67, 69, 75, 76, 78, 79, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 55, 65, 67, 69, 75, 76, 78, 79, 82, 83, 84, 85. . . .
87, 87, 89, 90, 91, 91, 91, 92, 93, 93, 93, 100
There is an even number of data points, so we need to
Note: Miss Betty’s student’s scores are already listed find the average of the two middle numbers to get
in chronological order here. If data is given that is not our lower quartile:
listed from least to greatest, you must order the data
76 + 78
before making a box plot. Average of Middle 2 Numbers: ______
2
= 77

Even though there are 25 numbers in the data set, a The number 77 is the lower quartile, the median of
box plot offers a summary of the data where only five the lower half of the data set.
numbers will be plotted: To find the upper quartile, find the median of
1. Median of the entire data set the upper half of the data set:
2. Lower quartile (i.e., the median of the lower
half of the data set) . . . 87, 87, 89, 90, 91, 91, 91, 92, 93, 93, 93, 100
3. Upper quartile (i.e., the median of the upper
half of the data set) Again, there are 12 numbers, but the two middle
4. Minimum (i.e., the lowest point of the data set) numbers are the same, so it is easy to take the average
5. Maximum (i.e., the highest point of the data of them to get the upper quartile:
set)
91 + 91
Average of Middle 2 Numbers: ______
2 = 91
So, how do we find these five numbers? Let’s start
with the median of the entire data set. (We will dis- The number 91 is the upper quartile, the median of
cuss the median more in the next chapter, but for the upper half of the data set.

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The minimum and maximum are easy to find. They are simply the lowest number and the highest num-
ber in the data set—in this case, 55 and 100.
Now that we have our five points, let’s plot them on the number line.

Minimum: 55
Lower quartile: 77
Median: 86
Upper quartile: 91
Maximum: 100

The bolded numbers are going to become lines to make a box. The extremes are simply going to be dots.

50 60 70 80 90 100

What does this visual tell us? It is actually a summary similar, the scores were in the top half of the
of some pretty useful information! We’ll break it class versus the bottom half of the class. Miss
down into its key parts: Betty can see that the lower half of the class’s
scores are more spread out, while the upper half
The box: Do you see how the box contains of the class’s scores are closer together. This
three vertical lines? The lines at the left end, means that the top performers are more similar
middle, and right end of the box represent the in their performance than the bottom perform-
values of 77, 86, and 91. The box lets Miss Betty ers, who have larger differences in their
see that the middle 50% of her students fall abilities.
within the range of the boxed values, from 77 The quartiles: The last terminology you must
to 91. know for box plots involves quartiles. The quar-
The endpoints: The outermost points of 55 tiles are the three central measurements that
and 100 let Miss Betty see the extremes of her divide the data set up into quarters, or sections
data set. She can quickly see how far above and of 25% of the data. The first, second, and third
below her highest and lowest students scored quartiles are shown in the following data set,
with respect to the 50% of the grades in the named Q1, Q2, and Q3, respectively. Notice how
box. they split the data up into four quarters. We can
The spread: Since the line inside the box at 77 see that the top 75% of the grades had a spread,
represents the median score of all the data, we or range, that is very similar to just the lower
can quickly determine how consolidated, or 25% of the grades:

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25% 75% On your GED® test you may be asked to interpret

25% 25% 25% 25%
information from a single box plot, compare data sets
represented by two different box plots, or determine
which box plot accurately represents a data set.

55 77 86 91 100 DON’T DO THIS!

Minimum Q1 Q2 Q3 Maximum
Remember: To make a box plot your data
must first be listed out in chronological order.
Although making a box plot is a more intensive pro- Do not try to make a box plot without organiz-
cess than constructing any of the earlier tables we ing your data from smallest to greatest!
have discussed in this section, hopefully you can see
how useful box plots are for evaluating large data sets.

Practice
21. The two box plots below show the data for daily high temperatures for every day of the fall in Minnesota
and Alaska. Which state has a more consistent temperature in the fall?

Minnesota

Alaska

45 50 55 60 65 70

22. What is the median of the data displayed here? _________

45 50 55 60 65 70

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Histograms Example
Histograms look a lot like bar graphs, in that the How many students are in Mr. Duvall’s class?
x-axis contains data and the y-axis shows the fre-
quency of that data. The important difference A. 50
between bar graphs and histograms is that bar graphs B. 44
can present categorical data or precise numerical data C. 39
on the x-axis, while histograms are used to represent D. 35
consecutive ranges of data along the x-axis. This makes
histograms a better choice for large sets of data or The correct answer is choice c. Add up how many stu-
data that has a wider range of numbers. dents are in each of the age ranges:
The following histogram displays the age range 9 41- to 45-year-olds
of students enrolled in Mr. Duvall’s Retirement for 12 46- to 50-year-olds
Rookies class at a local community college. Notice in 11 51- to 55-year-olds
the following graph that the bars are plotted side by +7 56- to 60-year-olds
side, rather than having a gap between them as bar 39 students
graphs do:
Practice
Mr. Duvall’s College Students Use the previous graph of Mr. Duvall’s students to
answer questions 23 and 24.

12 23. According to the graph, what percentage of

Number of Students

students are ages 46 to 50? ______

9
24. According to the graph, what is the percentage
6 difference between the age group with the
highest number of students and the age group
3
with the lowest number of students? _______

41–45 46–50 51–55 56–60 Scatter Plots

Age of Students Data that is bivariate compares two different vari-
ables. For example, the bivariate data we are going to
look at later in this section compares the number of
On the GED® test, you may be asked to drag and hours a student studied each week to the number of
drop the appropriate bar to complete a set of data, or weeks it took that student to pass the GED® test.
you may be asked to provide answers based on read- Scatter plots allow us to interpret the relationship
ing the histogram. between the two variables in bivariate data in order to
recognize trends and make predictions about data
not contained in the graph.

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Here are some terms to know with respect to n The largest cluster of points is from 35 minutes
scatter plots: to 47 minutes.
n The point (70,30) is an outlier. It might represent
Cluster: A cluster of points is where most of the someone who had something wrong with her car
plotted points are located. It can also refer or was an overly cautious driver.
to the direction of the plotted points as a n This scatter plot shows a positive linear associa-
whole. tion: As the number of minutes increases, so does
Outlier: This is a point that is not with the clus- the number of miles.
ter. It is either significantly larger or
smaller or a point that does not correlate Creating a Scatter Plot
with the rest of the data. Here is a table of bivariate data: the number of hours
Linear association: A graph has linear associa- each student studied each week compared to the
tion if the plotted points resemble a line. number of weeks it took each to pass his or her GED®
Nonlinear association: A graph has nonlinear test.
association if the plotted points resemble a
curve. HOURS OF NUMBER OF WEEKS
Positive association: Positive association of STUDYING TO PASS GED

bivariate data means that as one variable 1 30

increases, the other increases as well. 3 25
Negative association: Negative association of 4 24
bivariate data means that as one variable 6 21
increases, the other decreases.
8 19
10 27
Now, let’s use these terms to describe the following
11 17
scatter plot, which compares time driven in minutes
on a freeway to distance driven in miles. 12 16
14 14
85 17 13
80
20 10
Distance Driven (Miles)

75
70
65 Using this data, let the left column of “Study Hours”
60 represent the x-coordinates. Let the corresponding
55 data of “Weeks to Pass the GED” in the right col-
50 umn represent the y-coordinates. Then plot each of
45 these 11 coordinate pairs in the following scatter
40 plot:
35
30
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Time Driven (Minutes)

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Hours of Studying per Week vs. 26. Which point would be considered an outlier?
Number of Weeks to Pass the GED® Test a. (14,14)
Number of Weeks to Pass GED® Test

35 b. (3,25)
c. (10,27)
30
d. (17,13)
25

20
27. Which statement is NOT true about this
graph?
15 a. The data shows negative linear association.
10 b. The data shows that the more hours one
studies each week, the more quickly one
5
passes the GED® test.
0 c. The data shows negative nonlinear
0 5 10 15 20 25
association.
Number of Study Hours
d. One can quite confidently predict that a
student who studies 19 hours a week will
pass the GED® test in roughly 11 weeks.
At this point, it might be helpful for you to review
slope and linear equations in Chapter 7 to recall how
to calculate slope, how to calculate the y-intercept,
and how to interpret the intercepts of a graph. On the
Summary
GED® test you may be asked to perform these tasks
Now you have a rich repertoire of techniques to dis-
from a scatter plot as well as to use a scatter plot to
play, interpret, and discuss data. You are probably
make predictions about data points that are not on
noticing that as you learn more and more math skills,
the graph. For example, looking at this graph, how
you are incorporating previous skills into the new
many weeks would you predict it would take some-
material. Practice your skills here and get ready to
one to pass the GED® test if she studied for 25 hours
move into applying all of your algebra skills to the
a week? You should be able to look at the graph and
geometry topics in the next chapter!
make a prediction of 5–7 weeks based on the trend
pictured. Practice your scatter plot interpretations
with the following practice questions.

Practice
Use the preceding scatter plot comparing hours studies
to weeks needed to pass the GED® test to answer ques-
tions 25 through 27.

25. Does this data show a positive or negative asso-

ciation? ___________

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Interpreting Data in Graphs and b.

Tables Review 10
1. Which graph has a y-intercept at –5 and
increases during the interval (– ,–5)
(–5, )? 8
a.
11

10 6

9
4
8

7 2

5 –2 2

–2 2

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c. d.
2
–2 2

–2 2 –2

–2
–4

–4
–6

–6
–8

–8

–10

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Use the following graph of the function g(x) to answer 5. Over which interval or intervals is g(x)
questions 2 through 5: positive?
a. (0,6)
7 b. (–2,0)
6 c. (– ,–1) and (1,+ )
5 d. (–2,0) and (2,+ )
4
Use the following bar graph to answer questions 6 and 7:
3
2 Cecilia’s Cell Phone Bills
$60
1

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1 $45
–2
–3 Dollars
$30
–4
–5
–6 $15
–7

0
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep.
2. On what interval is g(x) decreasing?
a. [–2,0] Month

b. (0,2)
c. (–1,1)
6. Cecilia plots on a bar graph the cost of her cell
d. (6,–6)
phone bill for each month from January
through September. How much did Cecilia
3. Which of the following functions could be the
spend on her cell phone in April and May com-
general form of the equation that represents
bined? ______________
this function, for real coefficients a, b, c, d,
and m?
7. Which answer best approximates the average
a. y = ax2 + bx + c
cost of Cecilia’s cell phone bill each month?
b. y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
a. $15
c. y = mx + b
1 b. $20
d. y = __
x
c. $30
d. $40
4. What is the best approximation of the relative
minimum of g(x)?
a. (–1,6)
b. (0,0)
c. (1,–6)
d. (–2.4,–7.5)

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Use the following box plot to answer questions 8 and 9: 10. The graph shows the Johnson family budget
for one month.

In percentage of overall expenses, how much

30 50 85 90 110
more money is spent on food than on trans-
portation and clothing combined?
8. This box plot shows the prices of textbooks at a __________________
local high school. What range describes the
middle 50% of the prices (p) of the textbooks? 11. What percentage does the Johnson Family have
a. $30 < p < $85 budgeted for their housing? _____
b. $50 < p < $85
c. $50 < p < $90 12. Which of the following statements best
d. $85 < p < $90 describes the relationship between the data
points shown on the scatter plot?
9. What percentage of books cost between $85
and $90? y
a. 25%
b. 50%
c. 75%
d. It cannot be determined from this graph.

Use the following pie chart to answer questions 10 x

and 11:

Johnson Family Budget

Clothing
Transportation 4%
9%

Savings a. There is a positive correlation.

10% b. There is a negative correlation.
Housing
c. There does not appear to be any correlation.
d. It cannot be determined without knowing
Entertainment the values of the data points.
12%

Misc.
13% Food
22%

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Answers and Explanations 8. (–2.5,–1) and (0, + ). Functions are decreasing

over the intervals where their slope is negative,
Chapter Practice or going down from left to right. Intervals are
4
1. y = 4 and x = – __
3 . Since the linear equation
defined by the x-values over which a behavior is
f(x) = 3x + 4 is in the form y = mx + b, we being exhibited. In this function the slope is
know that b or 4 is the y-intercept. To find the negative from what appears to be x = – until
x-intercept, replace y with 0 and solve for x: x = –2.5. Then the slope is again negative from
f(x) = 3x + 4 x = –1 until x = 0. Exclude the endpoints by
0 = 3x + 4 writing these intervals with parentheses. This
–4 –4 function is increasing over the intervals
–4
__ 3x
= __ (–2.5,–1) and (0, + ).
3 3
4 9. Positive: (– ,–3) (–2,0) (0, ). Negative:
x = – __
3 (–3,–2). Intervals are expressed in terms of the
2. y = 20. The x-value will be 0 at the point where x-values for which a certain behavior is exhib-
a function crosses the y-axis. Therefore, replace ited. A function is positive when its y-value is
all of the x variables with 0 and solve for y: positive and its graph is above the x-axis. This
g(x) = 10x3 – 5x2 – 15x + 20 function is positive over (– ,–3) (–2,0)
y = 10(0)3 – 5(0)2 – 15(0) + 20 (0, ). A function is negative when it is located
y = 20 below the x-axis and its y-values are negative.
3. (–1,2). There is only one relative maximum at This function is negative over (–3,–2). Note that
(–1,2), which makes a peak. the points at which the function hits the x-axis
4. (–2.5,–1.5) and (0,0). There are two relative are neither positive nor negative, so these must
minimums that occur at the two valleys: be excluded from the intervals by using paren-
(–2.5,–1.5) and (0,0). theses instead of brackets.
5. (–3,0), (–2,0), and (0,0). The function touches 10. as x – , f(x) + . We are concerned about
the x-axis in three different places: (–3,0), only the first term. It has an even power of x
(–2,0), and (0,0). and a positive coefficient. Therefore, it will
6. (0,0). There is only one y-intercept at (0,0). behave like a parabola with a positive coeffi-
7. (–2.5,–1) and (0,+ ). Functions are increasing cient. The parabolic shape will be upright, so as
over the intervals where their slope is positive, x – , f(x) + .
or going up from left to right. Intervals are 11. as x + , f(x) – . Again, we are concerned
defined by the x-values over which a behavior is with only the first term. It has an odd power of
being exhibited. In this function, the slope is x and a negative coefficient. Therefore, it will
positive from when x = –2.5 until x = –1. Then behave like a cubic function with a negative
the slope is again positive from x = 0 until what coefficient. The function will generally decrease
appears to be x = . Exclude the endpoints by from the left of the graph to the right of the
writing these intervals with parentheses. This graph. As x + , f(x) – .
function is increasing over the intervals
(–2.5,–1) and (0, + ).

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12. 8. The first generation displayed is Generation 16. a. To represent information in a circle graph,
1. The height of the bar for Generation 1 is 10, we have to first find the percentage of the
which means each household had an average of whole for each statistic, since the circle rep-
10 children. The height of the bar for the cur- resents a whole. First, we need to find the
rent generation, Generation 5, is 2, which total number of single parents by adding
means that each household in the Dexter family 10.322 million and 1.956 million:
today has an average of 2 children. On average, 10.322 million
the difference between the first generation dis- + 1.956 million
played and the current Dexter generation is 8 12.278 million
children per household. Now that we know the total number of families,
13. d. The 5th (current) generation in the Dexter we can find the percentage of single-mother
family has 2 children. Since the number of families and single-father families by doing
children has gone down from each genera- division problems:
tion to the next, it would be least likely for #______________________
of single-mother families 10.322 million
Total number of families = ____________
12.278 million = 0.8406
the number of children in the 6th generation
= 84.1% (when rounded)
to increase to 3 children. Answer choice c, 2
# of single-father families
_____________________ 1.956 million
children, is also not incredibly likely, since Total number of families = ____________
12.278 million = 0.1593 =
the trend has been for the number of chil- 15.9% (when rounded)
dren to decrease, but 3 children is more Choice b has the statistics for single fathers and
unlikely since increasing the number of chil- single mothers reversed. Choice d is a rounded
dren is the opposite of decreasing the num- answer, but with choice a available, choice d is
ber of children in a generation. not as accurate. Choice c is similar to choice d,
14. Mystery and Children’s. According to the bar but the statistics are reversed.
graph, the height of the bar representing the 17. b. Looking at the pie chart, the number of
mystery books is about equal to the height of Hispanic/Latin origin people make up about
the bar of the children’s books. Everdale Library one-third of the population. If the pie chart
has about the same number of mystery and represents a total of 10 million people, then
children’s books. one-third of 10 million would be 3.3 mil-
15. d. According to the bar graph, the height of the lion, so b is the best answer. Choice a is
sci-fi bar is at approximately 250 books, incorrect because 5 million Hispanic/Latin
while the height of the reference bar shows origin people out of a total of 10 million
about 750 books. Therefore, there are about would be 50% of the population and the
1
__
3 the number of sci-fi books as reference graph does not show Hispanic/Latin origin
books. Choice c is an easy mistake to make people taking up half the circle chart. Simi-
because this reverses the relationship: there larly, choices c and d represent one-fifth and
are three times as many reference books as one-tenth of the population, but by looking
there are sci-fi books. at the graph, we can see that the Hispanic/
Latin origin people make up more the one-
fifth of the circle graph.

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18. Looking at the circle graph, we can see that just 22. 63. To find the median of the data displayed,
under 50% of the population in this country is look for the value of the central line in the box.
white, so answer choice b is the correct answer. 23. 31%. To find the percentage of students ages 46
Answer choices c and d would require the sec- to 50, you first have to find the total number of
tion representing whites to take up more than students. In the first example, we calculated 39
half the graph, which it doesn’t. Choice a is way total students. Reading the graph, we can see
too low to be correct. that the number of students ages 46 to 50 is 12.
19. Since the range of data went from 0 to 14, make To find the percentage, we simply divide 12 by
a number line that is evenly spaced from 0 to 39 and then move the decimal point two spaces
14. Each time a data point appears in the set, to the right.
12
__
put an x above that data label: 39 = 0.307 = 30.7 = 31% (when rounded)
So, 31% of Mr. Duvall’s students are ages 46 to
50.
24. 13%. We found the percentage of the age group
with the highest number of students in the pre-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
vious example. Next, we need to find the per-
# of Disposable Coffee Cups Used per Week
centage of students in the age group with the
lowest number of students. The lowest number
20. A: true; B: cannot be determined; C: false.
of students in an age group is 7, in the 56 to 60
Counting all the data points, we see that there
age range. Find the percentage by dividing 7 by
are 15 people being represented in this dot plot.
the total number of students, and then move
Statement A, “The majority of the police force
the decimal place.
averages at least one disposable coffee cup per 7
__
day,” is true because only 2 out of the 15 people 39 = 0.179 = 17.9 = 18% (when rounded)
The percentage difference is then
do not use at least one disposable cup per day.
31%
Statement B, “Two people on the police force do
–18%
not drink coffee,” might be true since two peo-
13%
ple don’t use disposable coffee cups, but we
So, the percentage difference between the age
don’t know if they drink their coffee at home or
groups with the highest number of students
use reusable coffee cups instead, so this cannot
and the lowest number of students in Mr.
be determined. Statement C, “three people on
Duvall’s class is 13%.
the police force use three or fewer disposable
25. negative association. Look back at the six
coffee cups per week,” is false since there are
terms defined earlier. Negative association
four people who use three or fewer disposable
means that as one variable increases, the other
coffee cups per week.
decreases. In this graph, as the number of hours
21. Alaska. The span of the extreme temperatures
of studying increases, the amount of time it
is not quite as long in Alaska as the span of the
takes to pass the GED® test decreases.
extreme temperatures in Minnesota. Therefore,
26. c. This point on the graph is located away from
if you were trying to decide where to go for
the cluster that is trending downward. There
vacation in the fall and you wanted to pack
must be other reasons that this student did
rather lightly, you would want to go to Alaska
not pass his or her GED® test in fewer weeks,
since you would not need to bring as many
because it does not follow the trend.
clothes to allow for changing weather.

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27. c. The graph does show a linear association, so 4. c. The relative minimum of g(x) will be where
choice c is not true. The graph has a negative it hits a valley and the slope has changed
association: as the number of hours of directions. Choice d shows the lowest point
studying increases, the number of weeks it on the graph, but this is not by definition the
takes to pass the GED® test decreases. Since relative minimum. Choice b shows the ori-
the graph does have a linear association, one gin, which is not in a valley. Choice a shows
can predict values not plotted that follow the the relative maximum, which is at a peak.
linear progression. Choice c is the relative minimum and the
valley is at (1,–6).
Interpreting Data in Graphs and 5. A function is positive when its y-value is posi-
Tables Review tive and its graph is above the x-axis. Intervals
1. c. This graph intercepts the y-axis at –5. It also are expressed in terms of the x-values for which
increases from (– ,–5) (–5, ). a certain behavior is exhibited. The function
2. c. Functions are decreasing over the intervals g(x) is positive as x goes from –2 to 0 and then
where their slope is negative, or going down again as x goes from 2 to . This is written as
from left to right. Intervals are defined by (–2,0) and (2,+ ) so d is the correct answer.
the x-values over which a behavior is being Choice c is incorrect because it is naming the
exhibited. In this function, the slope is nega- intervals of the function where it is increasing
tive from when x = –1 until x = 1. So this rather than naming where it is positive. Choice
function is decreasing over the intervals b is naming just one interval where the function
(–1,1). Answer choice d names the y-values is positive but it is forgetting the interval
over which the function is decreased, but (2,+ ). Choice a is listing the height range of
this is not the correct convention for dis- the function in the second quadrant, which has
cussing intervals. Choices a and b show the nothing to do with the interval of the function
intervals over which the function is positive being positive.
and negative, respectively (parentheses and 6. $84. Use the bar graph to find how much Ceci-
brackets should be used in choice a). lia spent on her cell phone in April and how
3. b. Even degree functions have similar end much she spent on her cell phone in May. Then
behavior in both directions, while odd add those two values to find how much she
degree functions have opposite behavior in spent in the two months combined.
both directions. Since this function is going Each tick mark on the vertical axis of the graph
in two opposite directions as x approaches represents $3. Cecilia spent $54 in April and $30
and as x approaches – , it must be an odd in May.
degree function. This rules out choice a. $54 + $30 = $84
Choice c does not make sense since that is a Cecilia spent $84 on her cell phone in April and
linear equation and this graph is curved. May combined.
Choice d does not make sense since x is in
the bottom of a fraction. Choice b is the cor-
rect answer because it shows a cubic func-
tion, and cubic functions always have
opposite behavior in both directions.

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7. c. Looking at the graph we can consider each 9. a. Since $85 represents the median and $90
answer choice to see which one best approxi- represents the upper quartile, we can con-
mates the average cost of Cecilia’s cell phone clude that 25% of the data falls between $85
bill each month. Choice a doesn’t make and $90. Choice b is not correct because
sense since February is the only bill that is 50% of the data is either the range demon-
less than $15 and the rest of the months are strated by the box ($50 to $90), or the range
considerably higher than that. Choice b from the median to the maximum ($85 to
doesn’t make much sense either since only $110). Choice c is incorrect because 75% of
three of the nine months are $20 or less and the books are lower than $90 but higher than
the remaining six months are nearly $30 or $30, but the books between $85 and $90 are
above. Choice d doesn’t seem like the best not 75% of the data.
answer since only two out of the nine 10. 9%. To find the difference between food and the
months are $40 or above; this average seems combined total of transportation and clothing
too high. After eliminating these three expenses, look at the numbers on the graph.
choices, it is clear that choice c is the best Food expense is 22%, transportation is 9%, and
approximation since all but three of the nine clothing is 4%; 22 – (9 + 4) = 9%.
months are reasonably close to $30. 11. 30%. In a pie chart, all of the percentages must
8. c. Each point on a box plot represents the sum to 100%. When adding all the other given
beginning and/or end of a quartile. The left- percentages together, we get 70%, so this means
most point represents the beginning of the that 30% is left for housing.
first quartile, the next point represents the 12. a. When looking at a scatter plot of data
end of the first quartile and the beginning of points, a correlation exists if there is a rela-
the second quartile, and so on. Each quartile tionship between x and y that holds true for
accounts for 25% of the data. Since there are the majority of the points. For example, if
four quartiles in a data set, the middle two the y-values get larger as the x-values get
quartiles (the second and third quartiles) larger, there is a positive correlation. In other
represent the middle 50% of the data. words, if the points seem to rise as you move
For this data set, the beginning of the second from left to right on the graph, there is a
quartile is $50 and the end of the third quar- positive correlation. Similarly, if the y-values
tile is $90. So, the middle 50% of the data is get smaller as the x-values get larger, there is
between $50 and $90. a negative correlation; the values are behav-
ing in an opposite way to each other.
According to this scatter plot, there is a dis-
tinct relationship. As the x-values get larger,
so do the y-values. Therefore, there is a posi-
tive correlation.

