MODULE 2

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS

Introduction
The position or the layout of the central line of the highway on the ground is called the
alignment. Highway Alignment includes both
a) Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved paths, the deviations and horizontal
curves.
b) Vertical alignment includes changes in level, gradients and vertical curves.
A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment will lead to increase in
construction, maintenance and vehicle operation cost. Once the road is aligned and constructed,
it is not easy to change it due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly
structures by the roadside

Requirements
The requirements of an ideal alignment are
a) Short: The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as
possible be straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations may be needed.
b) Easy: The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for the
operation of vehicles. So, to the maximum extend easy gradients and curves should be
provided.
c) Safe: It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view especially
at slopes, embankments, and cutting. It should be safe for traffic operation with safe
geometric features.
d) Economical: The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only if
the total life cycle cost considering the initial cost, maintenance cost, and vehicle
operating cost is lowest.

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Factors Controlling Alignment
For an alignment to be shortest, it should be straight between the two terminal stations,
but this is not always possible due to various practical difficulties such as intermediate
obstructions or topography. A road which is economical with low initial investment may not
be the most economical in terms of maintenance or vehicle operation cost(VOC). Thus, is may
be seen that an alignment can fulfil all the requirements simultaneously, hence a judicial choice
is made considering all the factors.
The various factors that control the alignment are as follows:
a) Obligatory Points
b) Traffic
c) Geometric Design
d) Economics
e) Other Considerations

Obligatory Points
These are the control points governing the highway alignment. These points are
classified into two categories.
1) Points Through Which the Alignment Should Pass
2) Points Through Which the Alignment Should Not Pass.

Points Through Which the Alignment Should Pass

a) Bridge site: The bridge can be located only where the river has straight and permanent
path and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded. The road approach
to the bridge should not be curved and skew crossing should be avoided as possible.
Thus, to locate a bridge the highway alignment may be changed.
b) Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various alternatives are
to either
c) Construct a tunnel or to go around the hills. The suitability of the alternative depends
on factors like topography, site conditions and construction and operation cost.
d) Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an intermediate
town or village nearby. These were some of the obligatory points through which the
alignment should pass.

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Points Through Which the Alignment Should Not Pass.
a) Religious places: These have been protected by the law from being acquired for any
purpose. Therefore, these points should be avoided while aligning.
b) Very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy compensation which
would result in an increase in initial cost. So, the alignment may be deviated not to pass
through that point.
c) Lakes/ponds etc.: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path would also
necessitate deviation of the alignment.
Traffic
The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the origin- destination
data of the area, the desire lines should be drawn. The new alignment should be drawn keeping
in view the desire lines, traffic flow pattern etc.
Geometric design
Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve, sight distance etc. also
governs the alignment of the highway. To keep the radius of curve minimum, it may be required
to change the alignment of the highway. The alignments should be finalized such that the
obstructions to visibility do not restrict the minimum requirements of sight distance. The design
standards vary with the class of road and the terrain and accordingly the highway should be
aligned.
Economics
The alignment finalized should be economical. All the three costs i.e. construction,
maintenance, and operating cost should be minimum. The construction cost can be decreased
much if it is possible to maintain a balance between cutting and filling. Also try to avoid very
high embankments and very deep cuttings as the construction cost will be very higher in these
cases.
Other Considerations
The various other factors that govern the alignment are drainage considerations,
political considerations and monotony. The vertical alignment is often guided by drainage
considerations such as sub surface drainage, water level, seepage flow, and high flood levels.
A foreign territory coming across the alignment will necessitate the deviation of the horizontal
alignment. In flat terrain, even though it is possible to have a very long stretch of road which
is absolutely straight may be monotonous for driving. Hence it is recommended to have a slight
bend or road side amenities to break monotony.

