7.

2 Glass Industry substances used as decolourisers are antimony oxide

(Sb2O3), arsenic oxide (AS2O3), cobalt oxide (CoO),
Glass is a (usually) transparent, non-crystalline amorphous manganese dioxide (MnO2) and nickel oxide (NiO).
solid that has many important applications worldwide in a
variety of industries. It is perhaps most widely known for its  
extensive use in windows and bottles. The most common
Glass Manufacturing Process # 2. Preparation of Batch:
types of glass are made primarily with soda ash and silica, as
well as other additives. Recycled glass is also often used in The raw materials, cullet and decolouriser are finely
the production of new glass. There are two main methods powdered in grinding machines. These materials are
of producing glass. The first is the float glass process that is accurately weighed in correct proportions before they are
used to manufacture architectural glass. The second is the mixed together. The mixing of these materials is carried out
glassblowing process that produces containers such as in mixing machines until a uniform mixture is obtained. Such
bottles and jars.  a uniform mixture is known as the batch or frit and it is
taken for further process of melting in a furnace.
 
 
The procedure adopted in the manufacture of glass may
broadly be divided into the following five stages: Glass Manufacturing Process # 3. Melting in Furnace:

1. Collection of Raw Materials The batch is melted either in a pot furnace or in a tank
2. Preparation of Batch furnace. The heating is continued until the evolution of
3. Melting in Furnace carbon dioxide, oxygen, sulphur dioxide and other gases
4. Fabrication stops.
5. Annealing.
(i) Pot Furnace:

  In this furnace, the pots are adopted as units. A typical glass

melting pot is shown in fig. 14-1.
Glass Manufacturing Process # 1. Collection of Raw
Materials:

Depending upon the type of glass to be manufactured,

suitable raw materials are collected. Table 14-1 shows the
raw materials required for each type of glass.

 (Links to an external site.)

A pot is a vessel made of fire-clay. This process resembles

the crucible steel process. These pots are placed in specially
prepared holes in the furnace. The charging and collecting
doors are kept projecting outside so that raw materials may
be added and molten glass may be taken out conveniently.
In addition to the raw materials, the cullet and decolourisers  
are also added for each type of glass.
The pots are filled with raw materials. The furnace is heated
The cullet indicates waste glass or pieces of broken glass. by means of producer gas. When the mass has melted
They increase the fusibility of glass and prevent loss of alkali down, it is removed from the pot and it is taken for the next
by volatisation during the reaction in forming new glass. operation of fabrication. The melting of glass by pot furnace
They also reduce the cost. is an intermittent process. It is used to melt small quantities
of glass at a time or to prepare special types of glass.
  
 
The raw materials generally contain traces of the iron
compounds. The ferrous oxide imparts a green colour to (ii) Tank Furnace:
glass and ferric oxide imparts a very light yellow tint. To
avoid such effects, the decolourisers are added. The usual
This furnace resembles the reverberatory furnace adopted (vi) Spinning.
for puddling of the wrought-iron. Fig. 14-2 shows the
section of a tank furnace adopted for the melting of glass. It  
is constructed with reinforced masonry. The roof is given (i) Blowing:
special shape to deflect the flames of heated gas.
For this purpose, a blow-pipe is used. Its diameter is about
  12 mm and its length is about 1.80 m. One end of the blow-
The ports are provided for the entry of preheated producer pipe is dipped in the molten mass of glass and a lump of
gas. The doors are provided for charging and for taking out about 50 N weight is taken out. This lump of glass will then
the molten glass. A bridge separates the tank into two lengthen to some extent by its own weight.
unequal compartments. The operator then blows vigorously from other end of blow
 (Links to an external site.) pipe. It can also be done with the help of an air compressor.
This blowing causes the molten mass to assume the shape
of a cylinder. It is then heated for few seconds and is blown
again.

The blowing and heating are continued till the cylinder of

required size is formed. It is then placed on an iron plate
and it is disconnected from blow pipe. The cylinder is then
cut vertically by a diamond. It falls into a thin plate by
gravity.

