Lowering the Limits for Earth-Fault Detection

M. Savostianik, EIT
Startco Engineering Ltd.
406 Jessop Avenue
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
Canada S7N 2S5

Abstract—Current flowing to earth has only two shown in the figure. When the system is energized,
paths—it can flow to earth through an earth fault, and capacitive current will flow from each phase to earth.
it can flow to earth through distributed capacitance. The extent to which this capacitive current affects earth-
Current flowing to earth through distributed fault detection will be discussed in some detail.
capacitance can cause sympathetic tripping during an Charging current is defined as the current that flows to
earth fault and it can cause nuisance tripping during earth when one phase of an unearthed system is faulted to
normal operation. If the earth-fault trip level is high earth, as measured by the ammeter causing the fault in
enough to eliminate sympathetic tripping, nuisance Fig. 2. Charging current can cause sympathetic earth-
tripping due to unbalanced and harmonic capacitive fault tripping in the unfaulted feeders of a multiple-feeder
current is usually not a problem. However, if system. As Fig. 3 shows, core-balance current
sympathetic tripping is not a concern and earth-fault transformers (CT’s) on unfaulted feeders detect the
trip levels are lowered, nuisance tripping can become charging current of their respective feeders. The CT on
a problem that worsens with the increased use of the faulted feeder detects the vector sum of the charging
adjustable-speed drives. This paper discusses the currents of the unfaulted feeders and the current in the
sources of current flowing to earth that are not the impedance-earthing device. To avoid sympathetic
result of an earth fault, and it shows how a digital tripping, the earth-fault current pickup level must be set
filter tuned to the fundamental component of earth- above the largest feeder’s charging current. To detect
fault current can provide lower trip levels without high-impedance faults and provide machine-winding
nuisance tripping. protection, the earth-fault current pickup level should be
less than 20% of the prospective earth-fault current. The
The limit to practical low-level earth-fault protection in pickup level of all system earth-fault protection devices
industrial electrical systems is a function of physical should be the same, and coordination should be
parameters. Current sensing is the best method to detect accomplished by varying trip delay times.
and locate earth faults; however, system capacitance, Unbalance in the phase-to-earth capacitances
unbalanced loads, current-sensor limitations, and (Xc≠Xb≠Xa) illustrated in Fig. 1 will result in a steady-
harmonics affect current measurement and limit the lower state zero-sequence current. One source of unbalance is
level of practical earth-fault detection. Earthed systems geometric asymmetry with respect to the phase
are presumed in the following discussion on limiting conductors and earth. In a balanced system, phase
factors and the techniques that can be implemented to capacitive currents add to zero. In an unbalanced system,
mitigate them. the sum of the capacitive currents is not zero and it can be
Fig. 1 illustrates that each phase in a distribution detected by a core-balance current transformer. This
system has capacitance to earth. Phase-to-earth current to earth is not the result of an earth fault but it can
capacitance is distributed throughout the electrical cause nuisance earth-fault tripping. Transposing phases
system, but it can be modeled as a “lumped” value, as in long feeders can reduce capacitance unbalance.

FIGURE 1. 3-Phase System Showing Phase-to-Earth Capacitance.

Lowering the Limits for Earth-Fault Detection Page 2

FIGURE 2. Definition of Charging Current.

FIGURE 3. Multiple-Feeder Earthed System with an Earth Fault.

Phase-voltage unbalance (Fig. 1: Van≠Vbn≠Vcn) has earth-fault trips can be avoided by setting a longer trip
the same effect as unbalanced phase capacitance. Voltage delay time or by using a digital filter to reject the dc
unbalance forces capacitive current to be unbalanced, and component.
the resultant can be detected by a core-balance current All current transformers, including the window-type
transformer. Unbalanced voltage from the electrical core-balance CT’s used to detect earth-fault (zero-
utility may be the result of unbalanced single-phase loads. sequence) current have practical limitations. A minimum
Voltage unbalance combined with capacitance unbalance excitation current is required in the primary before there
may increase capacitive current unbalance, and this can be a proportional output current. Excitation current is
current can cause nuisance earth-fault-protection trips. a function of burden, CT construction, and size. Sensitive
It is important to note that unbalanced load currents do earth-fault detection requires excitation current to be
not cause nuisance earth-fault trips. If there is no leakage small.
to earth, unbalanced load currents add to zero and do not A large fault current, such as a phase-to-phase fault or
cause an output from a core-balance CT. an earth fault on a solidly earthed system, can saturate a
When a motor is started across-the-line, the inrush current transformer. Saturation occurs when a CT cannot
current can have a dc-offset component that can cause an maintain a secondary current waveform proportional to a
output from a core-balance current transformer. Transient large primary current. Secondary current characteristics
characteristics are unpredictable because the switch can in this case are unpredictable and earth-fault protection
close at any point in the electrical cycle. Transient may not operate.
conditions typically last less than 100 ms and nuisance

M. Savostianik, EIT Startco Engineering Ltd., May, 2000.

Lowering the Limits for Earth-Fault Detection Page 3

Surge currents and conductor placement can lead to

local saturation in a core-balance CT. Local saturation
can cause a core-balance CT secondary output when no
zero-sequence current exists, leading to a nuisance trip.
Surge currents can be as high as 160% locked-rotor

Phase A Current
current for motors. Phase conductors should be centered
in the CT window, and multi-conductor circuits should be
bundled ABC, ABC, etc., not AA, BB, CC, etc., as shown
in Fig. 4. The use of a flux conditioner, a ring of
magnetically conductive material inserted in the CT
window, can reduce local saturation.

Phase B Current

FIGURE 4. Core-Balance Transformer Cable

Arrangements.