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ENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Stages of Engineering Surveys
Before a highway alignment is finalised in a new highway project, engineering surveys
are to be carried out. These engineering surveys may be completed in the following four stages:
a) Map Study
b) Reconnaissance Survey
c) Preliminary Surveys
d) Final Location and Detailed Surveys
Map Study
It is possible to suggest the likely routes of the roads if the topographic map of the area
is available. In India, topographic maps are available from the Survey of India, with 15 or 30
metre contour intervals. The main features like rivers, hills valleys, etc. are also shown on these
maps.
The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following details available on the
map.
Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes
When the road has to cross a row of hills or mountains, possibility of crossing through
a mountain pass.
Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of the river, if
any
When a road is to be connected between two stations, one of the top and the other on
the foot of the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested keeping in view the design or
ruling gradient and the maximum permissible gradient
Thus, from the map study alternate routes can be suggested. It may also be possibly from map
study to drop a certain route in view of any unavoidable obstructions or undesirable ground
and map study gives a rough guidance of the routes to be further surveyed in the field.
Reconnaissance Survey
The second stage of engineering surveys for highway alignment is the reconnaissance
survey. During the reconnaissance, the engineer visits the site and examines the general
characteristics of the area before deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies. A field
survey party may inspect a fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed alternative routes of
the map in the field, very simple survey instruments are used by the reconnaissance party to
collect additional details rapidly, but not accurately. All relevant details which are not available

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in the map are collected and noted down. Some of the details to be collected during
reconnaissance are given below
a) Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures and other
obstructions alone the route which are not available in the map
b) Approximate values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of curves of alternate
alignments.
c) Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level and natural ground
water level along the probable routes.
d) Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and observation of geological
features
e) Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries
f) When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain, additional data regarding
the geological formation, type of rocks, dip of strata, seepage flow etc. may be observed
so as to decide the stable and unstable sides of the hill for highway alignment
A rapid reconnaissance of the area, especially when it is vast and the terrain is difficult and it
may be done by aerial survey. From the details collected during the survey the alignment
proposed may be altered or even changes completed.
Preliminary Survey
The main objectives of the preliminary survey are
To survey the various alternate alignment proposed after the reconnaissance and to
collect all the necessary physical information and details of topography, drainage and
soil
To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good alignment.
To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other construction aspects and to work
out the cost of alternate proposals.
The preliminary survey may be carried out by of following methods
a) Conventional approach, in which a survey party carries out surveys using the required
field equipment, taking measurements, collecting topographical and other data and
carrying out soil survey
b) Rapid approach, by aerial survey taking the required aerial photographs and by
photogrammetric methods and photo-interpretation techniques for obtaining the
necessary topographic and other maps including details of soil and geology
c) Modem techniques by use of Global Positioning System (GPS)

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The procedure of the conventional methods of preliminary survey is given in following steps:
a) Primary Traverse
b) Topographical Features
c) Levelling Work
d) Drainage Studies and Hydrological Data
e) Soil Survey
f) Material Survey
g) Traffic Studies Primary Traverse
Primary Traverse
The first step in the preliminary survey is to establish the primary traverse, following
the alignment recommended in the reconnaissance. For alternate alignments either secondary
traverses or independent primary traverses may be necessary. As these traverses are open
traverses and adjustment of errors is not possible later, the angles should be very accurately
measured using a precision theodolite.
Topographic Features
After establishing the centre lines of preliminary survey, the topographical features are
recorded. All geographical and other man-made features along the traverse and for a certain
width on either side are surveyed and plotted. The width to be surveyed is generally decided
by the survey party, but the absolute minimum width is the land width of the proposed
alignment.
Levelling work
Levelling work is also carried out side by side to give the centre line profiles and typical
cross sections. Permanent and temporary bench marks should be first established at appropriate
locations and the levels should be connected to the GTS datum. The levelling work in the
preliminary survey is kept to a minimum just sufficient to obtain the approximate earth work
in the alternate alignments. To draw contours of the strip of land to be surveyed, cross section
levels should be taken at suitable intervals, generally 100 to 200 m in plain terrain, up to 50 m
in rolling terrain and up to 30 m in hilly terrain.
Drainage Studies and Hydrological Data
Drainage investigations and hydrological data are collected so as to estimate the type,
number and approximate size of cross drainage structures. Also, the vertical alignment of the
highway, particularly the grade line is decided based on the hydrological and drainage data,
such as HFL. ponded water level, depth of water table, amount of surface runoff, etc.