(ii) Casting:
The batch is heated in large compartment and it contains
somewhat impure glass. It flows through opening of bridge The molten glass is poured in moulds and it is allowed to
into small compartment. The gall or floating impurities are cool down slowly. The large pieces of glass of simple design
collected at the top of large compartment. The refractory can be prepared by this method. It is also adopted to
lining is provided to the interior surface of tank. prepare mirrors, lenses, etc.

The tank is filled with raw materials. The furnace is heated  

by allowing producer gas through ports. The charging of
raw materials and taking out of molten mass are (iii) Drawing:
simultaneous. This is a continuous process and it is adopted This process consists in simply pulling the molten glass
to melt large quantities of glass at a time. either by hand or by mechanical equipment. An iron bar is
  dipped sideways in the molten mass of glass. It is lifted up
horizontally and in doing so, it catches up a sheet of molten
Glass Manufacturing Process # 4. Fabrication: glass. This sheet is then allowed to pass over a large rotating
roller. The roller helps the molten glass to spread in the
The molten glass is given suitable shape or form in this form of a thin sheet.
stage. It can either be done by hand or by machine. The
hand fabrication is adopted for small scale production and  
machine fabrication is adopted for large scale production.
(iv) Pressing:
Following are the different ways of fabrication:
In this process, the molten glass is pressed into moulds. The
(i) Blowing pressure may either be applied by hand or by mechanical
means. This process is adopted for ornamental articles,
(ii) Casting hollow glass articles etc.
(iii) Drawing  
(iv) Pressing (v) Rolling:
(v) Rolling
There are two methods of rolling. In one method, the slowly brought down. This method is useful for small scale
molten mass of glass is passed between heavy iron rollers production.
and flat glass plate of uniform thickness is obtained. In
another method, the molten mass of glass is poured on a
flat iron casting table and it is then turned flat with the aid of 7.2.1 Methods of Glass Manufacturing
a heavy iron roller.
There are two main methods of producing glass. The first is
 
the float glass process that is used to manufacture
(vi) Spinning: architectural glass. The second is the glassblowing process
that produces containers such as bottles and jars.
In this process, the molten glass is spun at high speed by a
machine to form very fine glass fibres. This glass has tensile
strength equal to that of mild steel. It does not fade, decay
What is Float Glass?
or shrink. It is not attacked by acids, fire and vermins. It is
very soft and flexible. It is used for providing insulation Float glass is extremely smooth, distortion-free glass used in
against heat, electricity and sound. many window applications. It also provides the material for
  many other forms of glass, including tinted glass (heat
absorbing) and laminated glass.
Glass Manufacturing Process # 5. Annealing:
Float glass is made by pouring the molten glass from a
The glass articles, after being manufactured, are to be furnace into a chamber that contains a bed of molten tin.
cooled down slowly and gradually. This process of slow and The process is sometimes call the Pilkington Process. The
homogeneous cooling of glass articles is known as the
atmosphere inside the chamber is carefully controlled. The
annealing of glass.
glass floats on the tin and forms itself in the shape of the
The annealing of glass is a very important process. If glass container. It spreads 90 to 140 inches wide at a thickness
articles are allowed to cool down rapidly, the superficial determined at the time of manufacture.
layer of glass cools down first as glass is a bad conductor of
heat. The interior portion remains comparatively hot and it The upper surface of the glass is called the air side or score
is therefore in a state of strain. Hence, such glass articles side. It is polished with fire. The lower surface is called the
break to pieces under very slight shocks or disturbances. tin side. It is not fire-polished. From the chamber, the glass
enters an oven, called a lehr. There it is slowly cooled at a
Following are the two methods of annealing: specific rate. This process, called annealing, relieves the
(i) Flue treatment glass of internal stresses. The rate of cooling is crucial to the
success of the final product. The glass emerges from the
(ii) Oven treatment. lehr at room temperature as a continuous ribbon. It is flat,
fire-finished on the top, and has smooth, parallel surfaces.
 
Automatic cutters trim the edges and cut the glass to
(i) Flue Treatment: length.