The presence of harmonic-frequency voltages (integer

multiples of the fundamental frequency) in an electrical
system cause harmonic-frequency currents that can affect
Phase C Current

earth-fault detection and minimum trip set points.

Harmonics can be the result of the use of adjustable-speed
drives (ASD) and solid-state starters. Static switching of
line currents cause harmonic voltages that drive
harmonic-capacitive current from the phases to earth.
Capacitive impedance is inversely proportional to
frequency (Xc = 1/(2πfC) where f = frequency in Hertz).
The higher the frequency, the lower the capacitive
impedance, and the greater the current per volt. Except
for the triplens, harmonic currents to earth add in the
Sum of Fundamental & Triplen Currents

same manner as the fundamental components of

capacitive current to earth. That is, only the unbalance in
each harmonic contributes to neutral current.
Triplen harmonic-frequency currents present a special
case. In a three-phase system, triplen harmonics are in-
phase and their sum is three times the individual
magnitude. See Fig. 5. In a 50-Hz system, 150-Hz,
300-Hz, 450-Hz, etc. components add to the 50 Hz
fundamental component and can cause nuisance earth-
fault trips.
Harmonic-frequency current components can FIGURE 5. Phase Currents with Third Harmonics.
necessitate undesirably high earth-fault current-protection
pickup levels to avoid nuisance tripping. To mitigate the
undesired affects, use an earth-fault protection device that

M. Savostianik, EIT Startco Engineering Ltd., May, 2000.

Lowering the Limits for Earth-Fault Detection Page 4

ignores dc-offset and harmonic-frequency current, and 2 m −1 2πn

responds only to the fundamental-frequency component Ip = ∑ I (n) × sin( m )
m n =0
of current. The filtering characteristic must be fast to
allow a short earth-fault trip time. Where: Ip = peak current
Digital filtering of the zero-sequence-current waveform m = number of samples per cycle
provides a fast and accurate solution to many low-level n = sample number
earth-fault detection problems. Digital sampling and I(n) = measured sample
digital signal processing techniques can be used to
construct a band-pass filter that responds to only The sampler is set to take a known number of samples
the fundamental-frequency component—dc-offset and per cycle of the desired frequency. In the example the
harmonic components are ignored. The discrete Fourier filter is tuned to 50-Hz by selecting a sample frequency of
transform (DFT) algorithm is a mathematical tool that can 1 kHz (20 samples per cycle). The example summation
quickly extract a specific-frequency signal from a is:
multiple-frequency signal. The example shown in Fig. 6 2 19 2πn
is a 50-Hz signal with a 150-Hz third-harmonic
Ip = ∑ I (n) × sin( 20 )
20 n = 0
component. The simplified DFT algorithm is:
Ip = 1.414

1.5

0.5
Amperes

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
Time (ms)
50 Hz Component 150 HzComponent EF Current Waveform Samples

FIGURE 6. Earth-Fault Current with Fundamental and Harmonic Components.

M. Savostianik, EIT Startco Engineering Ltd., May, 2000.

Lowering the Limits for Earth-Fault Detection Page 5

Table 1 shows the values, from the example in Fig. 6, millisecond and the value is accurate, based on the
of the 50 Hz component, the 150 Hz component, and the previous 20 samples.
earth-fault current that is the sum of the two, at each of Earth-fault protection relays that use digital filtering-
the sample times, n. It also shows the sample-time DFT- techniques can reduce nuisance tripping associated with
component value of both the 50 Hz component and of the low-level protection. Such devices ignore the dc
sample, and the sum of each over the sample period of component when a motor starts, and allow lower trip
n=0 to n=19. Note that the sum for the fundamental current and trip time set points. Protection that uses DFT
component is the same as the sum for the sampled filtering ignores harmonic components of zero-sequence
waveform, showing that this sampling technique has current that results from capacitive unbalance, again
provided an accurate measurement of the fundamental allowing a lower trip set point. Triplen harmonic
component in spite of the presence of the 150 Hz third components, whose phase values are additive, are filtered
harmonic. by the DFT algorithm both in terms of capacitance-
Note that only a single cycle of the fundamental unbalance current and earth-fault current, again
component is required for the calculation, here 1/50th permitting the selection of a lower current trip level, and
second, or 20 ms. Thereafter, the value is updated every the one-cycle DFT calculation time allows a rapid trip
time.

TABLE 1. COMPONENT AND DFT VALUES.

SAMPLE 50 Hz 150 Hz SAMPLED If(n)sin(2*pi*n/20) I(n)sin(2*pi*n/20)
NUMBER COMP. COMP. VALUE
(n) If(n) I(n)
0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
1 0.437 0.381 0.818 0.135 0.253
2 0.831 0.448 1.280 0.489 0.752
3 1.144 0.146 1.290 0.926 1.043
4 1.345 -0.277 1.068 1.279 1.016
5 1.414 -0.471 0.943 1.414 0.943
6 1.345 -0.277 1.068 1.279 1.016
7 1.144 0.146 1.290 0.926 1.043
8 0.831 0.448 1.280 0.489 0.752
9 0.437 0.381 0.818 0.135 0.253
10 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
11 -0.437 -0.381 -0.818 0.135 0.253
12 -0.831 -0.448 -1.280 0.489 0.752
13 -1.144 -0.146 -1.290 0.926 1.043
14 -1.345 0.277 -1.068 1.279 1.016
15 -1.414 0.471 -0.943 1.414 0.943
16 -1.345 0.277 -1.068 1.279 1.016
17 -1.144 -0.146 -1.290 0.926 1.043
18 -0.831 -0.448 -1.280 0.489 0.752
19 -0.437 -0.381 -0.818 0.135 0.253
14.142 14.142

M. Savostianik, EIT Startco Engineering Ltd., May, 2000.