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Soil Survey
Soil survey is an essential part of the preliminary survey as the suitability of the
proposed location is to be finally decided based on the soil survey data. The soil survey
conducted at this stage also helps in working out details of earth work, slopes, suitability of
materials, subsoil and surface drainage requirements and pavement type and the approximate
thickness requirements. All these details are required to make a comparative study of alternate
proposals. A detailed soil survey is not necessary. Post-hole auger or any other suitable types
of hand augers may be used depending on the soil type to collect the soil sample up to a depth
of 1 to 3 metre below the likely finished road level or the existing ground level, whichever is
lower. When the road is expected to be constructed over an embankment, the depth of
exploration should extend up to twice the height of embankment from the ground level. During
the soil exploration if the ground water table is struck, the depth from the ground surface is
also noted. The types of soils encountered along the route up to the depth under consideration
are marked on the soil profile either symbolically or by suitable colour coding.
Material Survey
The survey for naturally occurring materials like stone aggregates, soft aggregates, etc.
and identification of suitable quarries should be made. Also, availability of manufactured
materials like cement, lime, brick, etc. and their locations may be ascertained.
Traffic Survey
Traffic surveys conducted in the region form the basis for deciding the number of traffic
lanes and roadway width, pavement design and economic analysis of the highway project.
Traffic volume counts of the classified vehicles are to be carried out on all the existing roads
in the region, preferably for 24 hours per day for seven days. Origin and destination surveys
are very useful for deciding the alignment of the roads. This study may be earned out on a
suitable sample of vehicle users or drivers. In addition, the required traffic data may also be
collected so that the traffic forecast could be made for 10 to 20 year periods.
Determination of Final Centre Line
After completing the preliminary surveys and conducting the comparative studies of
alternative alignments, the final centre line of the road is to be decided in the office before the
final location survey. For this, the preliminary survey maps consisting of contour plans,
longitudinal profile and cross sections of the alternate alignments should be prepared and
carefully studied to decide the best alignment satisfying engineering aesthetic and economical
requirements. After selecting the final alignment, the grade lines are drawn and the geometric
elements of the horizontal and vertical alignments of the road are designed.

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Rapid method using aerial survey and modern technique using GPS
Aerial photographic surveys and photogrammetric methods are very much suited for
preliminary surveys, especially when the distance and area to be covered are vast, The survey
may be divided into the following steps:
Taking aerial photographs of the strips of land to be surveyed with the required longitudinal
and lateral overlaps. Vertical photographs are necessary for the preparation of mosaics.
a) The photographs are examined under stereoscopes and control points are selected for
establishing the traverses of the alternate proposals. The control points are located on
the maps
b) Using stereo-pair observations, the spot levels and subsequently contour details may be
noted down on the maps
c) Photo-interpretation methods are used to assess the geological features, soil conditions,
drainage requirements etc.

Final Location and Detailed Survey

The alignment finalised at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be first
located on the field by establishing the centre line. Next detailed survey should be carried out
for collecting the information necessary for the preparation of plans and construction details
for the highway project.
Location
The centre line of the road finalised in the drawings is to be transferred on the ground
during the location survey. This is done using a transit theodolite and by staking of the centre
line. The location of the centre line should follow, as closely as practicable, the alignment
finalised after the preliminary surveys. Major and minor control points are established on the
ground and centre pegs are driven, checking the geometric design requirements. However,
modifications in the final location may be made in the field, if found essential. The centre line
stakes are driven at suitable intervals, say at 50 metre intervals in plain and rolling terrains and
at 20 metre in hilly terrain.
Detailed Survey
Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 m and at all drainage and
under pass structures. Levels along the final centre line should be taken at all staked
points.
Levelling work is of great importance as the vertical alignment, earth work calculations

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and drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes.
The cross-section levels are taken up to the desired width, at intervals of 50 to 100 m
in plain terrain, 50 to 75 m in rolling terrain, 50 m in built-up areas and 20 m in hilly
terrain.
The cross sections may be taken at closer intervals at horizontal curves and where there
is abrupt change in cross slopes.
All river crossing, valleys etc. should be surveyed in detail up to considerable distances
on either side.
All topographical details are noted down and also plotted using conventional signs.
Adequate hydrological details are also collected and recorded.
A detailed soil survey is carried out to enable drawing of the soil profile. The depth up
to which soil sampling is to be done may be 1.5 to 3.0 m below the ground line or
finished grade line of the road whichever is lower. However, in case of high
embankments, the depth should be up to twice the height of the finished embankment.
The spacing of auger borings very much depends upon the soil type and its variations.
CBR value of soils along the alignment may be determined for designing the pavement.
The data during the detailed survey should be elaborate and complete for preparing
detailed plans, design and estimates of the project.