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 10
C H A P T E R

GEOMETRY
FOUNDATIONS

G eometry is the study of shapes and spatial relationships. The geometry skills that you are required
to have for the GED® test are also important life skills that will benefit you in the real world: work-
ing with perimeter, area, volume, and surface area of shapes. Whether you’re buying carpeting for
your home, grass seed for your lawn, or fencing to protect your dog, you will find these geometry skills useful in
your everyday life. Answers and explanations for all practice questions are at the end of the chapter.
This chapter covers:

n Perimeter
n Using the Pythagorean theorem with right triangles
n Circumference
n Area
n Surface area of prisms
n Volume of prisms
n Applying scale factors to geometric shapes

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®
GED TEST MATHEMATICS FORMULA SHEET
You will not need to memorize the formulas for perimeter, area, volume, or surface area in order to
succeed on the GED® test. On test day, you will have access to a formula sheet, which will contain
all the formulas you need. What you must be familiar with is:

n when you will need to use each formula,

n what the different variables stand for in each formula, and
n how to correctly calculate the values to input into the formula.

For example, consider a question that requires you to use the surface area formula for a right prism:
SA = ph + 2B.

You must know that p = perimeter of the front face, h = height of the prism, and B = area of the
base. The formula reference sheet on page 191 contains the formulas you’ll have access to on test
day. As you work through the practice questions in this chapter, use this reference sheet in order
to simulate your testing conditions.

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Area

Parallelogram: A = bh
1
Trapezoid: A = __
2 h(b1 + b2)

Surface Area and Volume

Rectangular/right prism: SA = ph + 2B V = Bh
Cylinder: SA = 2πrh + 2πr2 V = πr2h
1
__ 1
__
Pyramid: SA = 2 ps +B V= 3 Bh
1
__
Cone: SA = πrs + πr2 V= 3 πr h
2

4
__
Sphere: SA = 4 πr2 V= 3 πr
3

(p = perimeter of base B; π ! 3.14)

Algebra
y –y
Slope of a line: m = ______
2
x –x
1
2 1

Slope-intercept form of the equation of a line: y = mx + b

Point-slope form of the equation of a line: y – y1 = m(x – x1)
Standard form of a quadratic equation: y = ax2 + bx + c
2
Quadratic formula: x = −b ±
b − 4 ac
2a
Pythagorean theorem: a2 + b2 = c2
a
= ba
Simple interest: I = prt b
(I = interest, p = principal,72r = rate,2 t×=36time)
= = 2
36 36

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WORKING BACKWARD Perimeter

WITH FORMULAS
In the following sections you will be asked Peri means “around” and meter means “measure.” So,
not only to calculate perimeter, area, and the perimeter of any figure is simply the measure
volume, by using the formulas, but you will around the figure. A soccer coach might have his
also be asked to work backwards. For exam- team run laps around the perimeter of the soccer
ple, you may be required to solve for a miss- field or a contractor might put up a temporary fence
ing dimension, such as height, when the around a work site so that pedestrians don’t enter it
volume, length, and width of a prism are by mistake and get injured. Since a word problem
known. You already have the skills needed won’t necessarily ask you to find the perimeter of a
for working backward: Plug in all the given given shape, it’s important that you be able to recog-
information and use your algebra skills to nize that questions concerning the distance around
isolate the unknown variable. the outside of a shape are referring to that shape’s
perimeter.

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

On the GED® test you must be prepared to work backward to solve for a missing measurement
when the distance around a shape is given:

n What is the radius of a circle with a circumference of 16π?

Rectangles and Squares Example

To find the perimeter of a rectangle or square, simply How much fencing will be needed to enclose a rectangu-
find the sum of the measurements of each side of the lar garden that is 9 feet long and 5.5 feet wide?
figure. It’s helpful to use the following formulas when
given the perimeter and being asked to determine the First, you need to recognize that this question requires
side length of a square. perimeter since it needs you to determine the dis-
tance around a rectangle. Since you are given a length
Perimeter of a Rectangle = l + l + w + w of 9 and a width of 5.5, put both of these measure-
P = 2l + 2w ments into the formula:
l = length and w = width
P = 2l + 2w
P = 2(9) + 2(5.5)
w P = 18 + 11
P = 29

l 29 feet of fencing is needed to enclose this garden.

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Perimeter of a Square = s + s + s + s For example, let’s find the perimeter of the fol-
P = 4s lowing triangle:
s = side length (all 4 sides of a square are equal
in length)
7 cm

4 cm

6 cm
s

Perimeter = 4 cm + 6 cm + 7 cm = 17 cm
Example
Fernando has 30 feet of decorative tile left to create a Pythagorean Theorem
border around an outside patio. If he wants the patio to One skill you may need to find the perimeter of a
be square, what is the side length of the largest patio he right triangle is the Pythagorean theorem. This theo-
could use this boarder tile on? rem is used to find the missing side length of right
triangles. In order to use the formula correctly, it’s
The word “border” indicates that this question important to know the parts that make up right
requires us to work with perimeter since a border triangles:
goes around a shape. Notice that you are given the
perimeter here (30 feet) and solving for the side Legs: The two sides that form the right angle
length. This is a working backward question! 30 feet are called the legs of the triangle.
must be inputted as the perimeter in the formula and Hypotenuse: The longest side of right triangles
then the side length can be solved for: is always opposite the right angle and it is called
the hypotenuse.
P = 4s
30 = 4s Here is an illustration of a right triangle with legs a
30
__
4 =s and b and a hypotenuse c:
s = 7.5

The maximum side length of a square patio that can c

be enclosed with 30 feet of decorative tile is 7.5 feet. a

Triangles
There is no formula for finding the perimeter of a tri- b
angle. To find the perimeter of a triangle, simply sum
the measurements of the three sides.
The Pythagorean theorem states that:

(Leg 1)2 + (Leg 2)2 = (Hypotenuse)2

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Instead of using words to represent the formula, it is DON’T DO THIS!

usually abbreviated with the variables a, b, and c:
It is a tendency for students to want to put
the unknown variable by itself and solve for
a2 + b2 = c2
the hypotenuse when working with the
Pythagorean theorem. It’s important to rec-
In order to use the formula correctly, it is not
ognize when the question is asking you to
extremely important that you pay attention to the
solve for a leg. Look at this common error
exact variables. It is, however, very important that you
when setting up the Pythagorean theorem to
make sure that the hypotenuse is by itself and the legs
solve for the missing side in the following
are together. Look at the following example where the
triangle:
hypotenuse is labeled b and notice how this is
handled:

Example
What is the length of side b? 14
7

b
5

NO! 72 + 142 = c2 (The missing side is

7
not the hypotenuse.)
YES . . . 72 + b2 = 142 (The missing
Even though b is the unknown side in this triangle, side is the leg.)
this is not the same b as is given in the Pythagorean
theorem a2 + b2 = c2. It is important to remember
that the hypotenuse must be by itself. In this given
Polygons
triangle, b is the hypotenuse and the two given sides
A polygon is a two-dimensional figure with at least
are legs. Starting with the formula, fill in the informa-
three straight sides. To find the perimeter of a poly-
tion for the legs and solve for the hypotenuse:
gon, find the sum of the measurements of all the
sides. One thing to look out for in polygons are hash
a2 + b2 = c2
marks on the sides indicating congruence. If two
52 + 72 = b2
sides both have a single hash mark going through
25 + 49 = b2
them, this means they are congruent, or equal in
74 = b2
length. The same goes for a double hash mark or tri-
74 = b 2
ple hash marks in two or more sides. For example, in
8.60 = b
the following figure, notice that the small sides all
have a single hash mark—this indicates that they are
all 1.5 yards long. The double hash marks in the two
horizontal sides on top and bottom indicate that

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these two sides are also congruent. Find the perimeter Diameter: Any line that is drawn from one end
of the following figure: of the circle to the other end and passes
through the center of the circle is called a diam-
eter. Thus, the line is a diameter because it
1.5 yd.
passes through the center of the circle, A.
Notice that CA + AD = CD. The length of
1.5 yd. the diameter of a circle is equivalent to two
times the radius: d = 2r.
4 yd.
π (pi—sounds like “pie”) =
3.14159265359 . . .
Perimeter = 4 yd. + 4 yd. + 1.5 yd. + 1.5 yd. + For the purposes of equations involving
1.5 yd. + 1.5 yd. circles, you can round to 3.14.
= 2(4 yd.) + 4(1.5 yd.)
= 8 yd. + 6 yd. Whenever you need to find the distance around a cir-
= 14 yd. cle, use the circumference formula. You just learned
that the diameter is equal to two times the radius:
Circumference d = 2r. This is why there are two different ways for the
The circumference of a circle measures the distance circumference formula to be written:
around the circle. This concept is similar to finding
the perimeter of a straight-sided figure. However, Circumference = 2πr Circumference = πd
since a circle does not have any straight sides, the dis- r = radius d = diameter
tance around the circle—the circumference—needs
to be calculated differently. Example
Before you can calculate the circumference of a What is the circumference of the following circle if
circle, there are a few terms you need to know. AB = 4 cm?

A
C A D

To find the circumference of the circle, use the for-

Center: In the figure, the center is at point A. mula 2πr. In this problem, the radius, r, is 4 cm:
Radius: Any line that is drawn from the center,
A, to the outside of the circle is called a radius. C = 2πr
Thus, the line from A to D, AD, is a radius, and = 2π(4 cm)
the distance from A to C, CA, is a radius. There- = 8(3.14) cm
fore, AD = CA. = 25.12 cm

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Practice 6. Rusty needs to order enough wood to fence in

1. Find the perimeter of the following rectangle: the community garden grounds, which are in
______________ the shape of a regular pentagon—a pentagon
with five congruent sides. If the fencing costs
$12.50 per foot, how much will it cost to fence
3 in. in the community garden? ________

5 in.

2. Lizzy used 64 inches of ribbon to go around a

square box. What was the side length of the 15 ft.
box?

3. What is the missing side length of the follow- 7. Emma works for a catering company and her
ing triangle? ____________ boss asked her to line the edges of the serving
dishes with a bright red ribbon for Valentine’s
Day. How much ribbon will Emma need to
12 wrap around a circular pan that can hold a
6 pizza that has a 14-inch diameter? Round your
answer to the nearest inch.

8. If the circumference of a circle is 62.8 mm,

what is its diameter? ____________
4. Reggie bikes to work every day, going 10 miles
north from his house on Robert Street and
then going 8 miles east on Dodd Road. He can
Area
bike 18 mph. How much time would Reggie
save if he used the bike path that cuts straight
Whereas the perimeter refers to the measurement
through the park? _____________
around a figure, area refers to the space inside a fig-
ure. If a gardener wants to know how much grass
5. One side of a regular octagon has a length of
seed is needed to plant a new lawn or a homeowner
4 cm. What is the perimeter of the octagon?
wants to order fabric to cover his pool at night, both
a. 8 cm
of these people will need to perform area calcula-
b. 24 cm
tions. In general, to find the area of figures such as
c. 36 cm
rectangles, squares, triangles, and circles, you will
d. 32 cm
use multiplication.

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GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

Not only will you be expected to find the areas of standard shapes on your GED® test, but you will
also need to be able to calculate the area of composite shapes, which are forms made up of various
shapes put together.

n What is the area of the following figure?

18 feet

12 feet

Rectangles and Squares RULE: INDICATING AREA

To find the perimeter of a rectangle or square, simply
Since area represents a two-dimensional
multiply any two adjacent sides together. If you are
space, it is necessary to use units squared
required to work backward to find a missing dimen-
when expressing an area measurement. An
sion, it’s helpful to use the area formula for rectangles
area of 10 ft2 is read “ten square feet” and it
or squares.
means the space taken up by 10 squares,
each measuring 1 foot by 1 foot. If no unit of
Area of a Rectangle = length × width
measurement is given, write units2 following
A=l×w
an area measurement.

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Example Remember that since s is squared, you need to take

What is the area of this figure? the square root of both sides to isolate s:

20 = s 2
2 ft.
±4.5 ≈ s
8 ft.
Only the positive solution of 4.5 makes real-world
sense for this problem, so the planter box should have
Since the area of a rectangle is length × width and you 4.5-foot-long sides.
are given both of these dimensions, simply plug them
into the formula and write your answer in square Triangles
feet: Upon a brief inspection, the formula for the area of
triangles doesn’t seem too much more complicated
A=l×w than the area formula for rectangles:
A = (8 ft.)(2 ft.)
1
A = 16 ft.2 Area of a Triangle = __
2 (base × height)
1
A = __
2 bh
The way to calculate the area of a square is similar to
finding the area of a rectangle, but because the side However, the most important aspect when working
lengths are equal, notice that this formula ends up with triangles is selecting the correct dimension to
being the square of one of the side lengths: use as the height. The height of a triangle is the per-
pendicular line that extends from the base to the
Area of a Square = side × side opposite vertex. Looking at the triangle below, if we
A=s×s let b represent the base of the triangle, h would have
A = s2 to be the height, since it extends perpendicularly
from base b to the opposite vertex.
Questions concerning the area of a square will most
commonly ask you to work backward:

Example
Odessa wants to build a square planter box. She has
x h y
enough seeds to cover an area of 20 square feet. What
should the side length of her planter box be?

Use the area formula for a square, plug in the area as

20 square feet, and solve for the side length:
b
A = s2
20 = s2

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RULE: HEIGHT OF A TRIANGLE

The height of a triangle is the perpendicular line extending from the base to the opposite vertex.
Two sides can only be considered perpendicular if there is a small square drawn where the sides
meet or if this symbol is used in the text of the problem: . In every triangle, each side can be
considered the base, but the height must always be perpendicular to that side and extend to the
opposite vertex. The following illustration shows how the height changes as the base changes:

b b
h h
h

Example Trapezoids
What is the area of the following triangle? A trapezoid is a four-sided polygon with one pair of
parallel sides. The parallel sides are called bases and
the height of a trapezoid is the perpendicular line that
connects the bases. In the following illustration, the
4.5 cm

5.7 cm two bases are labeled b1 and b2 and the height is

labeled h:

3.5 cm b2

Although you are given all three sides of this triangle,

you must be careful as you select the two sides to use
h
as your base and your height. Even though 5.7 looks
like it’s the bottom or base of the triangle, it does not
have a perpendicular line extending to the opposite
vertex. Since the side labeled 4.5 cm is perpendicular
to the side labeled 3.5 cm, use these as your base and b1
height:
1
1
__
Area of a Trapezoid = __
2 (height)(base1 + base2)
A= 2 bh 1
A = __ h(b + b )
2 1 2
1
= ( __
2
)(3.5 cm)(4.5 cm)
= 1
( __ )(15.75 cm2) The non-parallel sides of a trapezoid are called its
2
= 7.875 cm2 ≈ 7.88 cm2 legs. Sometimes one of the legs will be perpendicular
to both the bases and in this case it can be used as the

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height. (But be careful not to use a non-perpendicu-

lar leg of a trapezoid as its height!)
height
Example
What is the area of the trapezoid pictured below?

5m base

Area of a Parallelogram = (base)(height)

6m A = bh
4m
Circles
The area formula for circles is sometimes confused
8m with the circumference formula, but if you keep in
mind that area is always written in squared units, that
should help you remember that the area formula for
Since the parallel bases measure 8 m and 5 m, these circles contains r2:
will be our values for b1 and b2. Notice that the left
side is perpendicular to the base. Use its dimension of Area of a Circle = π(radius)2
4 m as the height: A = πr2

1
A = __
2 h(b1 + b2) When using this formula it’s important to remember
A=
1
__ that you must square the radius first, before multiply-
2 4(5 + 8)
1
__ ing it by π. It’s also helpful to keep in mind that some-
A= 2 4(13) times you may be given the diameter and you will
A = 26 m2 need to convert that into the radius before using this
formula.
Parallelograms
A parallelogram is a four-sided polygon with two Example
pairs of parallel sides. The height of a parallelogram Find the area of the following circle if line AB measures
is the perpendicular line that connects the pairs of 2.75 inches.
the sides, called bases. Notice in the illustration that
instead of hash marks in the sides, there are arrow
markings. These arrow markings indicate that two
sides are parallel. The top and bottom sides have
A B
just one arrow marking, showing that they are par-
allel. The left and right sides have two arrow mark-
ings indicating that they create another parallel
pair.
A = πr2
A = π(2.75 in.)2
= 7.5625 in.2
= 23.74625 in.2 ≈ 23.75 in.2

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Practice 12. What is the area of this circle? _________

9. The board members of an apartment complex
decide that they want to designate 200 ft2 of
the common space to make a rectangular pic-
nic area with a grill and some tables. If one of
9.5 cm B
the board members suggests that the length of A
C
this space be 25 feet long, how wide would the
area be?

10. 32 feet of fencing is needed to enclose a square

chicken coop. What is the area of this chicken
coop?
13. Brenda has hired a landscaper to turn her soil-
covered backyard into a unique hangout spot.
11. Calculate the area of the triangle:
She would like to have a circular deck with a
diameter of 10 feet built in the middle of her
3
rectangular backyard, which is 25 feet by 18
feet. Since the yard is soil right now, she is
going to purchase sod to go around the deck. If
the contractor charges $1.20 per square foot of
sod installed, how much will the purchase of
the sod cost Brenda? _____________

14. Find the missing value in the given trapezoid if

its area is 45 cm2.
5
8 cm

10 cm

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Volume number of cubes would be the volume of that box in

cubic inches, written in3. The 3 indicates that there
Volume measures the space within a three-dimensional are 3 dimensions being considered: length, width,
object. Volume is measured in terms of how many and height, so make sure to always express volume in
equal sized cubes are needed to completely fill a space. units cubed. Although the formulas for calculating
Imagine how many wooden cubes with a side length volume will be available to you during the GED® test,
of 1 inch it would take to fill a shoebox if they were in this section you should work on becoming com-
stacked neatly next to each other without gaps. That fortable using them.

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

Volume questions are likely to appear in the form of word problems:

n How many cubic feet of water are needed to completely fill a pond that is 18 feet long, 3 feet wide,
and 2 feet deep?

Rectangular and Right Prisms A right prism can have bases that are triangles, paral-
A prism is a solid three-dimensional object. It has lelograms, trapezoids, or any shape of polygon. As
two congruent ends and polygon faces that intersect long as the two polygon bases are congruent and the
with the ends at 90-degree angles. The ends, or bases, other faces are all rectangular, a prism is considered a
of rectangular prisms are rectangles. These are right prism. Here are some examples:
examples of rectangular prisms:

Hexagonal Prism

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Example
Find the volume of the rectangular prism pictured:

3m 5m

4m

In this case, the two identical bases are the front face
Triangular Prism and the back face, which are both 4 meters long by 3
meters wide. The height of this prism is 5 meters.
Input all of this information into the formula and
solve for the volume:

Volume = Bh
B = area of the base = length × width
B = 4 m × 3 m = 12 m2, h = 5 m
V = Bh = 12 m2 × 5 m
V = 60 m3
Trapezoidal Prism
Sometimes you will need to use the volume formula
Rectangular prisms and right prisms are grouped to work backward to solve for a missing dimension:
together in this section because they both use the
same formula to calculate volume. To find the vol- Example
ume of these types of prisms, multiply the area of the If the height of a rectangular prism is 3 cm and the
polygon base by the height of the rectangular face. length of the prism is 8 cm, find the width in cm if the
Pay close attention to the formula you will have access volume is 96 cm3.
to on test day:
First, write the formula for the volume of a rectangu-
Volume of a Rectangular/Right Prism = Bh lar prism:
B = area of the base, h = height
V = Bh
Notice that the single variable, B, is used to indicate
the area of the base. Depending on whether the base is Since this is a rectangular prism, rewrite B as lw since
a rectangle, triangle, or trapezoid, the formula you that is the formula for the area of the rectangular
will need to first use to calculate B will change. Let’s base:
take a look at how we’d use this formula with the fol-
lowing rectangular prism. V = (lw)h

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Now we are ready to plug in the given values: ±0.98 = r

±1 ft ≈ r
96 cm3 = (8 cm)(3 cm)w
96 cm3 = (24 cm2)w The negative solution does not make real-world sense
96 cm3
______ (24 cm2)w
_________ in this question, so the radius should be 1 foot wide.
24 cm2= 24 cm2
4 cm = w This means that the diameter should be 2 feet wide.

So, the unknown width of the rectangular prism is Right Circular Cone
4 cm. In the last section, we pictured an empty toilet paper
roll as our example of a cylinder. Now for our right
Cylinders circular cone, let’s picture a pointy ice cream cone
A cylinder is a three-dimensional shape that has two that has the same height and width as the empty toi-
circles as its bases. An empty toilet paper roll is a per- let paper roll:
fect example of a cylinder. Finding the volume of a
cylinder is similar to finding the volume of a prism in
that you are multiplying the area of the base by the
height. However, in a cylinder, the area of the base is
the area of a circle, πr2.

Volume of a Cylinder = πr2h

r = radius, h = height

If you are given the diameter you will need to divide

it by 2, to find the radius before using the formula.

Example
Ari is designing a cylindrical fish tank that will be 1 foot
tall. If he wants this tank to hold 3 cubic feet of water,
how wide should the tank be? 1
Can you imagine that the cone would hold about __ 3
the amount of liquid or ice cream as the cylinder
This is a case where we know what the volume is, but would hold? Notice that the following formula for the
we are asked to find the diameter. Therefore, we must 1
volume of a right circular cone is __
3 the volume of a
work backward to solve for the only unknown in the cylinder, which was πr2h.
formula, the radius, and then double it to answer the
question. 1
Volume of a Right Circular Cone = __
3 πr h
2

r = radius, h = height
V = πr2h
3 ft3 = πr2(1 ft) The height in a cone is the line that goes from the tip
3 ft3
_____ (3.14 ft)r2

3.14 ft
= ________
3.14 ft of the cone to the center of the circle on top. Read the
0.96 ft ≈ r2 information in the following box carefully to make
0.96 = r2

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sure you don’t use the wrong information in this vol- Right Pyramids
ume formula! You just learned that the formula for the volume for a
1
cone is __
3 of the formula for the volume of a cylinder.
You might not be entirely surprised now to hear that
DON’T DO THIS! 1
the volume for a right pyramid is __ 3 the volume of a
Sometimes the GED® test will give you infor- right prism! Look at this illustration of a pyramid
mation that you do not need, which makes inside a right prism to gain a visual understanding of
the question more challenging. With right how a pyramid’s volume relates to a prism’s volume:
circular cones, you might be tempted to use
the slant height of the cone in the volume
formula, but make sure the height you are
selecting goes from the tip of the cone to
the center of the circle. Let’s look at how to
set up the volume calculations for the fol-
1
___
lowing cone using the formula V = 3 πr2h.