In this method, a long flue is provided and it is constructed

in such a way that there is gradual decrease in temperature
from one end of flue to the other. The red-hot articles of Types of Glass From the Float Process
glass are allowed to enter at the hot end of flue and they
There are two types of glass made by the float process,
are slowly moved on travelling bands. They become cool
clear glass and tinted glass. Most of the flat glass made by
when they reach the cool end of flue. This method is useful
the float process is clear glass. As its name implies, clear
for large scale production.
glass is transparent and colorless. Depending upon its
  thickness, clear glass allows about 75 to 92 percent of the
visible light to pass through.
(ii) Oven Treatment:

In this method, the red-hot glass articles are placed in ovens

in which arrangement is made to control the temperature. Tinted glass (also called heat absorbing glass) is made by
After articles are placed in the ovens, the temperature is adding coloring agents to the batch mix. These agents
include bronze, gray, green and blue. As the glass gets
thicker, the density of the color also increases. This causes
the glass to transmit less visible light. The light transmittance
of tinted glass varies from 14 to 83 percent depending upon
its color and thickness.

The Glass Blowing Process

Glass blowing is a glass forming technique that humans

have used to shape glass since the 1st century B.C. The
technique consists of inflating molten glass with a blowpipe
to form a sort of glass bubble, that can be molded into Adding color (then re-rolling on the marvel)
glassware for practical or artistic purposes.
To give the glass color and design, it’s dipped in crushed
Thanks to the glass blowing process, glass has been one of colored glass, which fuses to the main glass piece almost
the most useful materials in human society for centuries. immediately due to the hot temperature.
We’ve laid the exact process, step by step, to give you a
better understanding of how exactly we’ve made the best Once the main glass piece has been fused with crushed
use of this wonderful material. colored glass, it is taken back to the marvel where it is rolled
again.
 
Blowing the glass

To give the glass its final shape and size, it is blown into with
a blowpipe, creating a sort of bubble of glass. To carry out
this process, the blowpipe holding the glass must be placed
on a steel stand. Then, the glass artist has to blow into the
blowpipe while rotating it at the same time.

Throughout this process, the glass needs to be continuously

taken to the glory hole to be reheated because blowing it
cools it very quickly.

Removing the glass

The final step is to remove the glass from the glass pipe. To
do this, steel tweezers called jacks are used to separate the
Before starting the glass blowing process, the glass is placed
bottom part of the blown glass while rotating the blowpipe.
in a furnace that heats it to a temperature of 2000 degrees,
Thanks to the separation with the jacks, the glass can be
making it malleable. Next, the glass is gathered by inserting
removed from the blowpipe with one solid tap.
one end of the blowpipe into the furnace, and rolling it over
the molten glass until a “gob” of glass attaches to it. Cooling the glass

  The last step is to take the blown glass to an annealing oven

using heat resistant gloves. This allows the glass to cool
Rolling the glass on the marver
slowly over several hours, as it is highly perceptive to
The next step is to roll the molten glass on a flat metal slab breaking when exposed to rapid temperature changes.
called a marver. The marver acts as a means to control the
Look for upcoming events at DMG’s exhibition calendar to
shape and temperature of the glass.
experience the colorful and fascinating works of seasoned
The glass is taken back and forth from the marver to the glass blowers.
glory hole, a hot chamber used to reheat the glass in order
to make it malleable again.
7.3 Cement Industries
these cements should not exceed 295 and 335 J/g after 7
and 28 days respectively.

The industrial uses of limestone and cements have provided      Type III.  High-early-strength (HES) cements are made
important undertakings for chemists and engineers since the from raw materials with a lime-to-silica ratio higher than
early years when lime mortars and natural cements were that of Type I cement and are ground finer than Type I
introduced.  In modern times one need only mention cements.They contain a higher proportion of tricalcium
reinforced-concrete walls and girders, tunnels, dams and silicate (C3S)than regular portland cements.  This, with the
roads to realize the dependence of present-day civilization finer grading, causes quicker hardening and a faster
upon these products.  The convenience, cheapness , evolution of heat.  Roads constructed from HES cement can
adaptability , strength and durability of cement products be put  into service  sooner than roads constructed from
have been a foundation of theses applications. regular cement. 