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Steps in a new project work
The various steps in a new highway project may be summarised as given below:
Map Study: This is carried out with the help of available topographic maps of the area
Reconnaissance Survey: During reconnaissance survey, a general idea of a
topography and other features, field identification of soils and survey of construction
materials, by an on-the spot inspection of the site.
Preliminary Survey: Topographic details and soil survey along alternate alignments,
consideration of geometric design and other requirements of alignment, preparation of
plans and comparison of alternate routes; economic analysis and selection of final
alignment.
Location of Final Alignment: Transfer of the alignment from the drawings to the
ground by driving pegs along the centre line of finally chosen alignment, setting out
geometric design elements by location of tangent points, apex points, circular and
transition curves, elevation of centre line and super elevation details.
Detailed Survey: Survey of the highway construction work or the preparation of
longitudinal and cross sections, computations of earth work quantities and other
construction material and checking details of geometric design elements.
Materials Survey: Survey of construction materials, their collection and testing.
Design: Design details of embankment and cut slopes, foundation of embankments and
bridges, and pavement layers and cross drainage structures.
Earth Work: Excavations for highway cutting and drainage system, construction of
embankments.
Pavement Construction: Preparation of subgrade, construction of sub-base, base and
surface courses.
Construction Controls: Quality control tests during different stages of construction
and check for finished road surface such as unevenness, camber, super elevation and
extra widening of pavements at curves.
Construction Planning and Programming: The construction planning and
programming to be carried out taking into accounts all the restraints and existing
problems. In order to minimise the construction cost and time, it is essential to resort to
appropriate approaches such as use of Critical Path Method (CPM) and Project
Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT).

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Re-Alignment Project
Necessity of Re-Alignment
Most of the present highways in India have been upgraded in stages, from the existing
local roads of the pre-automobile era. As these roads were then meant for slow traffic, they are
found deficient in the geometric design elements for the present-day automobile traffic. There
are several stretches of NH in the country having single lane carriageway, narrow bridges and
culverts and many locations with sharp horizontal curves and avoidable zigzags, steep gradients
and inadequate sight distances. These defects are to be rectified as early as possible at least in
stages, starting with roads of greater importance like . It will be worth-while to
adopt more liberal values of geometric design parameters than the ruling minimum values
specified, where the conditions are favourable and the costs involved are not excessive. In such
cases, it would be possible to upgrade the highway if necessary in future by increasing the
width standards only, but without the necessity of re-aligning the road. However, in constrained
situations and in difficult terrain, it may not always be economical to improve the existing
highway geometries to the recommended design standards. In such cases appropriated speed
restrictions have to be imposed to minimise road accidents.
It has been decided as a policy that should as far as possible be able to fully cater
to the traffic moving at design speed, fulfilling the comfort and safety requirements, both for
the present and future traffic needs. To achieve this objective, it is necessary to plan
improvements in the geometries of roads wherever deficient, to the extent economically
practicable along with other improvements such as raising of the road above flood water level,
pavement resurfacing or construction of overlay for strengthening the pavement structure.

Types of Improvement
The following types of improvement in alignment of existing road may be carried out:
1) Improvement of horizontal alignment design elements such as, radius, super elevation,
transition curve, providing adequate clearance on inner side of the curve or shifting the
curve to provide adequate sight distance, elimination of reverse curve and undesirable
zigzags, etc.
2) Improvement of vertical alignment design elements like steep gradients, changes in
summit curves to increase sight distance, correction of undesirable undulations like
humps any dips, etc.

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 3) Raising the level of a portion of a road which is subjected to flooding, submergence or
water-logging during monsoons.
4) Re-construction of weak and narrow bridges and culverts and changes in waterway at
locations slightly away from the existing site.
5) Construction of over-bridges or under-bridges at suitable locations across a railway line
in place of level crossing or across another road to provide grade separated
intersections.
6) Re-alignment required due to a portion of the road being submerged under water at the
reservoir area on account of construction of a new dam.
7) Construction of a bypass to avoid the road running through a town or city
8) Defence requirements.

General Principles of Re-Alignment

While improving the horizontal alignment of roads, improvement in sharp curves and
zigzags should be done after considering the whole alignment and not on piece meal
basis. The improvement of transition curves would not generally be very costly and
therefore such deficiencies should be rectified where-ever necessary. The sight distance
available generally gets increased when the horizontal alignment is improved,
otherwise the setback distance may be increased at horizontal curves by removing or
shifting the obstruction from the inner side of the curve, up to the desired extent,
While improving the vertical alignment, attempts should be made to provide
Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) at summit curves. On divided highways, the
overtaking distance required will be lesser than on un-divided two-way roads, as there
is no need to provide for the on-coming vehicles during overtaking operations.
However, if it is not possible to provide for OSD, at- least the safe stopping sight
distance should be available for the design speed at all locations of the road
The corrections of minor undulations such as humps and dips may not involve high cost
and so it is desirable to provide suitable vertical transition curves for shock-free
movement of vehicles travelling at the design speed. Valley curves may be checked for
comfort condition and for visibility under the head lights of the vehicles during night
driving.
The road stretches which remain submerged under water even for a short duration of
the year or those which are in water-logged areas should be raised before strengthening