13
12

10
1
___
NO! Volume ≠ 3 π(10)2(13). This is
incorrect because the diameter is 10
and not the radius. This is also incor- 1
Volume of a Right Pyramid = __ 3 Bh
rect because 13 is the slant height of
B = area of the base, h = height
the cone and not the height.
1
___
YES . . . Volume = 3 π(5)2(12). This is
correct since the diameter was cut in
half to get a radius of 5, and the cor-
rect height of 12 was used.

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Example NOTE: WORKING WITH π

Find the height of this pyramid if the volume is 54 mm3.
You may see questions on the GED® test
that ask you to express your answer “in
terms of π.” This means that instead of using
3.14 as the value for π in your calculations,
you can simply leave π as part of your final
answer. Sometimes you might not receive
m this explicit instruction, but all the answer
6m
3 mm choices will have π in them. Therefore, it’s a
good idea to skim the answer choices before
beginning a question that requires the use
We know the volume is 54 mm3. We can find B by
of π.
multiplying the length × width of the rectangular base:

B = (6 mm)(3 mm)
= 18 mm2 Example
Mia received a huge round helium balloon that is 3 feet
Return to the formula and substitute the known val- wide—it almost lifts her off the ground! How many
ues to find the height: cubic feet of helium were needed to fill this balloon?
Express your answer in terms of π.
1
V = __
3 Bh
1
54 mm3 = __ 2
3 (18 mm )(h)
First, we need to recognize that the information pro-
1 vided refers to the diameter and not to the radius.
(3)(54 mm3) = (3) __
3 (18 mm2)(h)
3
162 mm = (18 mm2)h
3 Since the diameter is 3 feet, use a radius of __
2 foot in
9 mm = h the volume formula for spheres.

4
Spheres Volume of a Sphere = __
3 πr
3
4
__ 3 3
__
The formula for the volume of spheres also involves a V = 3 π( 2 )
4 1
fractional factor, but the factor is __ __
3 instead of 3 :
Although it looks odd to have a fraction cubed, cub-
3
4
__ ing __
2 is actually a lot easier to calculate than cubing
3 πr
Volume of a Sphere = 3

r = radius 1.5:

4 3 3 3
V = __ __ __ __
3 π( 2 )( 2 )( 2 )
4 27
V = __ __
3 π( 8 )
9
V = __
2π

9
So, the balloon needed __
2 π cubic feet of helium.

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In a question like this, notice that it is also a 17. An empty cylindrical can has a height of
good idea to check to see if your answers are in deci- 4 inches and a base with a radius of 1.5 inches.
3
mal or fraction form, since cubing __
2 in this question Melanie fills the can with water. What is the
was much easier than cubing its decimal equivalent. volume of the water Melanie pours into
the can?
Practice a. 5.5π cubic inches
15. What is the volume of the following right b. 6π cubic inches
prism in terms of x? c. 6.5π cubic inches
d. 9π cubic inches

18. Find the radius of the cone if the volume is

148 cm3 and the height is 7 cm. Round your
answer to the nearest tenth of a centimeter.
________________

19. The Great Pyramid at Giza has a square base

with a side length of approximately 750 feet.
The height of the pyramid is approximately
20 450 feet tall. How many cubic feet of stone
x+2 were used to build this pyramid?
x
20. Find the volume of a sphere with a diameter of
8 11 inches. Round your final answer to the near-
est whole inch.

16. Find the volume of the cylinder shown here.

________

5 in.

8 in.

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21. These two boxes have the same volume requires you to find the perimeter of the base, which
(V = l × w × h). Find the length of the missing is represented by p:
side on box B.
Surface Area of Rectangular/Right Prisms =
3 cm ph + 2B
B = Area of base, p = perimeter of base,
4 cm h = height of prism
4 cm
Box A Example
Calculate the surface area of the following rectangular
prism:
x

4 in.
6 cm
2 cm 8 in. 3 in.
Box B
a. 3
b. 4
There are three unknown values you need to find in
c. 5
order to solve for the surface area: p, h, and B.
d. 6
p = the perimeter of the base = 8 in. + 8 in. +
3 in. + 3 in. = 22 in.
Surface Area h = the height of the prism = 4 in.
B = the area of the base = (8 in.)(3 in.) = 24 in.2
You learned earlier that area refers to the measure-
ment inside a two-dimensional figure, such as how
Substitute these values into the formula to get
much paint would be needed to cover a single wall.
Now you will learn how to calculate the area of the
SA = (22 in.)(4 in.) + 2(24 in.2)
entire surface of a three-dimensional figure, such as
= 88 in.2 + 48 in.2
how much paint would be needed to paint all the
= 136 in.2
sides of a cube. When we measure the combined areas
of all the sides of a three-dimensional object, we are
So, the surface area of the figure is 136 square inches.
finding its surface area. You will have access to the
following surface area formulas provided, so spend
Cylinders
your time here learning how to use them.
The formula for the surface area of cylinders might
look complicated, but it is more straightforward than
Rectangular and Right Prisms the right prism surface area formula since it just
You will notice some new variables in the formulas
requires you to plug in the height and radius.
for surface area. For example, the formula for calcu-
lating the surface area of rectangular and right prisms
Surface Area of a Cylinder = 2πrh + 2πr2
r = radius, h = height of prism

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Example Surface Area of a Cone = πrs + πr2

Find the height of a cylinder that is 20 cm wide if it has r = radius, s = slant height
a surface area of 1,256 cm2.
Example
Since the surface area is given, this will be a problem Represent the surface area of the following cone in terms
that requires us to work backward. First determine of π.
that since the cylinder is 20 cm wide, its radius is 10
cm. Plug this into r in the equation and use 1,256 cm2
as the surface area:

Surface Area of a Cylinder = 2πrh + 2πr2

1,256 = 2π10h + 2π102 13
1,256 = 20πh + 200π
12
1,256 = 62.8h + 628
–628 –628
628
____ 62.8h
62.8
= _____
62.8
10 = h
10
So, the height of this cylinder is 10 cm.

Right Circular Cones Identify that r = 5 and s = 13 and use these values in
Recall that when learning how to calculate the vol- the surface area formula:
ume of right circular cones earlier in this chapter, we
warned against mistakenly using slant height as the Surface Area of a Cone = πrs + πr2
height. When determining the surface area of right SA = π(5)(13) + π(5)2
circular cones the slant height is used instead of the SA = 65π + 25π
height. In the following illustration, s represents the SA = 90π
slant height:
So, the surface area of this cone in terms of π is 90π
units2.

Right Pyramid
Since the perimeter of the base is required to find the
surface area of a right prism, it might not surprise
h s
you to learn that you will also need to find the perim-
eter of the base to calculate the surface area of a pyra-
mid. Notice also, that similar to cones, the slant height
is used in calculating the surface area of pyramids,
r rather than the height:
1
Surface Area of a Pyramid = __ 2 ps + B
p = perimeter of the base, s = slant height,
B = area of the base

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Note: You will only be working with right pyramids Example

on the GED® test. In right pyramids all the slant If the surface area of a bouncy ball is 113.04 square
heights are congruent, so you just need to be given inches, what is the radius of the bouncy ball?
one of these dimensions.
In this problem, the surface area is given, and we need
Example to solve for the radius. Substitute the value of the sur-
Calculate the surface area of the following pyramid to face area into the formula and solve for r.
the nearest tenth:
SA = 4πr2
113.04 in.2 = 4πr2
6.4 ft. 113.04 in.2
________ _______2
4(3.14)r
4(3.14) = 4(3.14)
9 in.2 = r2
9 in.2 = r2
3 in. = r
t.
4f
5 ft.
So, the radius of the sphere is 3 in.

Practice
We can see that the slant length, s, is 6.4 ft. To find p
22. Find the surface area of the following prism:
and B, we need to do a few calculations.

p = the perimeter of base B = 5 ft. + 5 ft. + 4 ft.

+ 4 ft. = 18 ft.
B = the area of the base = (5 ft.)(4 ft.) = 20 ft.2

Substitute these values into the formula:

3m 5m
1
SA = __
2 ps + B
1
__ 4m
SA = 2 (18 ft.)(6.4 ft.) + 20 ft.2
= 57.6 ft.2 + 20 ft.2
= 77.6 ft.2 23. Find the surface area of a cylinder that has a
diameter of 12 cm and a height of 20 cm.
So, the surface area of the pyramid is 77.6 square feet. __________

Spheres 12 cm
Notice that the formula for the surface area of a
sphere is 4 times the area of a circle:

Surface Area of a Sphere = 4πr2

r = radius

20 cm

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24. Find the surface area of the cone. Represent you will need to think analytically about how to break
your answer in terms of π. the composite shape down into basic shapes, or parts
of basic shapes, and how to apply the correct
formulas.

Example
John James High School is making a basketball court in
its outdoor playground. The following is a picture of the
6 l key they wish to make in front of each net. If Beto needs
to tape around the perimeter of the key so that he can
paint it accurately, how many feet of tape does he need?

r=8

25. The Great Pyramid at Giza has a square base

with a side length of approximately 750 feet.
The height of the pyramid is approximately
450 feet tall and the slant height is approxi-
mately 783 feet. What is the surface area of the
sides of the Great Pyramid that are exposed to
sunlight and oxygen (excluding the base)?

26. Calculate the surface area of a marble that has

a diameter of 14 mm. Round your answer to
the nearest tenth. 18 feet

Composite Shapes

You have so far been working with a set body of basic

shapes—rectangles, squares, circles, etc. Composite
shapes are shapes that can be broken down into two
12 feet
or more basic shapes.

Calculating with Composite Shapes Since we are being asked to find the perimeter of this
The GED® test may ask you to find the perimeter, shape, we first need to identify that this is a rectangle
area, volume, and surface area of composite shapes. on the bottom with half of a circle on top. We will not
In order to tackle these types of problems, you will count the top part of the rectangle (where the dotted
not be able to simply apply a single formula. Instead,

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line is) so this dimension will need to be omitted basketball key: 48 ft. + 56.5 ft. = 104.5 ft. Beto will
from the calculations. Label all the sides carefully: need about 105 feet of tape to tape off the perimeter
of the key.

Working with Negative Space

Negative space is the remaining space after part of a
space has been removed. The GED® test may test
your ability to find the area, volume, or surface area
12 feet
of negative space in a composite shape. In order to
tackle a task like this, first calculate the area, volume,
or surface area of the entire space. Then calculate the
area, volume, or surface area for the space that is to be
excluded and subtract that from the calculation for
the entire space.
18 feet 18 feet
Example
The following is an illustration of the back patio being
constructed at a restaurant. The patio will be 35 feet
long by 15 feet wide and will have a round fountain
with an 8-foot diameter. Determine the number of
square feet of tile needed to cover the patio that is repre-
12 feet sented by the shaded area as follows:

Calculate the partial perimeter of the rectangular base:

35

Partial Perimeter of Rectangular Base = 18 + 12

+ 18 = 48 ft
15
Since the top of the rectangle has been labeled 12 feet, 8 ft
it should be apparent that the semicircle has a radius
of 6 feet. Calculate the circumference of the circular
top and then cut it in half to find the circumference
of just half the circle:
Since this illustration represents a circle within a rect-
angle, you will need to first find the area of the
Circumference of Circular Top = πr2
rectangle:
C = π62
C = 36π ≈ 113 ft
Area of Rectangle = lw
Area of Rectangle = (35)(15) = 525 ft.2
The semicircle top of the figure has a circumference
113
of ___
2 = 56.5 ft
Next, find the area of the circle, which has a diameter
Combine the partial perimeter and half circle
of 8 feet and a radius of 4 feet.
circumference to get the complete perimeter of the

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Area of Circle = πr2 Example

Area of Circle = π(42) ≈ 50 ft.2 What are the new dimensions of this triangle if it is
increased by a scale factor of 4?
Lastly, subtract the two areas:

Area to be tiled = (Area of Rectangle) –

(Area of Circle) 5
Area to be tiled = (525 ft.2) – (50 ft.2) = 475 ft.2 4

So, this restaurant will need to buy 475 ft.2 of tile for
the patio. 3

Multiply each side length by 4 to get the new

dimensions:
Scale Factor

Scale factors are used in a variety of settings: maps,

floor plans, and building blueprints are a few exam-
ples. To reproduce the floor plan of an office building
on a size of paper that is manageable, scale factors are
necessary. If every shape and dimension of the floor
plan is reduced by the same factor, the drawing will
be an accurate reproduction of the spatial
dimensions. 20
16
Reducing and Enlarging
A scale factor is a factor that multiplies a collection of
terms by the same factor, in order to change all the
values at a constant rate. For example, if 4 and 10x are
increased by a scale factor of 3, the values would
become 12 and 30x. When we multiply things by a
scale factor that is less than 1, we are shrinking the
size of the original terms. For example, 4 and 10x
12
would become 2 and 5x after being multiplied by a
1
scale factor of __
2
.
The most straightforward question you’ll be Solving for Scale Factors
asked to perform with scale factor is to reproduce a Problems involving scale factor may require you to
shape using a scale factor: identify the scale factor that has been used by giving
you an original and a scaled dimension:

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Example Now use cross products to solve for m:

A map of the Grand Canyon shows a 2-mile road as 10
millimeters. What is the scale of the map? 10(7.1) = 2.5(m)
71 = 2.5m
Since the map is a scaled down version of the Grand m = 28.4 miles
Canyon, we are being asked to determine how much
distance each mm represents on the map. In order to Practice
do this, set it up as a ratio comparing miles to mm: 27. On a given map, Grand Rapids, Michigan, is
27 centimeters from Akron, Ohio. If these two
miles
_____ 2 miles
mm = ______
10 mm cities are 324 miles apart, what is the scale fac-
tor being used on this map?
Now simplify this ratio so that the denominator reads
“1 mm.” To do this, we will divide the numerator and
denominator both by 10: Summary
miles
_____ 2 miles ÷ 10
__________ 0.2 miles
________
mm = 10 mm ÷ 10 = 1 mm After completing this chapter, you’ll have a thorough
understanding of how to work with perimeter, area,
This means that the map is using a scale of 1 mm : 0.2 volume, and surface area for myriad shapes. You’ll
miles. have also learned how to handle these types of calcu-
lations with compound shapes, as well as how to
Using Proportions with Scale Factors combine your geometry and algebra skills to working
Other times you will be given a scale problem with 3 with scale. Use the given reference sheet as you prac-
dimensions and you will have to solve for the missing tice the following questions, which are similar to what
fourth dimension. In order to do this, set up a pro- you will see on your GED® test, and see how well you
portion by carefully keeping like items in the same understand the many formulas presented.
parts of your ratios. (For a review on setting up pro-
portions and solving them with cross products, refer
to Chapter 5.)

Example
A map is drawn such that 2.5 inches on the map repre-
sents a true distance of 10 miles. If two cities are 7.1
inches apart on the map, then to the nearest tenth of a
mile, what is the true distance between the two cities?

Set up a proportion that shows two ratios that each

compare inches to miles. If m is the number of miles
between the two cities, then the following proportion
represents the information given:

inches
_____ 2.5 inches 7.1 inches
miles = _________
10 miles =
________
m miles

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Geometry Foundations Review 4. The surface area of a cube is given by the

expression 6s2, where s is the length of an edge.
1. The length of a side of square A is twice as long If a cube has a surface area of 54 square
as a side of square B. How much larger is the centimeters, what is the length of its edges?
area of square A? a. 3 cm
a. 4 times larger b. 6 cm
b. 2 times larger c. 9 cm
c. 8 times larger d. 81 cm
d. 0.5 times larger
5. If the edge of a cube is 10 cm and the edge of a
2. The perimeter of a square is 24 inches. What is second cube is 8 cm, what is the difference in
its area? the surface areas of the two cubes?
a. 144 in.2 a. 216 cm2
b. 576 in.2 b. 384 cm2
c. 16 in.2 c. 488 cm2
d. 36 in.2 d. 600 cm2

3. Find the area of the shaded region in this fig- 6. Find the area of the following shape.
ure. Remember that the formula for the area of
a circle is A = πr2. 5 cm

6 cm

2 cm
10 cm
10 cm
a. 60 cm2
b. 23 cm2
c. 50 cm2
d. 40 cm2

7. The distance between Hamden and Milford is

a. 100 cm2 1.75 cm on a map. In real life, Hamden is 105
b. 78.5 cm2 km from Milford. On the same map, Cheshire
c. 21.5 cm2 is 2 cm from Mystic. How far is Cheshire from
d. 178.5 cm2 Mystic in real life?
a. 210 km
b. 3.5 km
c. 120 km
d. 107 km

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8. The following figure is a regular octagon. What 11. If the following figure is increased by a scale
is the perimeter of the figure? ________ factor of 4, what will the perimeter of the new
shape be? ________

3
5 4
2
10

3x – 2
12. Keyonna is reading the plans for an apartment
she is decorating. She uses her ruler to see that
9. Jim works for a carpeting company. His next in the drawing the kitchen measures 2 inches
job is to recarpet an office space. According to wide by 3.5 inches long. What is the area in
the diagram, how many square feet of carpet square feet of the kitchen?
does he need to complete this job?

Entry Porch
3 ft. Way
5 ft. Living Room

Scale: 1 in. = 4 ft. Bedroom

7 ft. Kitchen
1 in.

12 ft.

a. 44 ft.2
b. 105 ft.2
c. 120 ft.2
d. 144 ft.2

10. The perimeter of a rectangle is 64. The length

of one of the sides of the rectangle is 8. Find
the lengths of the other three sides.
a. 10, 23, 23
b. 8, 22, 22
c. 8, 24, 24
d. 12, 22, 22

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Answers and Explanations 102 + 82 = c2

100 + 64 = c2
Chapter Practice 164 = c2
1. 16 in. 164 == cc22
164
Perimeter = 2l + 2w 12.8 = c
= 2(5 in.) + 2(3 in.) The distance from Reggie’s house to work using
= 10 in. + 6 in. the bike path is 12.8 miles. Use the distance for-
= 16 in. mula to find how long it will take Reggie to get
2. s = 16. You are given the value for the perimeter to work using the bike path:
of a square, so plug that into the square perime- d = rt
ter formula and solve for the side length: 12.8 = 18t
Perimeter = 4s 0.71 hours = t
64 = 4s To find how much faster Reggie would get to
64
__ work using the bike path versus his normal
= s, so s = 16.
4
route, subtract the two times.
3. 10.4. Again, substitute the given values into the
0.71 of an hour = (0.71)(60) = 42.6 ≈ 43
Pythagorean theorem. Note that the missing
minutes
side is not the hypotenuse, so let’s use a as the
60 minutes – 43 minutes = 17 minutes
missing side length.
So, if Reggie uses the bike path to get to work,
a2 + 62 = 122
he will get to work 17 minutes faster than by
a2 + 36 = 144
taking his normal route.
a2 + 36 = 144
5. d. A regular octagon has eight sides, all of
–36 –36
which are the same length. The perimeter is
a a2 2 === 108
108
the length around the outside of a figure. If
a ≈ 10.4
all eight sides of 4 cm each are added up, the
4. 17 minutes. First, let’s find how long it takes
perimeter is 32 cm.
Reggie to get to work using his normal route.
6. $937.50. Since the garden is in the shape of a
He bikes 10 miles north and then 8 miles east
regular pentagon, the side lengths are equiva-
for a total of 18 miles. If he bikes 18 mph, how
lent. Therefore, the perimeter is
long does it take him to get to work? Use the
p = 5(15 ft.)
distance = rate × time formula and solve for
= 75 ft.
time:
The cost of the fencing is $12.50 per foot, so the
d = rt
total cost to fence in the community garden is
18 = 18t
18
__ 18t
___
C = (75 ft.)($12.50)
18 = 18 = $937.50
1 hour = t
7. Use the circumference formula with diameter
It takes Reggie 1 hour to get to work using his
since that is the dimension provided:
normal route. To find how long it would take
Circumference = πd
him to get to work using the bike path, we need
C = π(14)
to find its distance using the Pythagorean
C = 43.96, which rounds to 44 inches of
theorem.
ribbon.
a2 + b2 = c2

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8. 20 mm. Remember, the equation for circumfer- a2 + b2 = c2

ence is C = 2πr or C = πd. Since we need to find (3)2 + b2 = (5)2
the diameter to solve this problem, let’s use 9 + b2 = 25
C = πd. b2 = 16
C = πd b=4
62.8 mm = (3.14)d Now that you know that the two perpendicular
20 mm = d sides measure 3 units and 4 units, you can put
9. 8 feet. Since this is going to be a rectangular them into the area formula for triangles:
1 1
picnic area, use the area formula for a rectangle, A = __
2
bh = __
2
(4)(3) = 6 units2
plug in the given dimensions for the area and 12. 70.85 cm2. The equation for the area of a circle
the length, and work backward to see what the requires the value of the radius, r. However, in
width would be: this problem we have been given the diameter.
Area = length × width Remember, d = 2r, so __
d
2 = r.
200 = 25 × w 9.5 cm
______
= 4.75 cm = r
200
___ 2
25 = w, so the width would be 8 feet. That
Now, use the equation for area:
would be a pretty narrow picnic area!
A = πr2
10. 64 ft2. The first piece of information is the
= π (4.75 cm)2
perimeter of the coop, since 32 feet encloses the
= 22.5626π cm2
coop. Once we find the side length, we can use
= 70.84625 cm2 ≈ 70.85 cm2
that in the area formula for a square. Since we
13. $445.80. To find the cost of the sod, we need to
are working with a square coop, use the perime-
find the area of the rectangular yard and then
ter formula for a square, plug in the perimeter
subtract the area of the circular deck.
of 32 feet, and work backward to obtain the side
Ayard = length × width
length:
= (25 ft.)(18 ft.)
Perimeter = 4s
= 450 ft.2
32 = 4s
Adeck = πr2
So, s = 8. Now, plug this into the area formula:
= (3.14)(5 ft.)2
Area = s2
= 78.5 ft.2
Area = 82 = 64 ft2
Asod = 450 ft.2 – 78.5 ft.2
11. 6 units2. In order to calculate the area of any
= 371.5 ft.2
triangle, you must have the dimensions of its
Last, multiply the sodded area by the cost per
base and height, which are perpendicular to one
square foot to get the total cost of installation of
another. You have two perpendicular sides in
sod.
this triangle, but do not know both of their
Cost = (371.5)($1.20)
dimensions. You are given the hypotenuse of 5
= $445.80
and one of the legs of 3, so use this information
to solve for the missing leg in the Pythagorean
theorem:

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14. 5 cm. Since we are given the area of both the 18. 4.5 cm. The formula for the volume of a cone is
1 2
bases, we can put these into the trapezoid area V = __
3 r h. We have values for V and h:
formula and work backward to find the V = 148 cm3
height, x: h = 7 cm
1
A = __ h(b1 + b2) We then substitute these values into the for-
2
1 mula, giving us the following equation with r as
45 = __
2
h(10 + 8)
the only unknown:
1
45 = __ h(18) 1
2 V = __ 2
3r h
45 = h(9), so h = 5 cm 1
148 cm3 = __
3 πr (7 cm)
2
15. 80x cm3. Starting with the formula for the vol- 1
ume of a right prism V = Bh, we see that we (3)148 cm3 = (3)__
3 πr (7 cm)
2

have to first find the area of the base, B. Since 444 cm3 = (3.14)(7 cm)r2
this is a triangular prism, find B by using the 444 cm3
__________ (3.14)(7 cm)r2
(3.14)(7 cm) = ____________
(3.14)(7 cm)
formula for the area of a triangle:
1 20.2 cm2 = r2
Area of Triangle Base = __ 2
bh
The base and height must be perpendicular to 20.2 cm 2 = r 2
4.5 cm = r (rounded to 10th)
each other, so we will use the triangle’s side
Rounded to the nearest tenth of a centimeter,
lengths of 8 and x in the formula:
1 the volume is 4.5 cm.
Area of Triangle Base = __ 2
(8 cm)(x cm) =
19. 84,375,000 ft3. The volume formula for the area
4x cm2
of a right pyramid requires that we first find the
Use 4x cm2 as the B in the volume formula and
area of the rectangular base of the pyramid.
use 20 cm as the height of the prism, h:
Since the Great Pyramid at Giza has a square
V = Bh
base with a side length of approximately 750,
V = (4x cm2)(20 cm)
multiply 750 by itself to get the area of the
V = 80x cm3
square base: 750 × 750 = 562,500 ft2. Since we
16. 628 in3. The formula for the volume of a cylin-
know the height of the Great Pyramid is
der is V = πr2h. From the diagram, we can see
approximately 450 feet, we are ready to use the
that the height of the cylinder is 8 inches and
volume formula for pyramids:
the radius is 5 inches. Substitute these values 1
Volume of a Right Pyramid = __ Bh
into the formula to solve for the volume. 1
__ 2
3
Volume = 3 (562,500 ft )(450 ft)
V = πr2h
V = 84,375,000 ft3
= π(5 in.)2(8 in.)
So, the equivalent of over 84 million 1-foot
= π(25 in.2)(8 in.)
cubes were used to construct the Great
= (3.14)(200 in.3)
Pyramid!
= 628 in.3
17. d. Use the formula V = πr2h, where r is the
radius of the base and h is the height of the
cylinder: π(1.52)4 = π × 2.25 × 4, which
equals 9π.