       Type IV. Low-heat portland cements contain a lower

percentage of C3S and tricalcium aluminate (C3A ), thus
PORTLAND CEMENTS
lowering the heat evolution .  Consequently, the percentage
In spite of the modern concrete roads and buildings of tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF)is increased because of
everywhere around us,  it is difficult to realize the the addition of Fe2O3 to reduce the amount of C3A. 
tremendous growth of the cement industry during the past Actually the heat evolved should not exceed 250 and 295
century.  Humans had early discovered certain natural rocks J/g after 7 and 28 days respectively, and is 15 to 35 percent
which, through simple calcination , gave a product that less than the heat of hydration of regular or HES cements.
hardened on the addition of water.  Yet the real advance
     Type V.  Sulfate-resisting portland cements are tose
did not take place until physiochemical studies and chemical
which, by their composition or processing, resist sulfates
engineering laid the basis for the  modern efficient plants
better than other four types.  Type V  is used when high
working under closely controlled conditions with a variety of
sulfate resistance is required.These cements are lower in
raw materials.
C3A than regular cements.  In consequence of this, the
C4AF content is higher.
Types of Portland Cements
 
Portland cement has been defined as" the product obtained
Air Entrainment
by pulverizing clinker consisting essentially of hydraulic
calcium silicates, usually containing one or more forms of The use of air-entraining agents (minute quantities of
calcium sulfate as an interground addition."Hydraulic resinous materials, tallows , and greases ) is important. 
calcium silicates possess the ability to harden without drying These agents increase the resistance of the hardened
or by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide, thus concrete to scaling from alternate freezing and thawing and
differentiating them from other inorganic binders such as the use of de-icers (such as CaCl2). Federal specifications
plaster of paris.  The reactions involved in the hardening of permit the addition of an air-entraining materials to each of
cement are hydration and hydrolysis.  Five types of portland the three types, which are then designated as I*A, IIA and
cement are recognized in the United States. IIIA.

      Type I.  Regular portland cements are the usual  

products for general construction.  The are other types of
MANUFACTURING PROCEDURES
this cement,such as white, which contain less ferric oxide,
oil-well cement, quick-setting cement, and others for special Two types of materials are necessary for the production of
uses. portland cement one rich in calcium (calcerous) such as
limestone, chalk, etc. and one rich in silica (argillaceous)
     Type II. Moderate-heat-of-hardening and sulfate-
such as clay.  Formerly a large amount of cement was made
resisting portland cements are for use where moderate heat
from argillaceous limestone,  known as cement rock.
of hydration is required or for general concrete construction
exposed to moderate sulfate action.  The heat evolved from In addition to natural materials, some plants use blast
furnace slag and precipitated calcium carbonate obtained as
a by-product in the alkali and synthetic ammonium sulfate Preparing Portland cement
industry.  Sand, waste bauxite , and iron ore are sometimes
 1 The limestone, silica, and alumina that make up
used in small amounts to adjust the composition of the mix. 
Portland cement are dry ground into a very fine
Gypsum ( 4 to 5%) is added to regulate the setting time  of
powder, mixed together in predetermined
the cement.   
proportions, preheated, and calcined (heated to a
These raw materials are finely ground, mixed and heated high temperature that will burn off impurities
(burned) in a rotary kiln to form cement clinker.  The without fusing the ingredients). Next the material is
predominant compounds that are formed during calcining.  burned in a large rotary kiln at 2,550 degrees
The cement industry uses the following abbreviations for Fahrenheit (1,400 degrees Celsius). At this
these clinker compounds: temperature, the material partially fuses into a
substance known as clinker. A modern kiln can
                       CaO= C                                MgO=
produce as much as 6,200 tons of clinker a day.
M                                    CO2 =C
 2 The clinker is then cooled and ground to a fine
                       SiO2 = S                               SO3 =
powder in a tube or ball mill. A ball mill is a rotating
S                                      H2O=H
drum filled with steel balls of different sizes
                       Al2O3 = A                            Na2O=N (depending on the desired fineness of the cement)
that crush and grind the clinker. Gypsum is added
                       Fe2O3 = F                            K2O=K during the grinding process. The final composition
Thus Ca3SiO5(3CaO.SiO2) = C3S consists of several compounds: tricalcium silicate,
dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate, and
Various reactions, such as evaporation of water, evolution of tetracalcium aluminoferrite.
carbon dioxide , and reaction between lime and clay, take
place during the burning .  Most of these reactions proceed Mixing
in the solid phase, but, toward the end of the process, the  3 The cement is then mixed with the other
important fusion occurs.  Liquid formation begins at 1250 ingredients: aggregates (sand, gravel, or crushed
degC and probably no appreciable formation of C3S occurs stone), admixtures, fibers, and water. Aggregates
below this temperature.  C3S is the chief strength-producing are pre-blended or added at the ready-mix
constituent of cement and during its formation the free lime concrete plant under normal operating conditions.
present is reduced to a small amount.  Between 20 to 30 The mixing operation uses rotation or stirring to
percent of the reactions take place in thew final fluid phase. coat the surface of the aggregate with cement
Cement clinker is produced by both wet and dry processes.  paste and to blend the other ingredients uniformly.
In both processes  closed circuit grinding  is preferred to A variety of batch or continuous mixers are used.
open- circuit grinding in preparing the raw materials  4 Fibers, if desired, can be added by a variety of
because in the former the the fines are passed on and the methods including direct spraying, premixing,
coarse material returned, whereas in the latter the raw impregnating, or hand laying-up. Silica fume is
material is ground continuously until its mean fineness has often used as a dispersing or densifying agent.
reached the desired value. The wet process , though the
original one is being displaced by the dry process , Transport to work site
especially for new plants, because of the saving in heat
 5 Once the concrete mixture is ready, it is
,accurate control, and mixing of the raw mixture it affords. 
transported to the work site. There are many
In the wet process, the solid material, after dry crushing is
methods of transporting concrete, including
reduced to a fine state of division in wet tube or ball mills
wheelbarrows, buckets, belt conveyors,
and passes as a slurry through bowl classifiers or screens. 
The slurry is pumped to correcting tanks, where rotating
arms makes the mixture homogeneous and  and allow the
final adjustment to the composition to be made. 