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 or widening pavement section. The formation level be raised such that the subgrade is
at least 0.6 m above the HFL. Suitable measures should be adopted against water-
logging and care should be taken to provide suitable drainage facilities including the
cross drainage works.
While reconstructing bridges of length greater than 60 m on sites other than the existing
ones, separate surveys should be carried out for the selection of suitable sites. The
selection of site for major bridges would be governed by the river training works, sub-
soil conditions for foundation and hydraulic considerations. However, in small bridges,
the road alignment would essentially govern the bridge site selection
The deciding factor which is being considered for providing over-bridges or under
bridges for a NH across railway level crossings is product of number of gate closures
and the intensity of traffic on the highway in tonnes per day in the design year. When
this product exceeds 50,000 or when the level crossing is within the shunting limits of
a railway station, the grade separation is justified. The location is decided keeping in
view the highway alignment, the topographic and other site conditions,
The necessity to provide alternate routes to bypass through traffic is assessed from the
origin and destination studies. If the by-passable traffic more than the traffic terminating
at the town or built-up area then the bypass may be justified.

Steps in The Re-Alignment Project

1) Reconnaissance of the stretch of road to be re-aligned, study of the deficiencies and the
possible changes in alignment
2) Survey of existing road, recording the topographic features and all other existing
features including drainage conditions. The width of the land to be surveyed depends
on the amount of shifting anticipated when the road is re-aligned.
3) Observations of spot levels along the centre line of the road and cross section levels at
suitable intervals. The intervals should be taken at closer intervals at horizontal and
vertical curves and near cross drainage works.
4) Soil survey along the stretches of land through which the re-aligned road may pass,
preparation of typical soil profiles after testing the soil samples in the lab.
5) Finalisation of the design features of re-aligned road stretches
6) Preparation of drawings and Marking out the centre line of re-aligned road while trying
to utilise the existing road to the maximum extent possible.

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 7) Earth-work and preparation of subgrade of the re-alignment road stretches, setting out
and construction of new bridges and culverts
8) Checking the geometric design elements of the newly aligned stretches of the road
9) Design and construction of the new highway pavements

Preparation of Drawing for Re-Alignment Project

The drawings for the re-alignment project should show all the existing features of the
road as well as all the proposed improvements.
The following drawings would be needed
1) Plan showing existing road, proposed re-alignment, contours and all other features of
importance.
2) Longitudinal section showing natural ground elevation, surface of the existing road and
the grade line for the re-construction
3) Cross section showing the existing highway and new roadway drawn at 250m intervals
on straights, at the beginning and end of transition curves and at the middle of circular
curves. Cross sections are drawn at 50m intervals where the new carriageway falls
entirely outside the existing one.

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HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible
features of the highway such as horizontal and vertical alignments, sight distances and
intersections. The designer may be exposed to either plan a new highway network or improve
existing highway to meet the requirements of existing and the anticipated traffic.
It is possible to design and construct highway in stages but the geometric elements have
to be planned in the initial stages only it will be expensive and difficult to improve it later.
Geometric design of highways deals with following elements
a) Cross-Section Elements
b) Sight Distance Consideration,
c) Horizontal Alignment Details
d) Vertical Alignment Details
e) Intersection Elements

Design Controls and Criteria

Factors affecting the geometric designs are as follows
Design Controls and Criteria

The geometric design of highways depends on several design factors. The important
factors which control the geometric elements are:

(a) Design speed

(b) Topography or terrain

(c) Traffic factors

(d) Design hourly volume and capacity
(e) Environmental and other factors
Design speed
The design speed is the most important factor controlling the geometric design elements
of highways. The design speed is decided taking into account the overall requirements of the
highway. In India, different speed standards have been assigned depending upon the
importance or the class of the road such as National/State Highways, Major/Other District
Roads and Village Roads. Further the design speed standards are modified depending upon the
terrain or topography.