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20. 697 in3. The diameter of 11 inches informs us 23. 979.68 cm3. To substitute values into the for-
that the radius is half of 11 inches; the radius is, mula SA = 2πrh + 2πr2, we first need to identify
therefore, 5.5 inches. Substitute this value back the radius. The problem states that the diameter
into the formula to find the volume of the is 12 cm. The radius is half of the diameter, so
sphere: the radius = 6 cm.
4 3
V = __3 πr Now, substitute values into the formula for the
V = __
4 surface area of a cylinder:
3 π(5.5 in.)
3

4 SA = 2πrh + 2πr2
V = __
3 π(166.375 in. )
3
= 2π(6 cm)(20 cm) + 2π(6 cm)2
4
V = __ 3
3 (522.4175 in. ) = 2π(120 cm2) + 2π(36 cm2)
V = 696.5566 in.3 = 2(3.14)(120 cm2) + 2(3.14)(36 cm2)
V ≈ 697 in.3 = 753.6 cm2 + 226.08 cm2
21. b. The volume of box A is 48 cm3 (4 × 4 × 3 = 979.68 cm2
= 48). The volume of box B must also be So, the surface area of the cylinder is 979.68 cm2.
48 cm3, so the three dimensions of box B 24. 144π cm2. Remember that the surface area for a
will multiply to 48. Solve the equation for x: cone requires the slant height of the cone. Here,
2 × 6 × x = 48 the slant height is labeled as l but we can solve
12x = 48 for l by using 6 and 8 as the legs in the Pythago-
x=4 rean theorem:
22. 94 m2. Start with the formula for the surface a2 + b2 = c2
area of a rectangular prism: ph + 2B. 62 + 82 = c2
First calculate B, the area of the base, by multi- 36 + 64 = c2
plying the length by the width: (3 m)(4 m) = 12 100 = c2
m2. B = 12 m2. Next, calculate, p = perimeter of c = 10, so we now know that the slant height
base. Perimeter = 2l + 2w = 2(4 m) + 2(3 m) = = 10.
14 m. The height of the prism is 5 m. Plug these Now use the surface area formula, keeping the
three measurements into the surface area final answer in terms of π:
formula: Surface Area of a Cone = πrs + πr2
SA = ph + 2B SA = π(8 cm)(10 cm) + π(8 cm)2
SA = (14 m)(5 m) + 2(12 m2) SA = 80π cm2 + 64π cm2
SA = 70 m2 + 24 m2 SA = 144π cm2
SA = 94 m2

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25. 1,174,500 ft2. Consider the formula for the sur- Geometry Foundation Review
1
face area of a pyramid: __ 2 ps + B. Since this ques- 1. a. Method 1:
tion asks for the surface area of the sides of the Choose a few examples of the given situation
Great Pyramid that are exposed to sunlight and and analyze the results.
oxygen, excluding the base, that means that we Example: If square A has sides of length 10,
can just ignore the final part of the formula, the square B will have sides of length 5.
“+ B,” since that represents the area of the base. Then, the area of A is 100, and the area
Since the side lengths of the square base are of B is 25.
750 feet, we can determine that the perimeter of The area of square A is 4 times the area
the base = 4(750 ft) = 3,000 ft. Put this and the of square B.
slant height of 783 feet into the shortened Example: If square A has sides of length 6,
formula: square B will have sides of length 3.
1
Surface Area without the base = __ 2 ps Then, the area of A is 36, and the area of
1
__
SA = 2 (3,000)(783) = 1,174,500 ft2 B is 9.
26. 615.4 mm2. First, cut the diameter in half to get The area of square A is 4 times the area
a radius of 7 to use in the surface area formula: of square B.
SA = 4πr2 If you continue to try other situations, the
SA = 4π(7)2 results will be the same. The area of the
SA = 196π mm2 = 615.44 mm2 larger square is always 4 times the area of the
27. 1 cm : 12 miles. We are being asked to deter- smaller square.
mine how many miles each cm represents on Method 2:
the map. In order to do this, set it up as a ratio The situation can be analyzed algebraically.
that compares miles to centimeters: Length of side of square B = x
miles
_____ 324 miles
________
cm = 27 cm Length of side of square A = 2x
Now, simplify the ratio we created so the Area of square B = x2
denominator reads “1 cm.” To do this, divide Area of square A = (2x)2 = 4x2
the numerator and denominator both by 27: 4x2 is 4 times x2.
miles
_____ 324 miles ÷ 27
____________ 12 miles
_______
cm = 10 cm ÷ 27 = 1 cm 2. d. All sides of a square are the same length. The
This scale can be written 1 cm : 12 miles. perimeter is the distance around the outside
of a figure. You can divide the perimeter of a
square by 4 to determine the length of a side:
24 ÷ 4 = 6. Therefore, the length of a side of
the square is 6 inches. To find the area, mul-
tiply the length by the width. In a square, the
length and the width are the same. In this
case, they are both 6 inches, and 6 × 6 = 36.
The area of the square is 36 square inches.

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3. c. To find the area of the shaded region, sub- 6. d. Find the lengths of the two missing sides.
tract the area of the circle from the area of The horizontal missing side can be found by
the square. Notice that the radius of the cir- subtracting the 5 cm side from the 10 cm
cle is half the length of one side of the side. Therefore, the horizontal missing side
square. Therefore, the radius is 5 cm. is 5 cm.
Area of square: 10 × 10 = 100 cm2 The vertical missing side can be found by
Area of circle: 3.14 × 52 = 3.14 × 25 = subtracting the 2 cm side from the 6 cm side
78.5 cm2 across from it. Therefore, the vertical miss-
Area of shaded region: square – circle ing side is 4 cm.
100 – 78.5 = 21.5 cm2 The following drawing shows all of the sides.
The area of the shaded region is 21.5 cm2. 5 cm
4. a. The surface area of the cube is the product
of 6 and a number squared. So, you can 4 cm
write the equation 6s2 = 54 and solve it for s: 6 cm 5 cm
6s2 = 54
s2 = 9 2 cm
Because s2 = 9, each edge measures 3 cm. 10 cm
5. a. Since each edge of a cube has the same
length, the area of each face is s2. There are The shape can be broken into two rectangles
six faces on every cube, so the surface area of (two possible ways are shown).
a cube is 6s2. 5
The surface area of the first cube is:
6(102) = 6(100) = 600
6 A = 30
The surface area of the second cube is: 5
6(82) = 6(64) = 384 A = 10 2
The difference between the two surface areas
is:
5
600 – 384 = 216

A = 20 4

A = 20 2

10

In the first figure, the area of the larger rect-

angle is 30 cm2, and the smaller rectangle is
10 cm2. The total area is 40 cm2 (30 + 10).
In the second figure, the area of the top rect-
angle is 20 cm2, and the area of the bottom
rectangle is 20 cm2. The total area is 40 cm2
(20 + 20).

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7. c. 8. 24x – 16. The perimeter of a figure is the dis-

Method 1: tance around it. For a regular octagon (whose
Set up a proportion comparing the distance sides all have equal lengths), the perimeter can
in real life and the distance on the map: be found by multiplying the length of one side
map Hamden to Milford
_______________________ times the total number of sides. According to
real-life Hamden to Milford =
map Cheshire to Mystic
______________________
the diagram, the length of each side of the octa-
real-life Cheshire to Mystic gon is 3x – 2, so the perimeter is 8(3x – 2).
1.75x
_____ 2
__
105 = x Be sure to distribute the 8 to both terms inside
1.75x = 210 the parentheses so as not to arrive at 24x – 2,
x = 120 which is incorrect.
The distance between Cheshire and Mystic is When the 8 is distributed correctly,
120 km. P = 8(3x) – 8(2)
Method 2: = 24x – 16
Determine the number of kilometers repre-
sented by 1 cm on the map: 105 ÷ 1.75 = 60.
Each centimeter on the map is 60 km in
real life.
The distance from Cheshire to Mystic on the
map is 2 cm. Since 2 × 60 = 120, the distance
from Cheshire to Mystic in real life is
120 km.

9. b. There are two ways to solve this problem. The first is to divide the room into two rectangles, calculate
the area of each, and add the areas together. There are two ways to divide the room into two rectangles:

3 3
5 5

7 7

In the diagram on the left, one rectangle has a length of 5 feet and a width of 7 feet and the other has a
length of 10 feet, resulting from 7 + 3, and a width of 7, resulting from 12 – 5. To find the area of the
room, set up the following equation: (5 ft.)(7 ft.) + (10 ft.)(7 ft.). This yields 105 ft.2 as the area of the
room.
In the diagram on the right, one rectangle has a length of 12 feet and a width of 7 feet and the other has a
length of 7 feet, resulting from 12 – 5, and a width of 3 feet. To find the area of the room, set up the fol-
lowing equation: (12 ft.)(7 ft.) + (7 ft.)(3 ft.). This also yields 105 ft.2 as the area of the room.
The second method is to calculate the area of the big rectangle—(12 ft.)(10 ft.)—and subtract the area of
the part of the room that is missing—(5 ft.)(3 ft.). This equation reads 120 ft.2 – 15 ft.2 = 105 square feet.

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10. c. The perimeter of a figure is the distance 12. 112 ft2. Since each inch in the drawing repre-
around the figure. Since the opposite sides of sents 4 feet in real life, multiply the scaled
a rectangle are equal, and one side of this dimensions by 4 to get their real-life
rectangle has a length of 8, another side also dimensions:
has a length of 8. The set of numbers whose 2 inch width × 4 feet = 8 feet wide
sum is 64 when added to 8 is 8 + 8 + 24 + 3.5 inch length × 4 feet = 14 feet long
24 = 64. Since the kitchen is 8 feet wide by 14 feet long,
11. 120 units. The perimeter of the original com- multiply these two dimensions to get the area: 8
pound shape will be the sum of all of its sides: feet × 14 feet = 112 ft.2
5 + 6 + 3 + 4 + 2 + 10 = 30 units. When a figure
is increased by a scale factor, all of its individual
sides are multiplied by that factor. Therefore, all
of the sides here would be multiplied by 4 in
order to determine the side lengths and associ-
ated perimeter of the new figure: 5(4) + 6(4) +
3(4) + 4(4) + 2(4) + 10(4) = 120 units.
A shortcut to finding the new perimeter after
using a scale factor of 4 is to simply multiply
the original perimeter by 4: 30 units × 4 = 120
units.

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 11
C H A P T E R

STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY

T he field of statistics revolves around data—how it is collected, organized, and manipulated so that we
can interpret information to make predictions. Understanding measures of central tendency, like mean,
median, and mode, are important for being able to summarize a “typical” number from of a body of
information. Probability is an application of statistics aimed at predicting the likelihood of events happening.
Lastly, counting methods help us calculate the number of different groupings that are possible from a given set
of options. Answers and explanations for all practice questions are at the end of the chapter.
This chapter covers:

n Mean, median, and mode of data sets

n Weighted averages
n Simple probability
n Compound probability
n Permutations
n Combinations

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Measures of Central Tendencies in order to understand data presented, whether it be

something like scientific experiment data, informa-
Measures of central tendencies are a way to talk tion in a social studies population table, or a straight-
about a data set using one number to summarize the forward math problem. There are four different
data. As you will see throughout this book, many sec- measures of central tendencies that you will need to
tions of the GED® test will require you to understand know how to calculate: mean, median, mode, and
how to both find and interpret these measurements weighted average.

®
GED QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!
With measures of central tendency, it is critical that you keep all the different definitions straight
so that you can accurately respond to questions:

n List the mean, median, and mode of the data set:

{3, 9, 6, 4, 8, 3, 6, 4, 7, 10, 1, 20, 4}

Calculating Mean To find the average amount Bobbi spends on grocer-

The mean is the same as the average of a data set. To ies, add up the four grocery bills and then divide by 4:
find the mean, add up all the numbers in the data set
and then divide by the total number of data values. $75.30 + $59.65 + $72.92 + $67.20 = $275.07
$275.07
_______
For instance, if there are five numbers in a set of data, 4 ≈ $68.77
add up the five numbers and then divide by 5. If there
are 12 numbers in a set of data, add up the 12 num- So on average, Bobbi spent $68.77 every two weeks
bers and then divide by 12. on groceries.

sum of data values

_________________
total # of data values = average (mean) Working Backward with a
Given Mean
Take the following scenario as an example. Sometimes you will be given the mean and asked to
work backward to determine the value of one or
Example some of the data points. In this case, you will need to
Bobbi buys groceries every two weeks. Her last four gro- assign algebraic expressions such as x or 2x to the
cery bills were $75.30, $59.65, $72.92, and $67.20. unknowns that you can solve for after substituting all
What is the average amount of money Bobbi spends the given information into an equation. These are
every two weeks on groceries? popular questions on the GED® test, so make sure
you understand the methods used in the following
problem:

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Example 10(28 + 2x)

_________
10 = (3.2)10
Ms. Reba keeps track of how many students drop
in Monday through Thursday to study for their 28 + 2x = 32
GED® test. Usually, students come in groups. –28 –28
Here is a chart of last week’s numbers: 2x = 4
2x
__ 4
2 = __
2
3 4 x =2
4 __
So now we know that one of the Wednesday groups
2 3 __
4 had 2 students (x) and the other had 3 students (x + 1).
5 2 Finally, we can calculate the average number of
students Ms. Reba saw per day:

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday

Monday: 2 + 5 = 7
Tuesday: 3 + 4 + 3 = 10
Ms. Reba forgot to write down two numbers for Wednesday: 4 + 2 + 3 = 9
Wednesday. If the average number of students per Thursday: 4 + 2 = 6
7___________
+ 10 + 9 + 6
group was 3.2, and one of the unknown groups 4 = 8 students per day
had one more student than the other unknown
group, what is the average number of students Median
who came to see Ms. Reba each day? The median of a data set is the middle value of a
chronological set of data. To understand the concept,
First, interpret the words into math. We know that consider this question:
one of the Wednesday groups had one more student
than the other. Assign x to one of the groups and x + What is the median of the following data
1 to the other. values?
63, 72, 54, 69, 66
3 4

4 x To find the median, first rewrite the numbers in

2 3 x+1 chronological order:
4
5 2 54, 63, 66, 69, 72

The median is 66 because there are two numbers to

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday the left and two numbers to the right of it.

Next, add up all the numbers, divide by 10, and set it 54, 63, 66 , 69, 72
equal to the known average of 3.2:
Finding the median is very simple when there is an
2_________________________________
+5+3+4+3+4+x+x+1+4+2
10 = 3.2 odd number of values. However, what if there is an
28 + 2x
_______ even number of values? In that case, take the average
10 = 3.2
of the middle two numbers.

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What is the median of the following data The two middle numbers are 23 and 31:
values?
5, 10, 23, 31, 33, 39
23, 10, 31, 5, 39, 33
The median of this data set is the average of 23 and
First, rewrite the values in chronological order: 31:

23 + 31
______
5, 10, 23, 31, 33, 39 2 = 27

GED ® TEST MATHEMATICS FORMULA SHEET

The definitions for mean and median will be on the formula sheet on test day. Although this might
make it tempting to not learn how to calculate these measures by heart, it will be important to not
waste valuable testing time looking for these definitions.

n mean is equal to the total of the values of a data set, divided by the number of elements in
the data set
n median is the middle value in an odd number of ordered values of a data set, or the mean of
the two middle values in an even number of ordered values in a data set

Mode No mode: If there is no number that appears

The mode of a data set is the number that appears more than the other numbers, then the data set has
most often. It is important to know that a data set no mode.
does not always have one and only one mode. Here Example: 3, 4, 2, 9, 8, 11, 2, 1, 5, 4
are the three different possibilities for the mode of a Solution: This data has no mode since no num-
data set: ber occurs more than the rest of the numbers.
One mode: A set of numbers has just one mode
if only one number appears more often than all the More than one mode: If more than one number
others. appears more frequently than the remainder of the
Example: 9, 3, 4, 2, 9, 8, 9, 2, 9, 4 data, then there can be multiple modes.
Solution: The mode of the data set is 9, since it Example: 3, 4, 7, 9, 8, 5, 2, 8, 9, 4, 3, 9, 4, 8
appears more than any other number in the Solution: The modes of the data set are 4, 8,
data set. and 9 since each of these numbers appear
equally more than the rest. (Notice that even
though 3 occurs twice, it is not a mode, since
the 4, 8, and 9 each occurred three times.)

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VOCABULARY: MEAN, of times Brooke ran a given number of miles over the
MEDIAN, MODE course of a month:
Use these simple tricks to keep the defini-
NUMBER OF FREQUENCY
tions of mean, median, and mode straight! MILES RUN OVER A MONTH
Mean: “I can’t believe that mean teacher
2 9
gave me such a bad average in his class.”
Median: This word sounds like medium, 4 8

which is in the middle of sizes small and 6 5

large. “I’d like to order a size median, please 8 3
. . . I mean a medium!”
Mode: This word sounds most similar to the
How do we calculate the average number of miles
word most, so remember that the mode of a
Brooke ran each day? First, figure out how many
data set is the one that happens the most.
times she went running that month by adding the
values in the frequency column: Brooke ran 25 times
over the course of the month (9 + 8 + 5 + 3 = 25).
Weighted Average Next, since Brooke ran 2 miles 9 times, 4 miles 8
A weighted average is the average found with terms times, 6 miles 5 times, and 8 miles 3 times, it’s helpful
that have different “weight” or importance within a to understand that we could write her 25 different
data set. For example, a teacher might count the final run mileages out as such:
exam score more than a quiz score. There are two
2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 8, 8, and 8
cases when you will calculate a weighted average
9 runs of 2 miles 8 runs of 4 miles 5 runs of 6 miles 3 runs of 8 miles
instead of a standard average, or mean. We will
explain each case separately.
While you could find the average by summing these
25 mileages and dividing that by 25, it’s more efficient
Case 1: Quantities of different values
to find the weighted average by multiplying the num-
Data presented in tables or graphics often requires a
ber of runs by the miles run to obtain subtotals:
weighted average. This is because each of the values
in the table is not just occurring once, but is occur- n Add a third column to the table, and label it
ring a different number of times than other values.
“Miles Subtotal.”
For example, the following table shows the number n Fill it in with the products of (# of miles) ×
(frequency):

FREQUENCY OVER MILES SUBTOTAL

NUMBER OF MILES RUN A MONTH (# OF MILES) × (FREQUENCY):

2 9 2 × 9 = 18 miles

4 8 4 × 8 = 32 miles

6 5 6 × 5 = 30 miles

8 3 8 × 3 = 24 miles

Total # of Runs = 25 Total Miles = 104

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n Add the four products in the right column to get different level of importance. The collection of
a total mileage for the month of 104 miles. Myrna’s assignments are worth a total of 100
n Since Brooke ran 25 days, divide this by 25 to find points.
the weighted average:
104
Average Mileage: ___
25 = 4.16 miles per run.
ASSIGNMENT NUMBER PERCENTAGE
Tests 4 70%
Sometimes you will get questions that present data Homework 6 10%
that involves frequency in a word problem format.
Final exam 1 20%
For instance, “In June, Brooke ran 2 miles on 9 days, 4
miles on 8 days, 6 miles on 5 days, and 8 miles on 3
days. Determine the average distance Brooke covered Chad’s scores are shown in the next table. What
each day she ran.” In this case, the solution would still is his final grade for the course?
involve a weighted average by first multiplying the
frequencies by the values. ASSIGNMENT SCORES
Tests 78, 85, 88, 90

Homework 87, 90, 83, 93, 91, 90

DON’T DO THIS!
Final exam 82
When students see tables of numbers, they
are always tempted to just add up values in
Although all of the given information might make
the left column (or right column) and divide
this question seem overwhelming at first, solving it
by the number of rows in the table. This is
isn’t as bad as you might fear. There are just three
almost always wrong because data expressed
steps to follow:
in tables or charts is often presenting the
frequency that each value is occurring. Since
Step 1: Find the basic average for each of the
frequency means the number of times, you
three different types of assignments:
need to find a weighted average, and not
just the mean whenever frequency informa-
Test Average = 78 + 85 + 88 + 90
______________
4
= 85.25
tion is given.
Homework Average = 87 + 90 + 83 + 93 + 91 + 90
______________________
6
= 89
Final Exam = 82 (only one score here)
Case 2: Weighting Values
with Percentages Step 2: Multiply the percentage weight associ-
Final grade scores for classes are often computed ated with each type of assignment by the average for
using a weighted average, since a teacher may want to that assignment. This will determine how many
count certain types of assignments (like tests), more points each assignment type will contribute to Chad’s
than other types of assignments (like homework). final grade. (Remember to turn the weighting per-
Let’s work through this question step by step to illus- centages into decimals before multiplying)!
trate how to calculate weighted averages when data is
weighted with percents: Test Average (70%) = 85.25 × 0.70 = 59.675
Homework Average (10%) = 89 × 0.10 = 8.9
Myrna teaches at a university. When assigning Final Exam (20%) = 82 × 0.20 = 16.4
final grades, she gives each type of assignment a

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Step 3: Add the values together from Step 2 to 3. Ash is a real estate agent trying to sell a home
get Chad’s final grade for the course. in a neighborhood she’s not familiar with. She
wants to be able to tell the family she’s repre-
Final Grade = 59.675 + 8.9 + 16.4 = 84.975 senting what the median home price is for the
local sales that have occurred over the past
So, Chad’s final grade was 85%. month. The past month, housing sold for the
following prices: $280,000, $200,000, $424,000,
Practice $390,000, $280,000, and $320,000. Find the
1. Mr. Carlo’s class is learning about frogs. He took median house price.
his class to the pond to observe them in their
environment. One of the assignments was for For questions 4 and 5, identify the modes of the data
each of the 14 students to measure one frog in sets.
order to calculate an average length. The average
length was 2.35 inches. Using the following data, 4. 45, 56, 23, 45, 12, 56, 38 ____________
calculate the length of the 14th frog.
5. 100, 96, 94, 101, 106 ___________
FROG LENGTH (IN.)
1 2.3 For questions 6–7, use the following bar graph, which
illustrates the number of pencils students had in their
2 1.9
bags when arriving to an art class.
3 2.0

4 2.4 Pencils in Bag

5 2.5
12
Freq. of Students

6 3.0
10
7 2.7 8
8 2.6 6
9 2.5 4
10 2.4 2
11 2.3 0 1 2 3 4
12 2.1 # of Pencils
13 2.4

14 x 6. What was the median number of pencils that

students had in their bags when they arrived to
2. Holly is competing in 4 different gymnastics art class?
events and wants to get an average score of 9.2.
Her vault score was 8.9, her uneven bar score 7. What number of pencils represents the mode?
was 8.6, and her balance beam score was 9.5.
What must she score on her floor routine to
achieve her goal of a 9.2 average for the meet?