 
 During placing, segregation of the various ingredients must
be avoided so that full compaction—elimination of air
bubbles—can be achieved.

special trucks, and pumping. Pumping transports large

quantities of concrete over large distances through pipelines
using a system consisting of a hopper, a pump, and the
pipes. Pumps come in several types—the horizontal piston
pump with semi-rotary valves and small portable pumps
called squeeze pumps. A vacuum provides a continuous
flow of concrete, with two rotating rollers squeezing a
flexible pipe to move the concrete into the delivery pipe.

Placing and compacting

 6 Once at the site, the concrete must be placed

and compacted. These two operations are
performed almost simultaneously. Placing must be
done so that segregation of the various ingredients
is avoided and full compaction—with all air bubbles
eliminated—can be achieved. Whether chutes or
buggies are used, position is important in achieving
these goals. The rates of placing and of compaction
should be equal; the latter is usually accomplished
using internal or external vibrators. An internal
vibrator uses a poker housing a motor-driven shaft.
The first step in making concrete is to prepare the cement.
When the poker is inserted into the concrete,
One type of cement, Pordand cement, is considered
controlled vibration occurs to compact the
superior to natural cement because it is stronger, more
concrete. External vibrators are used for precast or
durable, and of a more consistent quality.
thin in situ sections having a shape or thickness
To make it, the raw materials are crushed and ground into a
unsuitable for internal vibrators. These type of
fine powder and mixed together. Next, the material
vibrators are rigidly clamped to the formwork,
undergoes two heating steps—calcining and burning. In
which rests on an elastic support. Both the form
calcining, the materials are heated to a high temperature
and the concrete are vibrated. Vibrating tables are
but do not fuse together. In burning, however, the materials
also used, where a table produces vertical vibration
partially fuse together, forming a substance known as
by using two shafts rotating in opposite directions.
"clinker." The clinker is then ground in a ball mill—a rotating
steel drum filled with steel balls that pulverize the material. Curing

 7 Once it is placed and compacted, the concrete

must cured before it is finished to make sure that it
doesn't dry too quickly. Concrete's strength is
influenced by its moisture level during the
hardening process: as the cement solidifies, the
concrete shrinks. If site constraints prevent the
concrete from contracting, tensile stresses will
develop, weakening the concrete. To minimize this
problem, concrete must be kept damp during the
several days it requires to set and harden.
After the Portland cement is prepared, it is mixed with
aggregates such as sand or gravel, admixtures, fibers, and
water. Next, it is transfered to the work site and placed.