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Topography
The topography or the terrain conditions influence the geometric design of highway
significantly. The terrains are classified based on the general slope of the country across the
alignment, as plain, rolling, mountainous and steep terrains. The design standards specified for
different classes of roads, are different depending on the terrain classification. Further in hilly
terrain, it is necessary to allow for steeper gradients and sharper horizontal curves due to the
construction problems.
Traffic Factors
The factors associated with traffic that affect geometric design of road are the vehicular
characteristics and human characteristics of road users. It is difficult to decide the design
vehicle or standard traffic lane under mixed traffic flow.
Environmental and Other Factors
The environmental factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air and noise pollution and
other local conditions should be given due considerations in the design of road geometrics.
Some of the arterial high-speed highways and expressways are designed for higher speed
standards and uninterrupted flow of vehicles by providing controlled access and grade
separated intersections.

HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

Pavement Surface depends on the pavement type. The pavement surface type is decided based
on the availability of materials and funds, volume and composition of traffic, sub grade, and
climatic conditions. The important characteristics of the pavement are
1) Friction Considerations
2) Unevenness
3) Light Reflecting Characteristics
4) Drainage of Surface Water

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 1) Friction
The friction of skid resistance between vehicle tyre and pavement surface is one of the
factors determining the operating speed and the minimum distance requires for stopping of
vehicles.
'Skid' occurs when the wheels slide without revolving or rotating or when the wheels partially
revolve i.e., when the path travelled along the road surface is more than the circumferential
movements of the wheels due to their rotation When the brakes arc applied, the wheels are
locked partially or fully, and if the vehicle moves forward, the longitudinal skidding takes place
which may van, from 0 to 100%.
While a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, if the centrifugal force is greater than the
counteracting forces (i.e. lateral friction and component of gravity due to super elevation)
lateral skidding takes place. The lateral skid is considered dangerous as the vehicle goes out of
control leading to an accident. The maximum lateral skid coefficient is generally equal to or
slightly higher than the forward skid coefficient in braking tests.
'Slip' occurs when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along
the roads. Slipping usually occurs in the driving wheel of a vehicle when the vehicle rapidly
accelerates from stationary position or from slow speed on pavement surface which is either
slippery and wet or when the road surface is loose with mud
Factors Affecting Friction or Skid Resistance
The maximum friction offered by pavement surface or the skid resistance depend* upon
the following factors:
Type of pavement surface namely, cement concrete, bituminous, WBM. earth surface etc.
Macro-texture of the pavement surface or its relative roughness
Condition of pavement namely
Type and condition of tyre
Speed of vehicle
Extent of brake application or brake efficiency
Load and tyre pressure
Temperature of tyre and pavement
For the calculation purposes, the IRC has recommended the longitudinal friction co efficient
values of 0.35 to 0.40 th
design speed of 120 and 100kmph it is 0.10 and 0.11

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 2) Pavement Unevenness
The longitudinal profile of the road pavement has to he even' in order to provide a good
riding comfort to fast moving vehicles and to minimise the VOC. Presence of undulations on
the pavement surface is called pavement unevenness which results in
Increase in Discomfort and Fatigue to Road Users
Increase in Fuel Consumption and Tyre Wear and Increase in VOC
Reduction in Vehicle Operating Speed and Increase in Accident Rate
The pavement surface should therefore be maintained w i th minimum possible unevenness or
undulations so that the desired speed can be maintained m conformity w i th other geometric
standards Loose road surface increases the resistance to traction and causes increase in fuel
consumption.
The unevenness of pavement surface is commonly measured by using a simple equipment
called 'Bump Integrator' (BI), in terms of Unevenness Index which is the cumulative
measure of vertical undulations of the pavement surface recorded per unit length of the road.
Internationally, the riding quality of a pavement surface is quantified in terms of 'roughness
and is expressed as International Roughness Index (IRI) in units of m/km. The relation between
the unevenness measured using bump integrator in mm/km and the International Roughness
index in m/km is as follows
BI = 630 (IRI)1.12
Undulations of newly laid pavement surface are sometimes measured using a straight edge and
wedge scale, in terms of the depth and number of depressions or ruts along and across the
pavement. It may be mentioned here that there are several advanced techniques and equipment
available now to evaluate the pavement surface condition.
*Refer Class notes for standards

3) Light Reflecting Characteristics

Night visibility depends upon the colour and light reflecting characteristics of the
pavement surface. The glare caused by the reflection of head lights is considerably high on wet
pavement surface than on the dry pavement.
Light coloured or white pavement surface give good visibility at night particularly
during rains: however white or light colour of pavement surface may produces glare
and eye strain during bright sunlight.
Black top pavement surface on the other hand provides very poor visibility at nights,
especially when the surface is wet.