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8. The following table illustrates the number of Looking at Katie’s scores, calculate her final
miles each student travels one way to get to Ms. grade for the semester to the nearest hundredth
Bradley’s viola class. Find the average number of a percentage point. ______________
of miles that Ms. Bradley’s students travel one
way: ASSIGNMENT SCORES (OUT OF 100)
Tests 93, 97, 88, 91, 95
NUMBER OF MILES NUMBER OF
TRAVELED ONE WAY STUDENTS Homework 90, 99, 100, 95, 96

1 4 Experiments 89, 90, 85, 92

2 3

3 5
Probability
4 6

5 3 Chances are, you’ve heard someone exclaim, “What is

the probability of that happening?” The probability
9. Stephanie owns a bakery and is purchasing of something happening is the likelihood of an event
supplies. If she buys 20 cans of peaches for happening. For example, if you live in the desert, the
$6.50 each, and 28 cans of cherries for $9 each, probability of it raining in June is very low. There are
what is the average price per can of fruit? two types of probability: simple and compound. Sim-
ple probability refers to a single event happening,
10. Mr. Gallespie is a high-school science teacher. like rolling a 1 with a die on a single toss. Compound
The weight he gives each assignment is listed in probability refers to the likelihood of more than one
the following table. condition being met, like rolling a 1 with a die and
then getting tails when flipping a coin.
ASSIGNMENT NUMBER PERCENTAGE
Tests 5 60%

Homework 5 15%

Experiments 4 25%

®
GED QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!
An understanding of probabilities will help you understand the likelihood of events in the real world
happening, and will help you answer questions like this on the GED® test.

n If there are 17 men and 23 women being considered to sit on a jury, what is the probability that all
12 jurors selected will be men?

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Simple Probability Let’s review a few common simple probabilities that

Simple probability is the ratio of the number of desir- might appear on test day. Being familiar with these
able outcomes to the total number of possible out- probabilities will help you solve the compound prob-
comes. Probability is usually represented as a fraction ability questions presented in the next section.
in lowest terms or sometimes as a percentage. The
notation used to express the probability of an event Example
happening is P(E), which means the probability of What is the probability of getting heads when you flip a
event E happening: coin?

Probability of Event Happening There are 2 possibilities when flipping a coin: heads
# of desirable events
= ____________________
total # of possible events or tails:

# of heads
____________ 1
Notice that the numerator states a plural “# of desir- P(Heads) = total # of sides = __
2
able events” even though the probability is for a sin-
gular “Event Happening.” There can sometimes be Notice that the probability of getting tails with the
1
more than one outcome that would result in a “suc- single flip of a coin is also __
2 . Now let’s look at some
cess.” For example, if you wanted your birthday to fall probabilities involving a standard 6-sided die.
on a weekend, there would be two desirable events
that would satisfy that wish: Saturday and Sunday. Example
Since the total number of possible events includes all What is the probability of getting a 5 when rolling one
7 days of the week, we write the following: die?

# of weekend days 2
P(Weekend Birthday) = __________________ __
total # of days in week = 7 There are 6 possibilities of all the faces of the die, and
this probability is asking for just one of them, a 5:
2
The probability __7 can also be converted to 29%. (For # of desirable events 1
a review on converting fractions to percents, review P(Rolling a 5) = ____________________ __
total # of possible events = 6
Chapter 5.) Although you might hear the weather
report say “there’s a 40% chance of rain,” the GED® Just because there are 6 possible events when rolling a
test will generally ask for probability answers to be die, don’t expect for the denominator to always be a 6
fractions in lowest terms. when answering probability questions. Remember to
reduce your answer to lowest terms:

RULE: SIMPLE Example

PROBABILITY What is the probability of getting a prime number when
The probability of an event happening is the rolling one die?
ratio of the number of desirable outcomes
to the total number of possible outcomes There are still 6 possible events, but now we need to
and is written in shorthand P(E): be more careful as we determine the number of
# of desirable events desired events. There are 3 prime numbers up to 6: 2,
P(E) = _______________________________
total # of possible events
3, and 5 are all prime. (Recall that a prime number is
any number greater than 1 that has no factors other

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than 1 and itself.) Now we’ll represent our findings Example

using the probability formula: What is the probability of rolling a die three times and
getting 1, 2, 3 in that order?
# of desirable events 3
P(Rolling a prime) = ____________________ __
total # of possible events = 6
1
= __
2 The probability of getting a single number on a die is
1
__
6 ; use this in the compound probability formula:
1
So, there is a __
2 probability that each time you roll the
die you will get a prime number. This means that for P(1 then 2 then 3) = P(1) × P(2) × P(3)
1 1 1 1
every two rolls, it is likely that you will get a prime P(1 then 2 then 3) = __ __ __ ___
6 × 6 × 6 = 216
number once. Now that you have simple probability
down, let’s move on to compound probability. So, the probability of getting 1, 2, and 3 when rolling
1
a die three times is ___
216 , which is less than a 1% chance!
Compound Probability
Compound probability refers to the likeliness of two
RULE: COMPOUND
unrelated events happening. The compound proba-
PROBABILITY
bility of two events happening is found by multiply-
ing the probability of the first event by the probability The compound probability of two or more
of the second event. Compound probability is written events happening is the product of each of
like this: the individual events’ simple probabilities:

n P(A, B, and C) = P(A) × P(B) × P(C)

P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B)

Let’s answer a common compound probability

question: Probability with and
without Replacement
Example Sometimes in compound probability problems, the
What is the probability of flipping a coin two times and likeliness of a second event is influenced by the previ-
getting heads twice in a row? ous event. Let’s say there are 5 Starburst candies in
your pocket: pink, red, yellow, orange, and green. You
1
Since the probability of getting heads is __
2 , use this in really want the red one! The probability that the first
1
the compound probability formula: Starburst you pick will be the red one is __ 5 . If instead
you pick an orange one (and eat it), now there are
P(Heads and Heads) = P(Heads) × P(Heads) just 4 Starbursts in your pocket. Therefore, the prob-
1 1 1
P(Heads and Heads) = __ __ __
2 × 2 = 4 ability of the second candy you pick being the red one
1
will be __
4 . In math context, this method (of not put-
So, the probability of getting two heads when a coin is ting the first item back) is usually referred to as “with-
1
flipped twice is __
4 or 25%. out replacement.” On the GED® test, look for it to
explicitly state in the question that an item is put back
The compound probability formula can be expanded before the next event occurs (that’s called “with
to investigate the probability of more than two inde- replacement”). If it doesn’t state that, be careful when
pendent events happening: determining the probability of the second event.

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Calculated without Practice

Replacement Probabilities Use the following information to answer questions
In order to calculate the compound probability of the 11–13.
two events happening, always assume that the desired
first event happened when you are reassessing the Every student in the senior class at Alexa Mae prep
probability of the second event happening. Let’s look school gets assigned a unique 3-digit ID number
at how to do this with the following question: between 000 and 999. All of the ID numbers have 3 dig-
its, so ID number 7 is written 007 and ID number 16 is
Example written 016. Once a number is assigned to a student, it
Suppose there are 8 tennis balls in a container: 5 green cannot be assigned again.
and 3 red. What is the probability of pulling out a green
ball on the first try and then a red ball on the second try, 11. Delilah is obsessed with π, so she is hoping to
without adding the first ball back into the container? get the number 314. What is the probability
that she’ll get 314 as her ID number?
First, we know that we are going to be answering the
question with this formula: 12. Skye loves triple repeating digits and doesn’t
care which number it is, as long as her ID
P(Green then Red) = P(Green) × P(then Red) number is three of the same number. What is
the probability that Skye will get a repeating
Notice that we used the term “then Red” above digit ID number?
instead of “and Red.” This language is used to remind
us that we need to consider the probability of the sec- 13. Lulu has her heart set on any number with
ond event carefully since the first event is influencing consecutive digits counting up or down, such
its likelihood. as 123 and 876. What is the probability she’ll
Since there are 5 green tennis balls and 8 total get a number she wants?
tennis balls, the probability of pulling a green tennis
5 5
ball out first is __ __
8 . So P(Green) = 8 . Use the bar graph from questions 6 and 7 in the previ-
Now P(then Red) must be calculated with the ous section to answer questions 14 and 15:
assumption that the first ball picked was green. Now
there are still 3 red tennis balls, but there are only 7 14. If a student is chosen at random from the class,
tennis balls in total since the first ball wasn’t replaced. what is the probability that he or she will have
3
Therefore, P(then Red) = __ 7. exactly 3 pencils?
Put both of these probabilities into the com-
pound probability formula: 15. If a student is chosen at random from the class,
what is the probability that he or she will have
P(Green then Red) = P(Green) × P(then Red) at least 1 pencil?
5 3 15
P(Green then Red) = __ __ __
8 × 7 = 56

15
__
56 is a little awkward to mentally make sense out of,
so it can be helpful to also consider this as approxi-
mately 27% probability.

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16. The probability of pulling a fork out of a Counting Techniques

4
drawer is __
13 . A utensil is removed and placed
on the counter. Then another utensil is In the context of statistics and probability, the phrase
removed from the same drawer. What is the “counting techniques” refers to the methods used to
probability that both utensils drawn from the calculate the number of different groupings that can
drawer were forks? be made out of a given set of options. The counting
techniques featured on the GED® test are permuta-
17. Wyeth would like to pick 3 students from his tions and combinations.
class of 30 students to be class leaders. His class
has 16 girls and 14 boys. If Wyeth picks these
students one at a time, without replacement,
what is the probability that all three class lead-
ers are boys? Express your answer as a percent-
age to the nearest whole number.

GED ® QUESTION SNEAK PREVIEW!

You may find that counting techniques are useful skills to have outside of your GED® test.

n Mara has packed 4 shirts, 3 skirts, and 2 pairs of shoes for her vacation. How many unique outfits,
consisting of one skirt, one shirt, and one pair of shoes, can she wear with the clothing she packed?

Fundamental Counting Principle A problem like this is straightforward to solve since

The fundamental counting principle gives us a way to the different number of outcomes for each event are
compute the total number of ways different indepen- clearly stated: Mara has 4 shirts, 3 shirts, and 2 pairs
dent events can happen together. It states that if there of shoes. Multiply these numbers together to calcu-
are m possible outcomes for a first event and n possi- late the total number or unique outfits she can make:
ble outcomes for a second event, then the total num-
ber of possible outcomes for the two events together 4 × 3 × 2 = 24 outfits
is the product of m × n. This principle holds true for
as many number of different events there are. Let’s It is sometimes helpful to draw out a counting prob-
look at how we apply this principle to solve the previ- lem with tree illustrations, like the following one. If
ous Sneak Preview question: you look at this diagram, you should be able to
understand why this principle works. Notice that just
Example with shirts and skirts alone, Mara has 12 different
Mara has packed 4 shirts, 3 skirts, and 2 pairs of shoes outfits she could make. Then each of those 12 outfits
for her vacation. How many unique outfits, consisting has 2 different shoe options to choose from, so the 12
of one skirt, one shirt, and one pair of shoes, can she shirt-and-skirt outfits will become 24 shirt-skirt-
wear with the clothing she packed? and-shoe outfits:

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Shoes 1 The previous problem illustrated the fundamental

Skirt 1 counting principle when the items were completely
Shoes 2
independent. Similar to the probability problems we
did “without replacement,” sometimes we use the
Shoes 1 fundamental counting principle when the first event
Shirt 1 Skirt 2
Shoes 2 impacts the number of possibilities for the second
event, as you will see in the following example.
Shoes 1
Skirt 3 Example
Shoes 2 There are 15 different teams competing in a science fair.
How many different ways can 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th
Shoes 1 place trophies be awarded?
Skirt 1
Shoes 2
There are 15 different teams and only four trophies.
How many teams could win first place? 15
Shoes 1
Shirt 2 Skirt 2
Shoes 2 After the first place trophy is given out, how many
teams could win second place? 14
Shoes 1
Skirt 3 After second place is handed out, how many teams
Shoes 2
could win third place? 13
Shoes 1
Skirt 1 After third place is handed out, how many teams
Shoes 2 could win fourth place? 12

Shoes 1 Notice that after each event, the number of possibili-

Shirt 3 Skirt 2 ties for the next event decreases by 1. So now we have
Shoes 2
4 events happening and the number of possibilities
for each event to occur is 15, 14, 13, and then 12. The
Shoes 1
Skirt 3 fundamental principle of counting says to multiply
Shoes 2 these numbers together to determine the total num-
ber of possible combinations for the 15 teams to win
Shoes 1 the four trophies:
Skirt 1
Shoes 2
15 × 14 × 13 × 12 = 32,760
Shoes 1
Shirt 4 Skirt 2 Notice that in this final calculation we started with
Shoes 2 the total number of options and then reduced that
option by one each time. We did this 4 times since
Shoes 1 there were 4 teams being chosen. This same technique
Skirt 3 can by applied to similar problems. For example, if 3
Shoes 2
students out of 10 students were going to be selected

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at random to prepare a snack, prepare a beverage, and RULE: PERMUTATION

wash dishes, the number of possible ways students FORMULA
could be assigned these tasks would be found by mul-
When n items are to be put into groups of k
tiplying 10 × 9 × 8.
and order is significant, the number of per-
mutations can be calculated as such:
Factorials n!
______
P(n,k) = (n – k)!
Before moving on to the formulas for permutations
Permutation will be used for situations that
and combinations, it is necessary that you know how
involve ranking or for events where one
to work with factorials. A factorial is a mathematical
ordering of options is significantly different
instruction to multiply a number n by every positive
from another ordering of the same options.
integer less than n. Factorials are indicated with an
With permutations, A-B-C and C-B-A count
exclamation point and “n!” is said “n factorial.” Here
as two separate groupings. These count as
is the definition of n!:
two different permutations.

n! = n(n – 1)(n – 2)(n – 3) . . . (1)

Although you will not get a question like “What is the Let’s use the preceding problem of first, second, third,
value of 5!” on your GED® test, you need to under- and fourth place teams being selected from a group
stand factorial notation to use the formulas presented of 15 teams to illustrate this formula. First, recognize
in the next two sections. You should feel comfortable that n = 15 and k = 4.
converting 5! in the following way:
______n!
P(n,k) = (n – k)!
5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 15!
P(15,4) = _______
(15 – 4)!
15!
Permutations P(15,4) = ___
11!
Permutations are groupings where the order matters. P(15,4) =
Since getting a 1st place trophy is different from get- 15 × 14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
_________________________________________________
11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
ting a 4th place trophy, our earlier exploration of the
number of ways 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th place trophies Now, notice that all the factors in the numerator from
could be awarded to 15 teams is an example of per- 11 down to 1 can be canceled out with all the factors
mutation. However, if 4 prizes of equal value were to from 11 to 1 in the denominator. Making sure that
be given to 4 out of 15 teams, this would be an exam- you do this cancelation will significantly reduce the
ple of when order would not matter (we will discuss time it takes you to do questions like this!
these types of questions in the following section).
Although we solved the permutation question P(15,4) =
above of the 4 trophies to 15 teams by using the fun- 15 × 14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
___________________________________________________
11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
damental counting principle, there is a formula that
can be applied to any problem regarding permuta- P(15,4) = 15 × 14 × 13 × 12 = 32,760
tion. Unfortunately, the permutation formula will
not be provided to you on the GED® test, so you’ll Therefore, the number of permutations of 4 teams
want to commit it to memory. being ranked from 15 teams is 32,760, which is the
same answer we got above using the fundamental
counting principle.

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Combinations Since order does not matter for this problem, use the
Order does not matter with combinations. For combinations formula. Set n = 13 and k = 3:
instance, the number of combinations of three differ-
n!
______
ent appetizers a group could order at a restaurant is C(n,k) = (n – k)!
an example of a combination. It does not matter what 13!
C(13,3) = _________
3!(13 – 3)!
order the chosen appetizers are listed in: salad, soup, 13!
C(13,3) = ______
3!(10)!
and flatbread is the same as soup, flatbread, and salad.
The formula for combinations is similar to the C(13,3) =
13 × 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
___________________________________________
one for permutations; however, another factor is 3 × 2 × 1 (10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1)
1,716
added to the denominator to reduce the number of C(13,3) = _____
6
possibilities. Again, if order does not matter, then 1, 2, C(13,3) = 286
3 is the same as 3, 2, 1; thus, the combination is
counted only once. Rafael and his friends better choose carefully because
there are 286 different combinations of three appetiz-
ers they could select from the different 13 options!
RULE: COMBINATION
FORMULA
When n items are to be put into groups of k
DON’T DO THIS!
and order is not significant, the number of One of the most difficult things to do when
combinations can be calculated as such: answering problems involving combinations
n!
________
C(n,k) = k!(n – k)! and permutations is to sort out which type of
With combinations, A-B-C does not count problem it is. In order to decide which for-
separately as C-B-A. These are counted as a mula to use, switch up the order of the same
single combination. That is why n! is divided grouping of items and ask yourself if that
by k!—this is to reduce the answer by the ordering is significantly different from the
repeated combinations. first ordering. Would getting chips and gua-
camole be the same thing as getting guaca-
mole and chips? Would 1234 be the same
Notice that the only difference between the for- password as 4321?
mula for permutation and combination is the k! in
the denominator of the combination formula. Again,
this is to eliminate repetitive combinations in the
answer, since order does not matter. Practice
18. If Odessa flips a coin and rolls a die, how many
Example different outcomes are there?
There are 13 different appetizers to choose from at a
restaurant. Rafael and his friends want to order three 19. Using your answer from the previous question,
appetizers for the table to share. How many different what is the probability that Odessa will get a
combinations of three appetizers could they order? tails when she flips the coin and a 3 when she
rolls the die?

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20. Maya loves to prepare tasty food and host din- Statistics and
ners at her home. She has four favorite salads, Probability Review
five favorite entrées, and three favorite desserts
that she likes to make. Using these recipes, how 1. What is the mode of the following data set?
many unique combinations can Maya offer her {45, 56, 23, 36, 45, 79, 12, 12, 56, 38, 80}
guests of one salad, one entrée, and one a. 79
dessert? b. 45
c. 12, 45, 56
21. There are 20 athletes competing in a swim d. 80
meet for first, second, and third places. How
many different ways could the trophies be 2. Phoebe works part-time at the movie theater.
awarded? ___________ Her schedule for the next three weeks, shown
here, lists the number of hours Phoebe will
22. There are 10 different colors of sticky notes in work each day.
the supply closet at Zachary’s office. Employees
can choose four different colors to organize
their materials. How many different color com-

D AY

AY

Y
binations could Zachary select when choosing

RDA
D AY

NES
D AY

RSD
SDA

AY
four sticky notes? ____________
MON

S AT U
WED

FRID
SUN

THU
TUE

Summary 0 7 0 4 4 5 0
0 4 6 5 3 2 0
You have now thoroughly surveyed the most funda- 0 5 4 3 6 5 0
mental and important topics in statistics and proba-
bility: measure of central tendency, probability, and
counting methods. Test your ability to correctly recall What is the median number of hours Phoebe
and apply all the different definitions and formulas will work in one day over the next three weeks?
with the following comprehensive review questions. a. 0 hours
b. 3 hours
c. 4 hours
d. 5 hours

3. Pat spends Friday night at the bowling alley. In

his first four games, he bowls scores of 123,
165, 127, and 144. If the mean of Pat’s five
games is 146, what does Pat bowl in his fifth
game?
a. 140
b. 141
c. 146
d. 171

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4. Jackie plays a ring-finding game in her swim- 6. A piggy bank contains three quarters, five pen-
ming pool. She has 30 seconds to retrieve as nies, two nickels, and six dimes. Evander picks
many rings as she can from the bottom of the a coin at random from the bank and pulls out a
pool. She plays the game nine times, and her quarter. This quarter is NOT replaced. If
scores are shown in the table. What is Jackie’s Evander selects another coin, what is the prob-
median score? ability that it will be a quarter?
2
a. __
15
GAME NUMBER RING SCORE 3
b. __
15
1 4 2
c. __
16
2 3 3
d. __
16
3 5

4 8 7. Yolanda is playing a memory card game with

her niece. They have a stack of 28 cards made
5 6
up of 14 pairs of matching animals. Each
6 3 player gets a turn to flip over two cards in
7 9 hopes of finding a match. If Yolanda goes first,
8 3 what is the probability that she will get a
matching pair during her first turn?
9 4 1
a. __
27
1
a. 3 b. __
28
1
___
b. 4 c. 378
c. 5 d.
1
___
756
d. 6
8. How many different ways could the first-,
5. A spinner is divided into ten equal sections, second-, and third-place trophies be awarded
numbered 1 through 10. If the spinner is spun to the Little League teams in the end-of-season
once, what is the probability that the spinner tournament?
will land on a number less than 5?
1 Panthers
a. __
5
2 Cougars
b. __
5
c. __
1 Sharks
2
1 Lions
d. __
10
Tigers

Blue Devils

Mariners

a. 5,040
b. 7
c. 210
d. 3

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9. Joan has seven CDs she wants to pack in her 12. A basketball coach has 9 players on her team.
suitcase, but only four will fit. How many dif- How many different 5-player lineups can she
ferent combinations of CDs could be packed in create for the starting team?
Joan’s suitcase? a. 15,120
a. 28 b. 45
b. 35 c. 126
c. 210 d. 25
d. 840

10. The graph shows how much homework

Michael has done each night. What is the mean
number of hours Michael has spent doing
homework on the nights shown? ___________
Michael’s Hours of Homework

3
Hours

M Tu W Th
Day

11. Mr. Kissam has the following seven final exam

scores in his grade book for his Art History
class: 92, 84, 79, 92, 84, 94, and 92. There were
8 students in the class, but he forgot to record
the final exam grade for the eighth student
before passing the exams back. Mr. Kissam sees
this student a few days later at the pizza shop
and asks what his final exam score was. The
student couldn’t recall exactly but he told Mr.
Kissam that he did better than his friend who
got an 84 but not as good as his roommate,
who scored a 92. If Mr. Kissam recalls that the
median of all eight scores was 90.5, find the
missing student’s grade. ____________

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Answers and Explanations 3. $300,000. In order to find the median of a set of

data, they must first be put in chronological
Chapter Practice order and the middle piece of data will be the
1. 1.8 in. Assign a variable to the missing length, x. median.
Write an equation of the average, and then solve $200,000, $280,000, $280,000, $320,000,
for x: $390,000, $424,000
sum of data values
average/mean = _______________
# of data values
In this case, there are two house prices that
2.35 = make up the middle of the data, so we must take
280,000 + 320,000
2.3 + 1.9 + 2.0 + 2.4 + 2.5 + 3.0 + 2.7 + 2.6 + 2.5 + 2.4 + 2.3 + 2.1 + 2.4 + x
__________________________________________________________ the average of those: _______________
2 = 300,000.
14 So the median house price in this neighbor-
31.1 + x
2.35 = _______14 hood is $300,000.
14(31.1 + x)
2.35(14) = __________ 14 4. 45 and 56. There are two modes in this data set,
32.9 = 31.1 + x as both 45 and 56 appear twice.
–31.1 –31.1 5. None. Since no numbers appear more than
1.8 = x once in this data set, we can say that there is no
The length of the 14th frog is 1.8 inches. mode for this set of data.
2. 9.8. Since Holly is competing in 4 events, the 6. 1. To find the median number of pencils, we
average will be calculated by adding the score first need to find out the total number of stu-
from all four events and then dividing that sum dents who were in class that day. Add the fre-
by 4: quency for each bar: 12 + 10 + 8 + 4 + 6 = 40
vault + uneven + balance + floor
Average = __________________________
4 students. The median will be the piece of data
Fill in the given information, and use the vari- that is right in the middle when the individual
able f to represent her floor score. Work back- entries are in chronological order. Since this is
ward to find out what her floor event score an even number of data entries, the middle
must be to get an average of 9.2: piece will be the average of the 20th and 21st
8.9 + 8.6 + 9.5 + f piece of data. Use the bars to count the data
9.2 = _______________
4
27 + f points: since there are 12 students who brought
9.2 = _____
4
0 pencils and 10 students who brought 1 pencil,
Here we multiply both sides by 4 to get 26.9 + f
we know that the 20th and 21st pieces of data
alone:
27 + f
are both going to be in the column of students
9.2(×4) = _____
4 (×4) who brought 1 pencil, so the median is 1.
36.8 = 27 + f 7. 0. The mode is the most frequent piece of data
–27 –27 and since the bar for 0 pencils is the tallest, we
9.8 = f know that 0 is the mode.
So, in order to achieve her goal, Holly must get
a 9.8 on floor today!

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8. 3 miles. Since there are a different number of students in each category, it is necessary to find the
weighted average. Begin by calculating the total number of miles traveled one way by all of Ms. Bradley’s
students by multiplying the number of miles in the first column by the number of students in the second
column. Write these products in a third column:

NUMBER OF MILES (# MILES)(# STUDENTS) =

TRAVELED ONE WAY NUMBER OF STUDENTS SUBTOTALS OF MILES
1 4 1(4) = 4

2 3 2(3) = 6

3 5 3(5) = 15

4 6 4(6) = 24

5 3 5(3) = 15

Total number of one-way miles: 4 + 6 + 15 + 24 + 15 = 64. Then divide that by the number of total stu-
dents in her viola class: 4 + 3 + 5 + 6 + 3 = 21 students. So, the average miles driven will be total miles
64
divided by number of students: __ 21 ≈ 3.05. On average, Ms. Bradley’s students travel about 3 miles each
way to get to her viola class.

9. $7.96. Since the different cans of fruits have dif-

Final grade = 0.60( 93 + 97 + 88 + 91+ 95
__________________
5
)
ferent prices, each type must get multiplied by
the quantity that was purchased before the + 0.15( 90 + 99 + 100 + 95 + 96
___________________
5
)
average can be found. Since Stephanie bought 89 + 90 + 85 + 92
+ 0.25( _______________ )
4
20 cans at $6.50 each and 28 cans at $9 each, the
= 0.60(92.8) + 0.15(96) +
total amount spent can be set up as $6.50(20) +
0.25(89)
$9.00(28) and the total number of cans will be
= 55.68 + 14.4 + 22.25
found by adding 20 + 28:
= 92.33
Total cost of all cans of fruit
Mean Price per Can = _______________________
# of cans of fruit
1
____
11. 1,000 . The probability of an event happening is
# of desirable events
$6.50(20) + $9.00(28)
Mean Price per Can = __________________ P(E) = ____________________
total # of possible events . Since there are 1,000
20 + 28
$382 possible 3-digit ID numbers from 000 to 999,
Mean Price per Can = ____48 = $7.96
and the only ID number that Delilah wants is
So, the average price per can of fruit that Steph-
314, her chances of getting her π ID number
anie spent was $7.96/can. 1
____
are 1,000 .
10. 92.33%. To find Katie’s final grade, a weighted
1
___
average must be calculated since Mr. Gallespie 12. 100 . There are 10 possible ID numbers that are
weights each type of assignment differently. triple repeating digits: 000, 111, 222, . . . 999.
Find the average score of each type of assign- There are 1,000 possible events of 3-digit num-
ment, multiply it by its percentage weight, then bers from 000 to 999. Since the probability of
add the percentages together to get Katie’s final an event happening is P(E) =
# of desirable events
____________________
grade. total # of possible events , the probability that Skye
will get a triple repeating digit ID number is
10
____ 1
___
1,000 = 100 .

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2
___ 17. 9%. Since these students are being picked with-
13. 125 .
First, we will list out all of the ID numbers
out replacement, each time a student is picked,
that have consecutive digits counting up: 012,
the class size will decrease by one. When calcu-
123, 234, 345, 456, 567, 678, and 789. Since
lating “without replacement” probability, you
there are 8 that count upward, that means there
must assume that each event is a “success” so
must be 8 that count down, so there are 16 ID
the number of boys available to pick from must
numbers in total that Lulu would be happy to
also reduce by 1:
have. Since there are 1,000 possible 3-digit 14
P(First student being a boy) = __30
numbers from 000 to 999, the probability that 13
16
____ 2
= ___ P(Second student being a boy) = __
she’ll get one of these 16 numbers is 1,000 125 .
29
1 12
__
__
14. 10 . Looking at the graph, there are 4 students P(Third student being a boy) = 28
who had 3 pencils in their bags. Since there For compound probability, multiply all three of
were 40 students in total (see explanation for these probabilities together:
14 __13 __ 12
question #6 for student total), the probability P(Boy then boy then boy) __30 × 29 × 28 =
2,184
_____
that a student chosen at random will have 24,360 = 0.09 = 9%
exactly 3 pencils is __
4 1
__ So, the probability that all three students chosen
40 = 10 .
7 at random will be boys is 9%.
15. __
10 . Since we need to find the probability that a
student has at least 1 pencil, this will include all 18. 12. Since there are 2 possible outcomes with the
of the students other than the students who had coin toss and 6 possible outcomes with rolling a
0 pencils. Since there were 40 students in total, die, multiply these two numbers together to cal-
and 12 of them had 0 pencils in their bags, this culate the total number of possible combina-
means that 28 of them had 1 or more pencils in tions: 2 × 6 = 12.
1
their bags. Therefore, the probability that a stu- 19. __
12 . There is only one way that Odessa can get a
dent chosen at random will have at least 1 pen- tails when she flips the coin and get a 3 when
28
cil is __
7
__ she rolls the die. But since there are 12 possible
40 = 10 .
1
__ outcomes in total, the probability that she will
16. 13 . Since the first utensil removed is not
1
returned to the drawer, the number of utensils arrive at this one specific outcome is __
12 .
in the drawer decreases to 13. When calculating 20. 60. The fundamental counting principle states
compound probability, it is always assumed that that the total number of possible outcomes for
the first event is a success, in order to determine the three separate events is the product of the
the simple probability of the second event. This numbers of possibilities for each event. Since
means that P(First utensil fork) = __
4 Maya has four favorite salads, five favorite
13 and
P(Second utensil fork) = __
3 entrées, and three favorite desserts, multiply 4
12 . Multiply both of
these simple probabilities together to find the by 5 by 3 to get 60 unique combinations.
compound probability of both events happen-
4 3 12 1
ing: __ __ ___ __
13 × 12 = 156 = 13 .

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21. 6,840. This is a problem of permutation (i.e., 2. c. The median of a data set is the piece of data
the order matters). Just by thinking about it, that occurs right in the middle after the data
how many athletes can win first place? 20. How is put in order. To find the median number
many can win second place after first place has of hours Phoebe will work in one day over
been awarded? 19. How many can win third the next three weeks, put the number of
place after first and second places have been hours she works each day in order and
awarded? 18. So, the number of combinations choose the number in the middle:
the trophies could be awarded is 20 × 19 × 18 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5,
= 6,840. 6, 6, 7
Using the formula, we will get the same answer: There are 21 days on the schedule, so the
n! 20!
P(20,3) = ________ _______
k!(n – k)! = (20 – 3)! middle number is the eleventh number
20 × 19 × 18 × 17 × 16 × 15 × 14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 shown above, 4. The median number of
= ____________________________________________________________________
17 × 16 × 15 × 14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
hours Phoebe will work is 4.
20 × 19 × 18 × 17 × 16 × 15 × 14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
= _____________________________________________________________________
17 × 16 × 15 × 14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 3. d. The mean, or average score, of Pat’s five
= 20 × 19 × 18 = 6,840 games is 146. That means that Pat scores a
22. 210. This is an example of combination, where total of 5 × 146, or 730, over five games. Let
the order does not matter. Use the formula for x represent Pat’s score in the fifth game. His
combinations to find how many color combina- total score over five games is equal to:
tions of four sticky notes can result from ten 123 + 165 + 127 + 144 + x = 559 + x
different colors. Now, set that total equal to Pat’s total score,
10! 730:
C(10,4) = _________
4!(10 – 4)!
10 ×9×8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
_____________________________ 559 + x = 730
= 4 × 3 × 2 × 1(6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1)
Subtract 559 from both sides:
10 ×9×8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
______________________________ 10 × 9 × 8 × 7
= 4 × 3 × 2 × 1(6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1) = ___________
4×3×2×1 x = 171
5,040
_____ Pat scores 171 in his fifth game.
= 24 = 210
To check your answer, add Pat’s score in each
Statistics and Probability Review of the five games and divide the sum by 5:
1. c. The mode is the number that appears most 123 + 165 + 127 + 144 + 171 = 730
frequently. This data set has 3 modes The dividend should be equal to Pat’s mean,
because 12, 45, and 56 occur more than any 146:
of the other numbers. Choice b is the correct 730 ÷ 5 = 146
median of this data set, but not the mode. (It 4. b. Put the nine ring scores in order from least
is the central piece of data when it is listed in to greatest. The middle value (the fifth value) is
chronological order.) Choice a is the incor- the median score:
rect median of this data set. (It’s in the mid- 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9
dle of the data set as the data is presented, The median score is 4.
but the data was not put into chronological
order.) Choice d is the maximum of the data
set but not the mode.

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5. b. The spinner has ten equal sections, so the for a specific animal in the first flip of the
probability of the spinner landing on any card, and therefore started out with an
1 2
one number is __ 10 . There are four numbers incorrect probability of __ 28 for the first card
1
__
on the spinner that are less than 5 (1, 2, 3, and 27 for the second card. Choice b is an
and 4). The probability of the spinner land- incorrect answer, due to forgetting to reduce
4 2
ing on a number less than 5 is __ __
10 , or 5 . the number of available cards by one for the
1
6. a. Before Evander removes a coin, there are 16 second flip and therefore using __ 28 for the
coins in the bank: second card. Choice d is the result of using
1
__ 1
__
3 quarters + 5 pennies + 2 nickels + 28 and 27 as the two simple probabilities.
6 dimes = 16 coins 8. c. This is a problem involving permutation,
After Evander removes the first quarter, which requires the following formula:
n!
______
there are: (n – r)! , where n = the total number of options
2 quarters + 5 pennies + 2 nickels + and r = the number of options chosen. Since
6 dimes = 15 coins there are seven teams that could win a tro-
There are only 15 coins in the bank now, and phy, n = 7. Only three teams will get tro-
only two of them are quarters. If Evander phies, so r = 3. When these values are
n!
selects another coin, the probability that it substituted into the equation, we get ______ (n – r)! =
2 7!
______ 7·6·5·4·3·2·1
________________
will be a quarter is __ 15 . (7 – 3)! = 4·3·2·1 = 7 · 6 · 5 = 210.
7. a. We are looking for the compound probabil- 9. b. Joan can fit four of her seven CDs in her
ity of P(Animal then matching animal). In suitcase. It is important to understand that
order to calculate the compound probability the order in which she chooses the CDs does
of two related events, we multiply the simple not matter. The group of CDs A, B, C, and D
probability of each event happening. Since is the same as the group A, B, D, and C, or D,
Yolanda does not care what animal is on the C, A, and B.
first card she flips over, we use a probability This is a combination problem, so you must
of 1 for the first card. (Basically, the use the combination formula to find the
P(Animal) for the first card she flips over is answer:
28 n!
__
28 = 1, since it doesn’t matter what animal is C(n,k) = ________
k!(n – k)! , where n is the number
on the first card.) Now there are 27 cards of options and k is the number of
remaining and Yolanda is hoping to flip over choices made.
the one card that has the matching animal Joan has seven CDs and chooses four. Divide
on it. Therefore, the P(then matching ani- by 4! to ensure that you do not count the
1
mal) is __
27 . So multiply the two probabilities same group of four CDs more than once:
together to get the compound probability: 7×6×5×4×3×2×1
____________________ 7×6×5×4×3×2×1
____________________
1 (4 × 3 × 2 × 1)(3 × 2 × 1) = (4 × 3 × 2 × 1)(3 × 2 × 1)
P(Animal then matching animal) = 1 × __ 27 = 7×6×5 210
1
__ = ________ ____
3 × 2 × 1 = 6 = 35
27 . Therefore, the probability that Yolanda
gets any matching pair in the first two flips
1
of cards is __27 . Choice c was the result of an
error of thinking that Yolanda was looking

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10. 1.75 hours. The mean is the average. To find the 12. c. The order in which the starting players are
average of four numbers, find the sum of the selected is not significant, so use combina-
numbers and divide by 4. Michael spent 2 hours tion to solve this problem. (Using the com-
doing homework on Monday, 1.5 hours on bination formula will keep from counting
Tuesday, 2.5 hours on Wednesday, and 1 hour players A, B, C, D, and E as a different team
on Thursday. The sum of this time is 7 hours lineup then A, B, C, E, and D.)
(2 + 1.5 + 2.5 + 1 = 7). Next, divide 7 by 4 n!
C(n,k) = ________
k!(n – k)!
(7 ÷ 4 = 1.75). The mean is 1.75 hours. 9!
C(9,5) = ________
5!(9 – 5)!
11. The median of a data set is always the very mid-
9! 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5!
dle number when they are arranged chronolog- C(9,5) = ______ ________________
5! × 4! = 5! × (4 × 3 × 2 × 1)
ically. With an odd number of data points, C(9,5) = 126
finding the median is easy. However, when you Choice a is incorrect because that is the
have an even number of data points, there are answer from using the permutations for-
two middle numbers. The median is then the mula. Choice b is just the product of the
average of those two middle numbers. number of players on the team and the
To find the missing score, we first need to order number of players in the starting lineup,
the data points from least to greatest: which has nothing to do with the number of
79, 84, 84, 92, 92, 92, 94 starting teams.
The problem states that the missing point in the
data set is between 84 and 92. So, let’s let x rep-
resent the missing score and add it to our
chronological list:
79, 84, 84, x, 92, 92, 92, 94
The middle two numbers are x and 92.
The problem also states that the average of
these two numbers is 90.5. Let’s set up an equa-
tion and then solve for x:
x_____
+ 92
2 = 90.5
2(x_____
+ 92
2
(90.5) × 2
)=
x + 92 = 181
–92 –92
x = 89
The missing point is 89.

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 12 CALCULATOR
C H A P T E R

SKILLS ON
THE TI-30XS

I n this chapter you will learn how to use the TI-30XS MultiView Calculator by Texas Instruments. You should
be able to purchase this calculator at an office supply store or online for under $20. Having this calculator
in hand as you study for the GED® test will be a big advantage for you on test day. The better you understand
how to use the calculator, the more help it will be to you. Students often input information into the calculator
incorrectly, resulting in wrong answers, so it’s important to learn how to use the calculator’s different functions
accurately. If you don’t purchase this calculator for your test preparation, see if you can borrow one from your
school or library.
The GED® Testing Service has put together a brief Calculator Tutorial. Although not required, you may
find it helpful to watch before continuing with this chapter. It can be found here: http://www.gedtestingservice
.com/ged_calc_en_web/
This chapter covers:

n Critical keys on the TI-30XS

n Working with radicals and exponents

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n Using previous answers in current calculations n Working with percentages

n Answer toggle key n Working with scientific notation

THE TI-30XS: A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD!

You may have heard teachers mention in the past that a calculator is not a replacement for common
sense. It’s easy to press the × instead of the +, and get a completely wrong answer, or to skip a
digit when typing in a long number. Therefore, it’s critical that you think carefully about your answers
before making your final selection. The people who write the GED® TEST are trained to come up
with false answer choices that represent the common mistakes students will make with their calcu-
lators. So just because an answer you calculated is there in choice b, that doesn’t mean it’s correct!
For example, 7% sales tax on a $20 shirt should not be $14, but $14 will definitely be an answer
choice because that is the result of a common calculator error!
Your TI-30XS is a double-edged sword: It helps students be efficient with myriad calculations,
but it also gives a false sense of confidence that critical thinking can be bypassed. Make sure you
use your head to estimate solutions before doing a problem on your calculator. Once you have an
answer on your screen, use your mind to determine if it makes real-world sense before selecting
your answer and moving forward.

Critical Keys equivalent expressions of numbers, such as

1
going from __ 2 to 0.5. We will discuss how to use
The TI-30XS is not your ordinary 4-operation calcu- the toggle key later in this chapter.
: In the top right corner of the keypad you
ş

lator. It can calculate problems entered in as percents, ş ş

ş

fractions, and scientific notation. It can also convert will find a 4-way arrow button. Use this to
between equivalent forms of values such as decimals move the curser left, right, up, and down.
and fractions; square roots and decimals; and π and Throughout this chapter, rather than show this
decimals. Let’s discuss some of the most important entire button each time we are instructing you
keys: to move the cursor, we will use the following
symbols for moving left, right, up, and down
on : This key in the bottom left corner of the with this button: !, ", #, $. To change a char-
keypad turns your T1-30XS on. acter that you have already input, simply use
enter : This bottom right key is equivalent to the 4-way arrow button to move the cursor
the = when you are doing calculations. It also over the character you wish to change. Type the
functions as the enter/yes key when you are character you wish to have instead and it will
selecting modes or commands. replace the unwanted character with the new
! " : Just above the arrow key is the toggle character.
key. This key will be used to move between 2nd : The green key in the top left corner of the
keypad allows you to access all the secondary

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 –CALC UL AT O R S KI L L S O N T H E T I -3 0 XS –

functions that are written in green above many (–) versus – : Take the time now to notice that
of the keys. Notice that when you press the there are two keys with a “–” on them. The (–)
2nd key you see “2ND” appear in the top left key below 3 is a negative symbol, while the –
portion of the screen. This means your TI-30XS to the right of 9 is used for subtraction. If you
is ready to access a secondary feature. When confuse these two keys you will get wrong cal-
you press the 2nd key again, you will see culations or error messages, so it is important
“2ND” disappear from your screen, meaning to keep them straight.
it’s back in primary mode. clear : At the top right of the keypad, above ÷ ,
[off]: Find the on key located at the bottom sits clear . Use this key to clear all of the charac-
left corner of the keypad. Above it you will see ters in an entry line at once. This key is also
the word “off ” written in green. Any time you used to clear an error message.
see text in green, this feature will be accessed by delete : In the top row of keys, the rightmost
using it with the 2nd button. In this chapter, key is delete . Unlike clear , which clears an
we will indicate secondary features by using entire row of data, delete is used to remove a
brackets around them rather than a complete single character. If you want to remove the last
box around them. Practice accessing the 2nd character you typed, simply hit delete . If you
feature now by turning your calculator on and want to remove an earlier character, use the
off with these steps and notice how the same directional keys to move the cursor over the
key is written with two different notations character you would like to remove and press
below: delete .
on 2nd off

KEY SYMBOLS IN THIS CHAPTER

As discussed, the 2nd key can be used to access all of the secondary features written in green on
the TI-30XS. In this chapter, it will be important for you to be able to discern which types of keys
we are referring to as you learn how to use the TI-30XS.
Primary keys have their functions directly on the faces of the keys. We will use a box around
the function to indicate primary keys:

Ex: on indicates the “on” key in the bottom left corner of your keypad.
n

Secondary keys have their functions written in green above the faces of the keys on the body of
the calculator. We will use straight brackets around the function to indicate secondary keys:
n Ex: [off] indicates the secondary “off” function associated with the on key.

Note: When you see 2nd in the instructions, the next key will always be a secondary key in straight
brackets, so remember to look for that next function in green!

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Modes of the TI-30XS your history, so be careful there’s nothing you need
in your calculator’s memory or history when you
Your TI-30XS has the ability to operate in several dif- reset it.
ferent modes, depending on the types of calculations
you are doing. This is a particularly useful feature for
trigonometry and for calculating in radians, but these Working with Radicals
are not topics covered on the GED® test. You can read and Exponents
your calculator’s instruction manual or watch some
online tutorials about working in these other modes, Recall that x 2 = ±x. Taking the square root is the
but for the most part, we will use the default mode of opposite operation of squaring a number, so it
the calculator discussed in the following section. shouldn’t surprise you that you will find [ ] as the
secondary function to x2 . Let’s discuss how to per-
Default Mode form some basic operations with square roots.
The screens illustrated in this chapter are associated
with your TI-30XS being in the default mode, Math- Calculating a Square Root
Print, unless stated otherwise. When you first turn on To find the square root of a number, press 2nd [ ]
the calculator, press mode , which is to the right of and enter the number that is being square rooted. If
the green 2nd . This should bring up the following you are trying to enter something like 5 2, use5 " 2
screen: to exit the radical sign before you type +2. If you
5 with
don’t use the arrow key, you will end up 2 5 2,
which is incorrect.
The default mode of the TI-30XS is to return
answers to radical calculations in simplest radical
form. For example, if you input 8 and2press enter ,
the answer8 2 2 will appear on the right side of your
screen, since 8 8= 22 2 . If you want to see the deci-
mal equivalent of8 2 2 , simply press the toggle key,
! " . This will return the decimal 2.828427125.
In order to change the mode, use the 4-way arrow Press ! " again to return to the radical form, 8 2 2.
button and press enter once your cursor is on the Pretty cool, right?
mode you would like to select. You may want to use
SCI mode for doing problems with scientific nota- Operations with Square Roots
tion, but it is not necessary. (We will cover calculating As we mentioned, when working with radical expres-
in scientific notation later.) sions, like 35 − 10 , it is35very
− 10important to keep
the two radicals separate. It is easy to mistakenly
Resetting Default Mode 35 − input
10 35 − 10 , which will result in the wrong
If you get out of default mode and would like to reset answer. (If you are wondering why 35 − 10 can-35 − 10
your calculator to default mode, Press 2nd [reset] 2 . − equal
35not 10 35 − 10 , this is a great opportunity to
This will bring back all of the default settings, but it review the Exponents section in Chapter 3.)
will also clear the memory as well as all the entries in

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 –CALC UL AT O R S KI L L S O N T H E T I -3 0 XS –

4
In order to correctly enter 35 − 35 − 10you simply want to calculate 2 , just press enter and
10 , follow
these steps: 16 will appear on the right side of the screen.

2nd [ ] 3 5 " – 2nd [ ] 1 0 " enter

DON’T DO THIS!
You may be surprised to see that the answer returned You need to be very careful when calculating
after hitting enter is simply 35 − 10 . This − 10
35 is exponents with negative bases on the TI-
− − 1010 are
because both 3535and in− simplest
3535 −1010 form. In 30XS. If you are trying to find the square of
order to see what 35 − 10 is in35decimal,
− 10 press the –12, you must put –12 in a set of parenthe-
toggle key, ! " , which will return 2.753802123. ses when you enter it into the calculator.
Work through the following two key
sequences on your calculator and notice
DON’T DO THIS! how they return different answers:
Recall that 16 has two solutions: 4 and –4. ( (–) 5 ) x2 enter : This will produce
There is something very important to keep (–5)2 on the left side of the screen and
in mind when you are working with square an answer of 25.
roots on your TI-30XS. Calculators only (–) 5 x2 enter : This will produce –52
return a single positive solution when on the left side of the screen and an
answering square root questions! It is imper- answer of –25.
ative that you don’t let your brain slip into
Calculator Autopilot mode and choose that It is a great idea to always use parentheses
answer choice that lists just the positive solu- when subbing a negative value into a vari-
tion. Beware of how easy it is to make this able expression on your calculator.
common mistake, and instead select the
answer that shows both solutions! (Of course
if it is a real-world context question, only the Taking the Cube Root of a Number
positive answer may make sense, but that is You can determine cube roots easily with the TI-30XS.
up to you to discern.) The nth root button is the secondary function of the
NO! 16= 4 (This is what your TI-30XS 3
−64
^ . Look for the green [ x ]. Let’s use this function to
will tell you, but it forgot “–4.”) solve the following example:
YES . . . 16 = +4 and –4 (This is what
your brain should tell you!) Example
x
Find the value of 3 −64 .