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Cross Slope or Camber
Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off the rain water from the road surface. Drainage and quick disposal of water
from the pavement surface by providing cross slope is considered important because of the
following reasons:
1) To prevent the entry of surface water into the pavement layers and the subgrade soil
through pavement.
2) To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement layers, as continued contact
with water causes stripping of bitumen from the aggregates and results in deterioration
of the pavement layer
3) To remove the rain water from the pavement surface as quickly as possible and to allow
the pavement to get dry soon after the rain.
The rate of camber or cross slope is which means the transverse
slope is in ratio 1 vertical to n horizontal.
The required camber of a pavement depends on
a) Type of pavement surface
b) The amount of rainfall
It is desirable not to provide excessive camber or steep cross slope on road pavements. Only
the minimum camber needed to drain off surface water may be adopted keeping in view the
type of pavement surface and the amount of rainfall in the locality. Too steep cross slope is not
desirable because of the following reasons:
Transverse tilt of vehicles causes uncomfortable side thrust and a drag on the steering
wheel of automobiles. Also, the thrust on the wheels along the pavement edges is more
causing unequal wear of the tyres as well as road surface
Discomfort causing throw of vehicle when crossing the crown during overtaking
operations.
Problems of possible toppling over of highly laden bullock carts and trucks
Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water
Tendency of most of the vehicles to travel along the centre line

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Recommended values of camber
The values of camber recommended by the IRC for different types of road surfaces are
given in the below table.
Recommended values of camber for different types of road surfaces
Range of camber in areas of
Sl. No. Type of road surface
Heavy rainfall Low rainfall
Cement concrete and high type
1. 1 in 50 or 2.0 % 1 in 60 or 1.7%
bituminous surface
2. Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 or 2.5 % 1 in 50 or 2.0 %
Water bound Macadam and gravel
3. 1 in 33 or 3.0 % 1 in 40 or 2.5%
pavement
4. Earth road 1 in 25 or 4.0 % 1 in 33 or 3.0 %

The cross slope for shoulders should be 0.5% steeper than the cross slope of adjoining
pavement, subject to a minimum of 3.0% and a maximum value of 5.0% for earth shoulders.
The cross slope suggested for the carriageway, paved shoulders and edge strip of expressways
with bituminous surface as well as cement concrete surface is 2.5 % in regions with annual
rain fall exceeding 1000 mm and 2.0 % in places with less than 1000 mm rain fall.

SHAPE OF CROSS SLOPE

In the field, camber of the pavement cross section is provided with a suitable shape.
Different shapes that are commonly adopted are
1) Parabolic
2) Straight Line
3) Straights with parabolic curve

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Providing Camber in the field
In order to provide the desired amount and shape of camber, templates or camber boards are
prepared with the chosen shape and specified cross slope and they can be used to check the
lateral profile of finished pavements.
a) Parabolic Camber
y = x2/a
where a = nW/2
b) Straight Line Camber
y = W/2n
W width, n cross slope in 1 in n

WIDTH OF PAVEMENT OR CARRIAGEWAY

The width of pavement or carriageway depends on
1) Width of Traffic Lane
2) Number of Lanes.
The portion of carriageway width that is intended for one line of traffic movement is
called a traffic lane. As different classes of vehicles travel along the same roadway generally
the lane width is decided based on a standard vehicle such as the passenger car. However, it is
also necessary to consider the maximum width of the largest vehicle class such as the heavy
commercial vehicle (HCV) which is legally permitted to use the roadway in the country.
Width of carriageway recommended by IRC
Class of Road Width of Carriageway, m

Single Lane Road 3.75

Two Lane Road, without raised kerbs 7.0

Two Lane Road, with raised kerbs 7.5

Intermediate Carriageway 5.5

Multi Lane Pavements 3.5 per lane

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 Single Lane Pavement

Two Lane Pavement

MEDIANS/TRAFFIC SEPARATORS
In highways with divided carriageway, a median is provided between two sets of
traffic lanes intended to divide the traffic moving in opposite directions. The main function
of the median is to prevent head-on collision between vehicles moving in opposite
directions on adjacent lanes. The median is also called or traffic separator. The traffic
separators used may be in the form of pavement markings, physical dividers or area
separators. Pavement marking is the simplest of all these, but this will not rule out head-
on collision. The mechanical separator may be suitably designed keeping in view safety
considerations.