Raising a Number to a Power In order to find the cube root of –64 first enter 3 and
Diagonal from 7 is the carrot key, ^ . This is used to then 2nd [ x ]. This
3
−64
will produce a radical sign with
raise a number to a power. In order to calculate 24, a small 3 in the upper left-hand root position. Since
type 2 ^ 4 and you will see 24 on the left side of the we want to enter –64 inside the radical sign, press (–)
screen. If you want to add more operations, use the 6 4 followed by enter . This should return –4 as the
right arrow key, ", to get out of the exponent box. If answer on the right side of the screen.

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Using Previous Answers the previous answer, 9. Press enter and you will
in Current Calculations see “3” appear on the right since 3 is the square
root of 9. (Remember that your calculator for-
One of the most helpful features in the TI-30XS is gets to include the negative square root of 9.
that you can use the most recent answer to perform Get your brain in the habit of including the
new calculations. This can be done two different negative square root answer when working with
ways: square roots on the calculator.)

1. You can use the previous answer at the start of As you practice your calculator skills, use this “ans”
a new calculation by pressing any operation key feature as often as possible. Using the previous answer
( + , – , ÷ , × , x2 , etc.). will keep you from making careless errors while
2. You can use the previous answer in the middle retyping values into the calculator. Be aware that any
or end of a new calculation, by pressing 2nd time you see “ans” appear on your screen, you will be
[ans]. using the previous answer obtained for that entry.

Let’s learn how to do both of these tasks with three

simple exercises. Beginning with a clear screen, per- Working with Fractions
form the operation 12 × 2 on your calculator and hit
enter . Once your screen reads “12 2” on the left and Performing operations with fractions is easy on the
“24” on the right, work through these exercises with- TI-30XS.
out clearing your screen between the exercises:
Entering Fractions
Exercise 1. Press + and you will see “ans +” There are two different methods to enter a fraction:
appear on the left of your screen. This is indi-
n
cating that the calculator is going to start with Method 1: Press the __d key. An empty fraction
the previous answer, 24, and add that to your will appear. Enter your numerator on the top of
next input. Enter 6 and press enter and you the fraction, then use $ to move into the bot-
will see 30 appear on the right. tom of the fraction and enter the denominator.

Exercise 2. Now press 3 9 – followed by 2nd Method 2: Enter your numerator first, and
n
[ans] and you will see “39–ans” on the left side then press the __
d key. This puts the first num-
of your screen. This is indicating that the calcu- ber you typed directly into the numerator and
lator is going to start with 39 and subtract the moves the curser to the denominator without
previous answer, 30. Press enter and you will you having to use the arrow key. Enter the
see “9” appear on the right. denominator.

Exercise 3. Now press 2nd [ ] and a square Reducing Fractions to Lowest Terms
root symbol with a cursor inside it will appear, In order to reduce a fraction to lowest terms, enter
looking like this: . Now when you press the fraction in the TI-30XS using one of the methods
2nd [ans] you will see “ans” appear within the above and press enter . The answer that appears on
square root box: ans. This is indicating that the right-hand side will be an equivalent fraction in
the calculator is going to take the square root of lowest terms. That’s pretty helpful, isn’t it!

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Operations with Fractions Inputting Mixed Numbers

n
To perform operations with fractions, the most Use the sequence 2nd [U __ d
] to input mixed num-
n
__
important step to remember is to press the " key to bers. Pressing 2nd [U d ] will bring up this blank
get out of the fraction. Once that is done you can mixed number template with 3 empty boxes: .
enter the operation or character desired. Follow these Use the 4-way arrow key to move into each box to
5 7
steps to add __
3
+ __
6
. input the correct values and press " to move out of
the mixed number when you are ready to enter your
n n
1. Press 5 __ __
d 3 " + 7 d 6 . You should see operation or following character.
5 7
__ + __ on the left of your screen.
3 6
To convert a mixed number to an improper
17
2. Press enter and the answer __ 6
will appear on fraction, input the mixed number and press enter .
the right side of your screen.
Using Operations within Fractions
Improper Fractions and Mixed When the TI-30XS is in MathPrint mode, you will be
Numbers Conversions able to enter operations or complex fractions within
Let’s say you work out some calculations by hand and fractions.
172
get ___
20 as your final answer. You feel good about your
answer, but all the answer choices are in mixed num- Complex Numerators and Denominators
172
ber format and you don’t have the time to covert ___ 20 In order to enter multiple operations into fractions,
to a mixed number by hand. There is an easy way to simply enter the entire expression desired into the
172
turn ___
20 into a mixed number. The secondary key, numerator before using $ to move to the denomina-
n n
[ d ! " U __
__
d
], is used to toggle from improper frac- tor. Then, once you are in the denominator, enter the
tions to mixed numbers and vice versa. Practice using entire expression desired in the denominator and use
it below: " to exit the fraction.

n 172
1. Enter 172 __ ___
d 20 " to get 20 on the left of your Entering Fractions within Fractions
screen and the cursor out of the fraction. Students often get confused when there are fractions
n n
2. Now press 2nd [ __ d
! " U __ d
] to add the con- within fractions, so this is a useful skill to be able to
version function to this line. perform on your TI-30XS. To enter a fraction in the
3
3. When you press enter the mixed number 8 __ 5
numerator or denominator of a fraction, simply press
n
__
will appear on the right side of your screen. d again when in the top or bottom of the fraction.
4. Lastly, let’s put this mixed number back Practice this in the following two exercises:
into improper fraction form. Press 2nd
n n 3 n n ( 23 )
[ __
d
! " U __ d
] to bring 8 __
5
" __d
! " U __
d
to the Exercise 1: Enter 3 with these steps:
left side of your screen. Next press enter and n __
__ n
43 2 $ 3 $ 3 ". Now, when you hit
the improper fraction __ 5
will appear on the d d
2
43 enter , __ should appear on the right side of
right of your screen. Why did __ 5
appear instead 9
172
___ your screen.
of the original 20 ? Your TI-30XS will always
express fraction answers in lowest terms. This is 3
Exercise 2: Enter ( ) with these steps:
2

very convenient since answers on the GED® 3

n
__ n
test are always in lowest terms! d 3 $ __d 2 $ 3 " ". Notice that you had
to press " twice: The first " got you out of the
fraction in the denominator, but you were still

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in the denominator of the primary fraction. Working with Percentages

The second " got you out of the entire frac-
9
tion. Now, when you hit enter , __
2
should The TI-30XS can perform operations with percentages.
appear on the right side of your screen. It can also turn decimal answers into percentages.

Using Radicals within Fractions Entering Percentages

To enter a fraction like 3 52 into the TI-30XS, you When using the percentage feature to input percent-
n
must first press __
d before putting the 5 in 2the 5 2 you do not need to first convert the percentages
ages,
numerator. Follow these keystrokes: into decimals as we did in an earlier chapter. You will
find the percentage button as the secondary feature
n
__
d 2nd [ ] 5 $ 3 2nd [ ] 2 "" enter . above the left parentheses: [%]. When entering a
This should simplify to 10
6
on the right side of value as a percentage, simply enter the value, followed
your screen. Hit the toggle key, ! " , to see the by [%], and the calculator will move the decimal
decimal equivalent of this answer. place back two spaces for you when it does the
calculation.

Answer Toggle Key Example

If the local tax rate is 9.5% and Miguel buys a computer
Above enter , you will find what might become your for $1,300, calculate the dollar amount of sales tax he
favorite key: ! " . This is the toggle key, which will pay.
switches a given answer to an equivalent form. There
are three different kinds of conversions this key Since this question is asking you to find 9.5% of
performs: $1,300, enter the following into your TI-30XS:

1. Decimal to Fraction Conversions 9.5 2nd [%] × 1300 enter

When you get an answer in decimal form on the right
side of your screen, pressing ! " once will show its This will generate “9.5% 1300” on the left of your
fractional equivalent on the right side of the screen. If screen and the answer “123.5” on the right of your
you want to convert a given decimal to a fraction, enter screen. Therefore, the sales tax will be $123.50.
the value of the decimal, then press ! " enter .
Similarly, when you get an answer as a fraction, Converting Ratios into Percentages
pressing ! " once will show its decimal equivalent. Your TI-30XS can convert fractions and decimals
into percentages. This can be useful when using a
2. Radical to Decimal Conversions ratio to determine what percentage a part is of a
As discussed earlier, ! " will turn an answer whole.
returned in radical form into its decimal equivalent.
Example
3. π to Decimal Conversions A local newscaster took a poll and found that 52 out of
If you put 16 × π into your calculator, and press enter , 65 people were in support of banning the sale of plastic
it will return 16π as the answer on the right-hand water bottles in Summit County. What percentage of
side. Pressing ! " once will convert answers in people supported this potential ban?
terms of π into their decimal equivalents.

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You can convert 52 out of 65 into a decimal by enter- Using Scientific Notation Mode
ing it as a fraction into your TI-30XS and using the Putting the calculator in scientific notation mode will
secondary [ %] feature: guarantee that all the answers will be given in scien-
tific notation. Press mode and move the cursor over
n
__
52 d 65 " 2nd [ %] enter to the SCI on the second row and press enter . Next,
press clear to exit that screen and return to the main
This sequence will return “80%” as the answer on the screen. Now we’ll work through an exercise in SCI
right side of the screen. mode:

Note: You can also use 2nd [ %] enter to convert Example

a previous fractional or decimal answer into a per- What is the value of 8.8 × 107 divided by 2.2 × 103?
centage. When using this feature, the answer shown
will be followed by a % symbol, indicating that it is a Enter each of these scientific numbers in parentheses
percentage. to ensure the correct order of operations:

( 8.8 ×10n 7 " )

Working with
Scientific Notation This should input (8.8 107) on the left on the screen.
Press ÷ and then use the following sequence to input
You can easily perform operations in scientific nota- the second number in scientific notation:
tion on the TI-30XS. To do so, locate the ×10n key
that is three keys above 8 . When the calculator is in ( 2.2 ×10n 3 " )
the default MathPrint mode, all of the answers will be
in standard form, rather than in scientific notation. Now you should have (8.8 107) ÷ (2.2 103) on your
In order to display answers in scientific notation, the screen (you will have to use the right and left arrow
calculator should be in Scientific mode, abbreviated keys to see the entire expression together). Press
SCI. enter and the answer will appear in scientific nota-
tion on the right side: 4 104. If you’d like to see this
Entering Scientific Notation number in standard notation, press ! " once and
Keep your calculator in MathPrint mode for now. 40,000 will appear below.
Let’s enter 2.8 × 105 into your calculator using the sci-
entific notation shortcut:

2.8 ×10n 5 enter

This sequence of steps will return 280,000 on the

right side of the screen.

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DON’T DO THIS! Calculator Skills Review

If you put your calculator in scientific nota-
You now have a comprehensive set of calculator skills
tion mode, make sure you return it to the
to apply to your problem solving on the GED® test.
default mode before moving on to other
Use these skills carefully and accurately on the second
types of questions. If you forget to do this,
GED® Mathematical Reasoning test provided in the
just some simple division, like 1 ÷ 2, will
following chapter, and remember to think about
return odd-looking answers like 5 10 –1
whether the answers on your calculator make sense
instead of 0.5! In order to return your calcu-
before making your final selections!
lator to the default mode, follow this
sequence:
Press mode , use the arrow key $ to
select “NORM” on the second line, and
press enter clear .

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 13
GED®
C H A P T E R

MATHEMATICAL
REASONING
PRACTICE TEST

T his practice test is modeled on the format, content, and timing of the official GED® Mathematical
Reasoning test. Like the official test, the questions focus on your quantitative and algebraic problem-
solving skills.
You may refer to the formula sheet in the Appendix on page 277 as you take this exam. Answer questions
1–5 without using a calculator. You may use a scientific calculator (or a calculator of any kind) for the remaining
exam questions.
Before you begin, it’s important to know that you should work carefully but not spend too much time on
any one question. Be sure you answer every question.
Set a timer for 115 minutes (1 hour and 55 minutes), and try to take this test uninterrupted, under quiet
conditions.
Complete answer explanations for all of the test questions follow the exam. Good luck!

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45 Questions 4. Draw a dot on the grid below to plot the point

115 Minutes indicated by the ordered pair (–2,1).

1. Joseph owns v video games. Harry owns 10 y

fewer than two times the number of video
games that Joseph owns. Which expression
represents the number of video games that
Harry owns in terms of v?
a. 10v – 2
b. 2v – 10
c. 2(v – 10) x
d. 10(v – 2)

2. Which of the following is equivalent to

3 3
9 × 18 ? 3
2 3 6 3 18 72
3 36
3 3
9 × 18 72
a.a =2 6a 18
3
3 3 3
36
3 3
9 ×
18b 3 b 72
3
b. 3 2 3 6 3 18 36
a3
9 × 18= 3 723
a
3

3 ba
2b 6= 3 182 × 72
c. 36
36 = 2
× 18 3 =3 36 a3 72 36
3 3
9
3 72b
2 d.
6 2b ×1836 36
a
= a= = 2
b 3672b 36
2 × 36
5. As part of a game, Gilbert must take a number
a
= ba = = 2
b 72
3. Write your answer on the line below. You may
36 2 × 36 36 and use a special procedure to come up with a
= = 2
72 36 2 × 36
36 use numbers, symbols, and/or text in your new number. To come up with his new num-
= = 2
36 36 response. ber, Gilbert takes the original number, cubes it,
adds 5 to it, and finally multiplies it by 2. If the
An
3
9 ×expression
3
18 3
2 3 6is shown
3
18 72 below. Simplify the
3 36 original number is represented by x, which of
expression completely. Be sure to leave your
a the following represents Gilbert’s new number?
= bin
answer a radical form.
b a. 2(3x + 5)
72 2 × 36 b. 2(x3 + 5)
= = 2
36 36
c. 2x3 + 5
d. x6 + 5

6. The sum of a number n and 4 is less than 5

times the number m. If m is 6, which of the fol-
lowing is true?
a. n is greater than 6
b. n + 4 is less than 26
c. n is less than 26
d. n is equal to 26

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7. A company pays its sales employees a base rate 12. What is the value of f(–1) if f(x) = 3(x – 1)2 + 5?
of $450 a week plus a 4% commission on any a. 8
sales the employee makes. If an employee b. 11
makes $1,020 in sales one week, what will be c. 15
his total paycheck for that week? Write your d. 17
answer in the box below.
13. What is the equation of the line that passes
through the points (–2,1) and (4,5) in the
Cartesian coordinate plane?
8. The diameter of a circle is 10 meters. In meters, 2
a. y = __ 4
x – __
3 3
which of the following is the circumference of 2 1
b. y = __ x – __
this circle? 3 3
2 7
a. 5π c. y = __
3
x + __
3
b. 10π 2
d. y = __
3
x+4
c. 25π
d. 100π
14. A 9-foot-long ladder is placed against the side
3 3
of a building such that the top of the ladder
9. Which of the following is equivalent to ( __ )?
4 reaches a window that is 6 feet above the
3 3
a. __
43
ground. To the nearest 10th of a foot, what is
3×3
the distance from the bottom of the ladder to
_____
b. 4×3 the building?
3
c. __
3
a. 1.7
4
b. 2.4
3
_____
d. 4×3 c. 6.7
d. 10.8
10. The line n is parallel to the line y = 3x – 7 and
passes through the point (5,1). At what point
does the line n cross the y-axis? Write your
answer in the box below.

11. A line passes through the point (4,0) and has a

1
slope of – __
2
. What is the equation of this line?
1
a. y = – __
2
x+2
1
b. y = – __
2
x–2
1
c. y = – __
2
x+4
1
d. y = – __
2
x–4

26 1

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15. The figure below represents the rate of cooling 16. In a study of its employees, a company found
for a particular material after it was placed in a that about 50% spent more than 2 hours a day
super-cooled bath. composing or reading e-mails. The overall dis-
tribution of time employees spent on these
250 activities was skewed right with a mean time of
about 2.5 hours. Complete the box plot below
so that it matches the given information.
200
Draw as many vertical lines as needed on the
Temperature (ºF)

150 graph to represent the data.

100

50

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 Hours per Day Spent on E-mail
Hours

17. What is the equation of the line graphed in the

If the temperature, in Fahrenheit, is repre- figure below?
sented by T and the number of hours elapsed is y

represented by H, then which of the following 6

would represent a situation where the rate of
cooling was faster than the rate indicated in the
graph?

a. T = –25H + 150
b. T = –60H + 300
–6 6 x
c. T = –10H + 200
d. T = –50H + 250

–6

2
a. y = __
5
x–2
2
b. y = – __
5
x–2
2
c. y = __
5
x+5
2
d. y = – __
5
x–5

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18. What is a positive solution to the equation 23. Which of the following expressions is equiva-
3 5x
x2 – 5x = 14? lent to __
x
÷ __
2
for all nonzero x?
a. 2 6
a. ___
5x2
b. 7 2
c. 5 b. 15x
___
2
d. 9 c. 3
__
2
15
__
19. What is the slope of the line represented by the d. 2
equation 10x – y = 2?
a. 1 24. A factory is able to produce at least 16 items,
b. 2 but no more than 20 items, for every hour the
c. 5 factory is open. If the factory is open for 8
d. 10 hours a day, which of the following are possibly
the numbers of items produced by the factory
20. Which11 of the following is equivalent to over a 7-day work period?
1 5 122 × 5 22
25 2 ×2 52
5 5× ×5 ?5 Select all of the correct possibilities from the
− 33
a.− 3255−− 3222 × 522
5 5××
list and write them in the box below.
×52 552
b. 5 55
5 5 522 128
5 2 55 2
c.
150
11
15 144
d.
5 4 55 4 850
910
21. A specialized part for a manufacturing process 1,115
has a thickness of 1.2 × 10–3 inches. To the ten-
thousandth of an inch, what would be the
thickness of a stack of 10 of these parts? 25. A 32-ounce bag of potato chips has a retail cost
a. 0.0001 of $3.45. To the nearest 10th of a cent, what is
b. 0.0012 the price per ounce of this item (in cents)?
c. 0.0120 a. 9.3
d. 0.1200 b. 10.8
c. 28.5
5
22. A line is perpendicular to the line y = __
6
x+1 d. 35.45
and has a y-intercept of (0,–4). What is the
equation of this line?
a. y = –4x + 1
5
b. y = __
6
x–4
6
c. y = – __
5
x+1
6
d. y = – __
5
x–4

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26. 27. Circle the line in the coordinate plane below

that represents the graph of the equation
3x – 2y = 1.
y
60
Revenue in Thousands of Dollars

5
50 4
3
40
2

30 1

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 x
20 –1
–2
10 –3
–4
–5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Week

The graph shown here represents the total

weekly revenue of a company over several
weeks. For which of the following periods has 28. A line z is perpendicular to the line y = –x + 5.
the weekly revenue increased? If z passes through the points (0,–2) and (x,5),
a. between weeks 2 and 3 what is the value of x?
b. between weeks 3 and 4 a. 0
c. between weeks 4 and 5 b. 3
d. between weeks 6 and 7 c. 7
d. 10

29. Which of the following is equivalent to the

numerical − 6)
2( 18expression 2( 18 − 6)?
a. 4 3 3
2( 18 b.−5 6) 2( 18 − 6)
3 c. 6 – 2 3
d. 6−– 6)
2( 18
3

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 –GE D ® M ATHEM ATI C AL REAS ONI NG PRA CT IC E TEST –

30. A beauty-product manufacturer has been 31. A walking trail is 11,088 feet long. If a mile is
researching the way that people use various 5,280 feet, how many miles long is the walking
beauty products. After several surveys, it has trail?
collected the data shown in the scatter plot a. 0.2
below, which shows the time that participants b. 0.5
spent on their beauty routines on a typical c. 1.6
morning versus the amount of money the par- d. 2.1
ticipants spent per month on beauty products.
32. The product of x2 – 6 and x4 is
a. x8 – 6
60 b. x6 – 6
Amount Spent per Month (dollars)

c. x6 – 6x4
50 d. x8 – 6x4

40
33. The table below indicates the behavior of the
30 price of one share of a given stock over several
weeks.
20
END OF CHANGE
10 Week 1 Increased by $5.00

Week 2 Decreased by 10%

5 15 25 35 45 55 65
Week 3 Decreased by $1.10
Time Spent on Morning Routine (minutes)
Week 4 Doubled in value
Given this plot, which of the following best
describes the relationship between the amount If the stock was worth $10.15 a share at the
of time spent and the amount of money spent? beginning of week 1, what was the value of one
a. In general, the longer people spent on their share of this stock at the end of week 4?
morning beauty routine, the more money a. $25.07
they spent per month on beauty products. b. $29.46
b. In general, the longer people spent on their c. $32.20
morning beauty routine, the less money they d. $50.12
spent per month on beauty products.
c. In general, the amount of time people spent 34. What is the mode of the data set 9, 4, –1, 12, 4,
on their morning beauty routine was about 8, 7?
the same as the amount of money they spent a. –1
in dollars on beauty products. b. 4
d. In general, there is no clear relationship c. 7
between the amount of time people spent on d. 13
their beauty routine and the amount of
money they spent per month on beauty
products.

26 5

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 –G E D ® M AT HEMATI CA L REASO NI NG PRAC TI C E TEST –

35. There are 48 total applicants for a job. Of these 39. Which of the following represents the solution
applicants, 20 have a college degree, 15 have set of the inequality x + 2 > 5?
five years of work experience, and 8 have a col- a. {x: x > 10}
lege degree and five years of work experience. b. {x: x > 7}
If an applicant is randomly selected, what is the c. {x: x > 3}
probability, to the nearest tenth of a percent, d. {x: x > 2.5}
that he or she has a college degree or has 5
x–5 1
years of work experience? 40. What is the value of x____
2 – 1 when x =
__
2
?
a. 41.7% a. –10
3
b. 56.3% b. __
2
c. 72.9% c. 6
d. 89.6% d. 0

36. A customer uses two coupons to purchase a 41.

product at a grocery store, where the original
price of the product was $8.30. If the final price
paid by the customer was $7.00 and each cou-
pon gave the same discount, what was the
value of the discount provided by a single
coupon?
8 cm
a. $0.65
2 cm
b. $0.90
c. $1.30 3 cm
d. $2.60

37. Lee is planning to buy a new television and has What is the volume of the figure above?
been watching the price of a particular model a. 6
for the past month. Last month, the price was b. 24
$309.99, while this month, the price is $334.99. c. 48
To the nearest tenth of a percent, by what per- d. 108
cent has the price increased over the past
month? Write your answer in the box below.

38. Which of the following are the two solutions to

the equation x2 – 2x – 3 = 0?
a. 3 and –1
b. –3 and 1
c. –3 and –2
d. 2 and 2

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 –GE D ® M ATHEM ATI C AL REAS ONI NG PRA CT IC E TEST –

42. The bar chart represents the total dollar value 43. The surface area of a sphere is 36π cubic
of sales for four product versions in July. meters. To the nearest meter, what is the
diameter of this sphere?
a. 3
b. 6
c. 12
50 d. 24

40 44. What value of x satisfies the system of

Sales in Thousands

equations x – 2y = 8 and x + 2y = 14?

30 a. –6
b. 11
c. There are infinitely many values of x that
20
satisfy this system.
d. There are no values of x that satisfy this
10
system.

45. (x2 + 5) – (x2 – x) =

1 2 3 4
a. 5 + x
Product Version
b. 5 – x
c. 2x2 – 5x
Which two products have combined sales of d. 2x2 + x + 5
more than $50,000 in July?
a. Products 1 and 2
b. Products 2 and 3
c. Products 2 and 4
d. Products 1 and 3

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Answers and Explanations 4.

y
1. Choice b is correct. “10 fewer than” implies that
10 should be subtracted from the next stated
term. That term is “2 times the number of video
games that Joseph owns,” or 2v.
Choice a is incorrect. This expression represents
2 fewer than 10 times the number of video
games Joseph owns.
x
Choice c is incorrect. This expression represents
2 times 10 fewer than the number of video
games Joseph owns.
Choice d is incorrect. This expression represents
10 times 2 fewer than the number of video
games Joseph owns.
2. Choice c is correct. The product in the
numerator can be written as 3 3 × 3 × 3 × 6 = 3 3 6
3
3 × 3 × 3 × 6 = 3 3 6 . The 3 in the denominator cancels out
the 3 in front of the root. The first term of the ordered pair is the
Choice a is incorrect. The numerator is made x-coordinate. Since this is negative, the point
up of a product. The denominator can only will be on the left-hand side of the y-axis. The
cancel one factor of the numerator. second term is the y-coordinate. This indicates
Choice b is incorrect. The denominator cannot how many units above the x-axis the point is
cancel out a factor within a cube root. located.
a
= ba d is incorrect. The cube root of 9 is
Choice 5. Choice b is correct. To cube means to take the
b
not 3. number to the third power. Adding 5 to this
72 2 × 36 yields the expression x3 + 5. Finally, multiplying
=
3. Correct = 2
answer:
36
36
Two factors of 72 are 2 and a 36. Further,
this by 2 yields 2(x3 + 5).
a
= ba Choice a is incorrect. This represents
= b for positive numbers a and b.
a b
b multiplying the number by 3 as the first step. To
72 2 × 36
Using
72 these
2 properties,
× 36
= = 2. cube means to take the number to the third
36
= = 2 36
power.
36 36
Choice c is incorrect. This represents
multiplying by 2 before adding 5.
Choice d is incorrect. Two times x cubed is not
equivalent to x to the 6th power.

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6. Choice c is correct. The original statement can 9. Choice a is correct. Applying an exponent to a
be written as n + 4 < 5m. Given the value of m, fraction is equivalent to applying that exponent
5m = 5 × 6 = 30, therefore n + 4 < 30. This can to the numerator and denominator.
be simplified further, to n < 26. Choice b is incorrect. An exponent of 3 is not
Choice a is incorrect. The original statement equivalent to multiplication by 3.
can be written as n + 4 < 5m. This statement Choice c is incorrect. The exponent must be
can be used to show what n is less than, but it applied to both the numerator and the
can’t indicate what n is greater than. denominator.
Choice b is incorrect. The original statement Choice d is incorrect. An exponent of 3 is not
can be written as n + 4 < 5m. Given the value of equivalent to multiplication by 3 and would be
m, 5m = 5 × 6 = 30, therefore n + 4 < 30. While applied to both the numerator and the
n < 26, it is not necessarily true that n + 4 < 26. denominator.
Choice d is incorrect. The original statement 10. Correct answer: (0,–14)
can be written as n + 4 < 5m. This statement Since n is parallel to the given line, it must have
can be used to show what n is less than, but it the same slope, 3. Given this and the point that
can’t indicate what n is equal to. n passes through, we can use the point-slope
7. Correct answer: $490.80. The employee is paid formula to determine the equation for n.
a 4% commission on his sales of $1,020. There- y – 1 = 3(x – 5)
fore, he will be paid 0.04 × $1,020 = $40.80 for y – 1 = 3x – 15
the sales. This is on top of his regular pay of y = 3x – 14
$450. Therefore, his total paycheck will be $450 Now that the equation is in the form y = mx + b,
+ $40.80 = $490.80. we can see that the y-intercept is –14. By defini-
8. Choice b is correct. The radius of the circle is 5, tion, this means that the line passes over the
and the circumference is 2 × π × (radius), or y-axis at the point (0,–14).
10π. This can also be found simply by multiply- 11. Choice a is correct. The answer choices are in
ing the diameter and π. the form y = mx + b. Using the given informa-
1
Choice a is incorrect. The radius of the circle is tion, when x = 4, y = 0, and the slope is m = – __
2
,
1
__
5 and must be doubled in order to find the this gives the equation 0 = – 2 (4) + b, which
circumference. has a solution of b = 2.
Choice c is incorrect. This is the area of the Choice b is incorrect. When solving for the
circle, which is found by squaring the radius y-intercept b, the –2 must be added to both
and multiplying by π. sides of the equation.
Choice d is incorrect. The diameter does not Choice c is incorrect. The given point (4,0) is
need to be squared in order to find the not a y-intercept; it’s an x-intercept. The equa-
circumference. tion y = mx + b uses a y-intercept.
Choice d is incorrect. If the x-intercept is (4,0)
as given, the y-intercept will be –4 only if the
1
slope is 1. Here the slope is – __
2
.

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 –G E D ® M AT HEMATI CA L REASO NI NG PRAC TI C E TEST –

12. Choice d is correct. Substituting –1 for the x, 14. Choice c is correct. Using the Pythagorean
f(–1) = 3(–1 – 1)2 + 5 = 3(–2)2 + 5 = 3(4) + 5 = theorem, the hypotenuse of the right triangle
12 + 5 = 17. formed by the ladder and the building is 9,
Choice a is incorrect. When substituting –1 for while the length of one leg is 6. This yields the
x, x – 1 represents –1 – 1 = –2, not equation 62 + b2 = 92 or b2 = 81 – 36 = 45.
multiplication. Therefore, b = 45 ≈ 6.7 .
Choice b is incorrect. It is not true that Choice a is incorrect. The terms in the
(x – 1)2 = x2 + 1. Pythagorean theorem are squared.
Choice c is incorrect. By the order of operations, Choice b is incorrect. Applying the Pythagorean
the subtraction within the parentheses as well theorem to this problem yields the equation
as the squaring operation must be performed 62 + b2 = 92. The exponent of 2 indicates to
before the multiplication by 3. multiply the term by itself twice, not multiply
13. Choice c is correct. Using the slope formula by 2.
5–1 4 2
first, m = 4______
– (–2)
= __
6
= __
3
. Now, applying the Choice d is incorrect. The length of the ladder
point-slope formula, we have: represents the hypotenuse, or c, in the Pythago-
y–1= 2
__ (x – (–2)) rean theorem.
3
2
__
15. Choice b is correct. The rate of cooling
y – 1 = 3 (x + 2)
indicated in the graph is the slope of the line
2 4
y – 1 = __3
x + __
3 passing through the points (0,200) and (4,0).
2 4 2 7
y = __3
x + __
3
+ 1 = __
3
x + __
3
This slope is –50, which implies the material is
Choice a is incorrect. In the point-slope for- losing 50 degrees every hour. The slope of the
mula, the x1 and y1 must come from the same equation in this answer choice is –60, which
point. implies the material is losing 60 degrees every
Choice b is incorrect. When the point (–2,1) is hour, a faster rate of cooling.
used in the point-slope formula, the result is y – Choice a is incorrect. This slope would imply
1 = m(x – (–2)). On the right-hand side of this that the material is losing 25 degrees every hour,
equation, the 2 ends up being positive. which is a slower rate of cooling.
Choice d is incorrect. The slope is found Choice c is incorrect. This slope would imply
using the change in y on the numerator: that the material is losing 10 degrees every hour,
5–1
______ 4
= __ 2
= __ . In the point-slope formula, which is a slower rate of cooling.
4 – (–2) 6 3
4
__ 7
__
Choice d is incorrect. This slope would indicate
+1= .
3 3 the material is losing 50 degrees every hour,
which is the same rate of cooling that is given in
the graph.

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 –GE D ® M ATHEM ATI C AL REAS ONI NG PRA CT IC E TEST –

16. 18. Choice b is correct. Rewriting the equation by

subtracting 14 from both sides yields the
quadratic equation x2 – 5x – 14 = 0. The left-
hand side of this equation can be factored into
(x – 7)(x + 2), indicating that the solutions are
7 and –2.
Choice a is incorrect. Once the quadratic
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 equation is rewritten and factored, the zero
Hours per Day Spent on E-mail product rule states that x – 7 = 0 or x + 2 = 0.
Therefore one of the solutions is –2 instead
of 2.
The statement “50% spent more than 2 hours a
Choices c and d are incorrect. To factor the
day composing or reading emails” indicates that
rewritten quadratic equation, find factors of 14
the median of this data set is 2. This is typically
that sum to –5 instead of numbers that sum
indicated on a box plot by a vertical line in the
to –14.
center of the box.
19. Choice d is correct. To find the slope of the line
17. Choice a is correct. Using the two given points,
with this equation, move the y-variable to one
whenever y increases by 2 units, x increases by
2 side on its own to put the equation in the form
5 units. This means the slope must be m = __ 5
y = mx + b, where m is the slope. Adding y to
(the change in y divided by the change in x).
both sides and subtracting 2 from both sides
Further, the y-intercept is b = –2. Using the
2 gives the equation y = 10x – 2, so the slope is 10.
equation y = mx + b, we have y = __ 5
x – 2.
Choice a is incorrect. The coefficient of x, not
Choice b is incorrect. The line rises from left to
the coefficient of y, represents the slope when
right; therefore, the slope must be positive.
the equation is written in the form y = mx + b.
Choice c is incorrect. The x-intercept is not
Choice b is incorrect. The slope cannot be read
used when writing the equation as y = mx + b.
from the equation in the form it is currently
In fact, b represents the y-intercept.
written.
Choice d is incorrect. The line rises from left to
Choice c is incorrect. When solving for y to find
right; therefore, the slope must be positive.
the slope, 10 will be divided by 1 and not by 2.
Additionally, the y-intercept is –2 and not 5.
20. Choice c is correct. When multiplying terms
with the same base, the exponents are added.
1 1 1 + 4 5
+ 2
Therefore 5 2 × 52 = 5 2 = 5 2 2 = 5 2.
Choice a is incorrect.
−3 When multiplying terms
× 52 the exponents are added,
5 2 base,
with the same
not subtracted.
5
52
Choice b is incorrect. When multiplying terms
1
with the same
5 4 base, the exponents are added,
not multiplied.
Choice d is incorrect. When multiplying terms
with the same base, the exponents are added,
not divided.

27 1

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21. Choice c is correct. 1.2 × 10–3 = 0.0012 and 25. Choice b is correct. The price per ounce is
10 × 0.0012 = 0.0120. found by dividing 3.45 by 32.
Choice a is incorrect. It is not possible for the Choice a is incorrect. Dividing the number of
thickness of ten parts to be smaller than the ounces by the cost will give the number of
thickness of one part. ounces per cent.
Choice b is incorrect. This is the thickness of a Choice c is incorrect. Subtracting terms will not
single part. give an interpretable value.
Choice d is incorrect. This is the thickness of a Choice d is incorrect. Adding these two terms
stack of 100 such parts. will not give an interpretable value.
22. Choice d is correct. The slope will be the 26. Choice a is correct. The revenue is increasing
negative reciprocal of the given slope, and b in whenever the graph is rising from left to right.
the equation y = mx + b is –4. This occurs between weeks 2 and 3.
Choice a is incorrect. The slope of a Choice b is incorrect. The revenue is increasing
perpendicular line will be the negative whenever the graph is rising from left to right.
reciprocal of the slope of the original line. This does not occur between weeks 3 and 4.
Choice b is incorrect. Parallel lines have the Choice c is incorrect. The revenue is increasing
same slope, while perpendicular lines have whenever the graph is rising from left to right.
negative reciprocal slopes. This does not occur between weeks 4 and 5.
Choice c is incorrect. The term added to the Choice d is incorrect. The revenue is increasing
x-term will be the y-intercept, which is whenever the graph is rising from left to right.
not –1. This does not occur between weeks 6 and 7.
23. Choice a is correct. The division is equivalent
3 2 6
to __
x
× __
5x
= ___
5x2
.
Choice b is incorrect. The division of two frac-
tions is equivalent to multiplying the first frac-
tion by the reciprocal of the second fraction.
Choice c is incorrect. This is the result of multi-
plying and not dividing the fractions if the 5
canceled out. There are no terms that would
cancel with the 5.
Choice d is incorrect. This is the result of multi-
plying the two fractions.
24. Correct answers: 910 and 1,115. The minimum
number of items the factory could produce in
this time frame is 16 × 8 × 7 = 896 items, while
the maximum is 20 × 8 × 7 = 1,120. Any whole
number value in between these numbers is a
possible number of items the factory could pro-
duce over the given time frame.

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27. 29. Choice c is correct. Distributing the square root

y of 2 and simplifying:
2( 18 − 6) = 36 − 12 = 6 − 4×3 = 6 − 2 3
5
2( 18 − 6) = 36 − 12 = 6 − 4 × 3 = 6 − 2 3.
4
Choice a is incorrect. Radicals and whole num-
3
bers are not like terms and therefore cannot be
2
combined.
1
Choice b is incorrect. The square root of 2 must
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 x be distributed to both terms. Additionally, the
–1
–2
radical and the remaining whole number are
–3
not like terms.
–4 Choice d is incorrect. The square root of 2 must
–5 be distributed to both terms in the parentheses.
30. Choice a is correct. The pattern in the scatter
plot has a general upward trend from left to
right. This indicates a positive relationship. As
one variable increases, the other variable also
Each of the given lines has a different
increases.
y-intercept. Solving for y in the given equation
Choice b is incorrect. A negative relationship
will put the equation in y = mx + b form, where
would be indicated by a pattern that is generally
b is the y-intercept. In this case, that equation is
1 3 falling from left to right.
y = – __
2
+ __
2
x. The line given in the image above
1 Choice c is incorrect. This would be true if, for
is the only line with a y-intercept of – __
2
.
each point, the x- and y-coordinates were the
28. Choice c is correct. Since z is perpendicular to
same. But there are many points where this is
y = –x + 5, it must have a slope of 1. The given
not the case.
point (0,–2) is a y-intercept since the x-value is
Choice d is incorrect. A general sloping pattern
0, so the equation of z must be y = x – 2.
indicates a relationship between the two
Plugging in the given y-value of 5 in the point
variables.
(x, 5) yields the equation 5 = x – 2, which has
31. Choice d is correct. The conversion given
the solution x = 7.
can be written as a ratio, 1 mile : 5,280 feet.
Choice a is incorrect. The y-intercept of the line 1
____
Using this to cancel out units: 11,088 ft × 5,280 =
is –2 and not 5. A perpendicular line does not 11,088
_____ = 2.1.
necessarily have the same y-intercept. Further, 5,280
Choice a is incorrect. There is no need to divide
the 5 in the point (x, 5) is a y-value and not an
by 12 since the units are not in inches.
x-value.
Choice b is incorrect. Dividing 5,280 by 11,088
Choice b is incorrect. The 5 in the point (x, 5) is 1
____
leaves the units in terms of miles , which doesn’t
a y-value and not an x-value.
make sense.
Choice d is incorrect. The y-intercept of the line
Choice c is incorrect. Subtracting the two values
is –2 and not 5. Two perpendicular lines do not
will not give an interpretable value.
necessarily have the same y-intercept.

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32. Choice c is correct. The two steps are to 35. Choice b is correct. Given the final question is
distribute and add exponents. x4(x2 – 6) = about an “or” probability, the correct formula to
x4 + 2 – 6x4 = x6 – 6x4. use is P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B),
Choice a is incorrect. When two terms with the where P(A) stands for the probability of the
same base are multiplied, their exponents are event A occurring. Applying this here:
added. Further, the term x4 must be distributed P(degree or five years) = P(degree) +
to every term in the given binomial x2 – 6. P(five years) – P(degree and five years) =
Choice b is incorrect. The term x4 must be 20
__ + 15
__ – 8
__ = 27
__ = 0.5625
48 48 48 48
distributed to every term in the given binomial
Finally, 0.5625 is equivalent to 56.3%.
x2 – 6.
Choice a is incorrect. Although this is an “or”
Choice d is incorrect. When two terms with the
probability, the numbers for college degree and
same base are multiplied, their exponents are
five years of work experience must be included.
added.
Choices c and d are incorrect. When finding
33. Choice a is correct. After increasing by $5.00,
“or” probabilities, the probability of the “and”
the share was worth $15.15. It then decreased in
event must be subtracted.
value by 10%, or by 0.1 × 15.15 = 1.515.
36. Choice a is correct. If x represents the discount
Therefore, at the end of week 2, it was worth
provided by a single coupon, then 2x represents
$15.15 – $1.515 = $13.635 a share. At the end of
the combined discount provided by both. Given
week 3, it was worth $13.635 – $1.10 = $12.535.
the prices before and after, the following
Finally, it doubled in value and was worth 2 ×
equation can be written and solved:
$12.535 = $25.07 per share.
8.3 – 2x = 7
Choice b is incorrect. The stock decreased in
–2x = –1.3
value by $1.10 at the end of week 3. This
x = 0.65
represents subtraction in the problem.
Choice b is incorrect. If each coupon gave a
Choice c is incorrect. A 10% decrease can be
90-cent discount, the final price would have
found by multiplying 0.9 and the current value.
been $8.30 – $1.80 = $6.50.
This answer comes from using 1% or 0.01 as
Choice c is incorrect. This is the value of both
the decrease.
coupons together.
Choice d is incorrect. To double means to
Choice d is incorrect. The coupons provide a
multiply by 2 and not 4.
discount of $1.30 together, so it is not possible
34. Choice b is correct. The mode is the most
that one coupon by itself has a larger discount
commonly observed value. In this case, 4 occurs
value.
the most number of times.
37. The correct answer is 8.1%.
Choice a is incorrect. This is the minimum
The percent increase can be found by finding
value of the data set.
the difference between the two prices and then
Choice c is incorrect. This is the median of the
dividing by the original price:
data set. 334.99 – 309.99
_____________ = 0.0806.
Choice d is incorrect. This is the range of the 309.99

data set. Multiplying by 100 to convert this to a percent-

age yields 8.06%. Rounded, this is 8.1%.
38. Choice a is correct. The equation can be
factored and rewritten as (x – 3)(x + 1) = 0.

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Using the zero product rule, this results in the 40. Choice c is correct. After plugging in the given
equations x – 3 = 0 and x + 1 = 0. The solutions value of x, we must simplify the result using
to these equations are 3 and –1, respectively. basic operations with fractions:
Choice b is incorrect. After factoring, the zero –12 – 5
____ –1 – 10
____
2
—
2
9
––
__
2 9 4 36
1 –1
— = —41 – —44 = ––3– = __
2
× __
3
= __
6
=6
product rule must be applied. This will result in 4 4

the equations x – 3 = 0 and x + 1 = 0. Choice a is incorrect. When plugging in the

Choices c and d are incorrect. The solutions given value of x, the 5 is subtracted, not
can’t be read off the coefficients. Instead, factor- multiplied.
ing, the quadratic formula, or completing the Choice b is incorrect. When simplifying a frac-
square should be used to solve a quadratic tion over a fraction, the fraction in the numera-
equation like this. tor is multiplied by the reciprocal of the
39. Choice c is correct. Subtracting 2 from both fraction in the denominator. Dividing the frac-
sides yields the solution x > 3. tions piece by piece is not a valid method.
Choice a is incorrect. In this inequality, the 2 is Choice d is incorrect. Taking a value to the
added to the variable. Therefore, when attempt- power of two is not the same as multiplying it
ing to isolate the x, both sides should not be by two. Furthermore, a fraction with a denomi-
multiplied by 2. Instead, 2 should be subtracted nator of zero is undefined, not equal to zero.
from both sides. 41. Choice c is correct. The area of the base is 2 × 3
Choice b is incorrect. In this inequality, the 2 is = 6 square centimeters. Multiplying this by the
added to the variable. Therefore when attempt- height of 8 cm gives us the volume in cubic
ing to isolate the x, 2 should be subtracted from centimeters: 6 × 8 = 48.
both sides instead of being added. Choice a is incorrect. This is the area of one of
Choice d is incorrect. In this inequality, the 2 is the smaller faces.
added to the variable. Therefore, when attempt- Choice b is incorrect. This is the area of one of
ing to isolate the x, both sides should not be the larger faces.
divided by 2. Instead, 2 should be subtracted Choice d is incorrect. This is the surface area of
from both sides. the given shape.
42. Choice c is correct. Since product 2 had almost
$30,000 in sales and product 4 had over $40,000
in sales, the total must be more than $50,000.
Choice a is incorrect. The total sales in July for
these two products was about $45,000.
Choice b is incorrect. The total sales in July for
these two products was slightly less than
$50,000.
Choice d is incorrect. The total sales in July for
these two products was about $35,000.

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43. Choice b is correct. Using the surface area 45. Choice a is correct. Distributing the negative
formula: and combining like terms yields (x2 + 5) –
36π = 4πr2 (x2 – x) = x2 + 5 – x2 – (–x) = 5 + x.
9 = r2 Choice b is incorrect. The negative must be
r=3 distributed to every term in the parentheses.
Since the radius is 3, the diameter is 3 × 2 = 6. Choice c is incorrect. Since the second term is
Choice a is incorrect. This is the radius of the being subtracted, the x2 terms will cancel out.
sphere. The diameter is twice as large as the Further, the 5 and the x are not being
radius. multiplied.
Choice c is incorrect. When solving the Choice d is incorrect. Since the second term is
equation 36π = 4πr2, divide, do not multiply, being subtracted, the x2 terms will cancel out.
both sides by 4. Additionally, the diameter will
be two times as large as the radius.
Choice d is incorrect. When solving the
equation 36π = 4πr2, divide, do not multiply,
both sides by 4.
44. Choice b is correct. Using the addition method,
adding the two equations yields the equation
2x = 22, which has a solution of x = 11.
Choice a is incorrect. Subtracting the two
equations will eliminate the x from both
equations, making it where y must be found
first.
Choice c is incorrect. If there were infinitely
many solutions, the equations would be
multiples of each other.
Choice d is incorrect. If there was no solution,
the equation would yield an incorrect statement
such as 0 = 1 or –5 = 3.

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 APPENDIX:
MATHEMATICAL REASONING
FORMULAS SHEET

T he following are the formulas you will be supplied with on the GED® Mathematical Reasoning test.

Area

Parallelogram: A = bh
1
Trapezoid: A = __
2 h(b1 + b2)

Surface Area and Volume

Rectangular/right prism: SA = ph + 2B V = Bh
Cylinder: SA = 2πrh + 2πr2 V = πr2h
1
__ 1
__
Pyramid: SA = 2 ps +B V= 3 Bh
1
__
Cone: SA = πrs + πr2 V= 3 πr h
2

4
__
Sphere: SA = 4 πr2 V= 3 πr
3

(p = perimeter of base B; π ! 3.14)

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 –APP E N D IX: MAT HE MAT I CAL R EA S ONI NG F OR M U L A S S H E ET –

Algebra
y –y
Slope of a line: m = ______
2
x –x
1
2 1

Slope-intercept form of the equation of a line: y = mx + b

Point-slope form of the equation of a line: y – y1 = m(x – x1)
Standard form of a quadratic equation: y = ax2 + bx + c
2
Quadratic formula: x = −b ±
b − 4 ac
2a
Pythagorean theorem: a2 + b2 = c2
a
= ba
Simple interest: I = prt b
(I = interest, p = principal,72r = rate,2 t×=36time)
= = 2
36 36

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