KERBS
Kerb indicates the boundary between the pavement and median or foot path or island
or shoulder. It is desirable to provide kerbs on urban roads. Refer Fig. There are a variety of
kerb designs. Kerbs may be mainly divided based on their functions.
a) Low or Mountable Kerbs
These types of kerbs are provided such that they encourage the traffic to remain in the through
traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little difficulty.

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 b) Semi-Barrier Type Kerbs
When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided. Their height is 15 cm above the
pavement edge.
c) Barrier Type Kerbs
They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement. They are provided when
there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic. They are placed at a height of 20 cm above
The Pavement Edge with A Steep Batter.
d) Submerged Kerbs
They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at pavement edges between pavement
edge and shoulder

ROAD MARGINS
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally called
road margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given below.
Shoulders
Shoulders are provided on both sides of the pavement all along the road in the case of
undivided highway and are provided on the outer edge of the highway in divided carriage way

The important functions of shoulders are:

(a) Shoulders provide structural stability and support to the edges of the flexible
pavements.

(b) The capacity of the carriageway and the operating speeds of vehicles increase if the
shoulders are laid and maintained in good condition.
(c) Shoulders serve as emergency lanes for vehicle compelled to be taken out of the main
carriageway or roadway. Shoulders should have sufficient load bearing capacity to
support loaded truck even in wet weather
(d) Shoulders also act as service lanes for vehicles that are disabled. The width of shoulder
should be adequate to accommodate stationary vehicle fairly away from the edge of
adjacent lane.

Guard rails
Guard rails are provided at the edge of the shoulder when the road is constructed on a
fill so that vehicles are prevented from running off the embankment, especially when the
height of the fill exceeds 3 m. Guard stones (painted with black and white strips) are installed

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at suitable intervals along the outer edge of the formation at horizontal curves of roads running
on embankments along rural areas so as to provide better night visibility of the curves under
head lights of vehicles
Footpath or side-walk
In order to provide safe facility to pedestrians to walk along the roadway, foot paths or
side-walks are provided in urban areas where the pedestrian traffic is noteworthy and the
vehicular traffic is also heavy. By providing good foot path facility, the pedestrians can keep
off from the carriageway and they are segregated from the moving vehicular traffic. Thus, the
operating speeds of the vehicular traffic increases and there will be marked reduction in
accidents involving pedestrians.

Drive ways
Drive ways connect the highway with commercial establishment like fuel-stations,
service-stations etc. Drive ways should be properly designed and located, fairly away from an
intersection. The radius of the drive way curve should be kept as large as possible, but the
width of the drive way should be minimised to reduce the crossing distance for the
pedestrians.
Cycle tracks
Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas where the volume of cycle traffic on the road
is very high. A minimum width of 2 m is provided for the cycle track and the width may be
increased by 1.0 m for each additional cycle lane.
Parking lanes
Parking lanes are provided on urban roads to allow kerb parking. As far as possible
only 'parallel parking' should be allowed as it is safer for moving vehicles. For parallel parking,
the minimum lane width should be 3.0 m.
Bus bays
Bus bays may be provided by recessing the kerb to avoid conflict with moving traffic.
Bus bays should be located at least 75 m away from the intersections.
Lay-byes
Lay-byes are provided near public conveniences with guide maps to enable drivers to
stop clear off the carriageway. Lay-byes should normally be of 3.0 width and at least 30 m
length with 15 m end tapers on both sides.

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Frontage roads
Frontage roads are provided to give access to properties along an important highway
with controlled access to express way or freeway. The frontage roads may run parallel to the
highway and are isolated by a separator, with approaches to the through facility only at selected
points, preferably with grade separation.

WIDTH OF FORMATION OR ROADWAY

Width of formation or roadway is the sum of widths of pavement or carriageway
including separators, if any and the shoulders. Formation or roadway width is the top width of
the highway embankment or the bottom width of highway cutting excluding the side drains.

RIGHT OF WAY AND LAND WIDTH

Right of way is the area of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. The width
of the acquired land for right of way is known as 'land width' and it depends on the importance
of the road and possible future development. A minimum land width has been prescribed for
each category of road. A desirable range of land width has also been suggested for each
category of road. While acquiring land for a highway it is desirable to acquire more width of
land as the cost of adjoining land invariably increases as soon as the new highway is
constructed.

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