12 - DRC Seed Investment Brief
12 - DRC Seed Investment Brief
12 - DRC Seed Investment Brief
1
Executive Summary
Compelling investment opportunities exist for seed companies and seed start-ups in the Democratic Republic
of the Congo (DRC). This document outlines the market potential and consumer demand trends in the DRC
and highlights the high potential of seed production in the country.
The DRC is the second largest country in Africa with over 80 million hectares of agricultural land, of which 4
to 7 million hectares are irrigable. Average rainfall varies between 800 mm and 1,800 mm per annum. Bimodal
and extended unimodal rainfall patterns allow for two agricultural seasons in approximately 75% of the
country. Average relative humidity ranges from 45% to 90% depending on the time of year and location.
The market potential for maize, rice and bean seed in the DRC is estimated at $191 million per annum, of
which a mere 3% has been exploited. Maize seed sells at $3.1 per kilogramme of hybrid seed and $1.6 per
kilogramme of OPV seed, a higher price than in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and Zambia. Seed-to-grain ratios
are comparable with regional benchmarks at 5.5:1 for hybrid maize seed and 5.0:1 for OPV maize seed.
The DRC is defined by four relatively distinct sales zones, which broadly coincide with the country’s four
principal climate zones. Low-quality infrastructure and natural barriers draw distinct divides between the zones.
These barriers, plus differences in culture, language and agricultural practices, mean that the DRC is comprised
of not one but four markets. The highest potential zones in terms of seed sales are the East and South regions,
which border South Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania and Zambia.
Amendments to the Agricultural Code, Loi n°11/002 of 24 December 2011, mean that foreign investors can
now acquire tracts of agricultural land in the DRC. The National Institute of Study and Agricultural Research
(INERA) and the National Seed Service (SENASEM) govern seed production and certification in the DRC. Variety
release takes approximately 26 months, less time than in Kenya and Tanzania, but is more costly. The National
Seed Catalogue, last updated in 2012, contains some 137 varieties and an additional 20 varieties have been
released in the DRC since 2012 by ministerial decree. The majority of foundation seed in the DRC comes from
national research institutions but it is possible to import foundation seed from public and private suppliers
outside the DRC including CIMMYT, CIAT and ICRISAT.
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A Quarter-Billion Dollar Industry? The DRC Seed Sector
Written by Bastiaan Huesken contributions by Ngama Munduku
DRC: Context
The DRC is the second largest country in Africa, with a surface area of over 2.3 million square kilometres. It
is endowed with 80 million hectares of agricultural land, of which less than 10% is under cultivation. This large
central African country borders Congo-Brazzaville and the Central African Republic to the North, South Sudan,
Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania to the East, and Zambia and Angola to the South. The DRC is
principally an agrarian country, home to over 56 million smallholder farmers. Agriculture accounts for about
20% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Approximately 90% of the agricultural activities in the DRC are
informal, and agricultural productivity is low compared to regional benchmarks 1. The DRC ranks 176th out of
189 countries on the Human Development Index and has been the recipient of sustained, long-term inflows
of Official Development Assistance (ODA) to the value of US$ 2 billion per annum2.
French is the official language of the DRC but is not widely spoken outside of the main urban areas. Lingala is
the predominant language in the North and West of the country while Swahili is the most widely spoken
language in the East and South. English fluency is low to non-existent.
Market trends indicate a shift in consumer behaviour in favour of commercial seed production, sales and
distribution systems. This shift is particularly apparent in the East and South of the DRC following over $3.1
million of sustained investment in demand creation in those two regions 3. As a result, sales to smallholder
farmers in the East and the South of the DRC grew by 690%, from 120 MT in 2015 to 950 MT in 2017, and
gross revenue totalled $4.57 million. Further exponential growth in consumer demand is forecast.
900
800
700
600
500
951
400
300
200
317
100
120
0 1
1
FAOSTATS reports that the average maize yield in the DRC is 0.77 MT per hectare compared to average maize yield in Kenya of 2.0 MT
per hectare (AgriExperience, 2012).
2
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) registered net ODA inflows of $2.4 billion in 2014, $2.6 billion in
2015 and $2.1 billion in 2016.
3 ÉLAN RDC, a private sector development program funded by UKAid, and private sector partners invested $3.1 million in consumer
demand creation from 2014 to 2018.
3
A significant number of agro-industrial companies operating in the South (Haut-Katanga), West (Bandundu)
and East (Beni and Rutshuru) of the DRC constitute a further sizeable and reliable customer base for seed
companies4.
In terms of both volume and variety of seed sales, the DRC holds tremendous potential. The country is defined
by multiple overlapping climate and agro-ecological zones, which allow for the cultivation of a large variety of
agricultural products.
Consumer demand for seeds for the aforementioned food crops is high and growing. For some of the food
crops, seed sales in the DRC have already surpassed those in Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya and Zambia.5
This significant market potential and growing consumer demand are complemented by high prices for seed in
comparison to regional benchmarks. The price of hybrid maize seed is significantly higher in the DRC than in
it is in the neighbouring countries to the East and South including Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya and Zambia.
Seed-to-grain ratios in the DRC are comparable to regional benchmarks at 5.5:1 for hybrid maize seed, 5.0:1
for OPV maize seed, 1.8:1 for rice seed and 1.4:1 for bean seed.6
Market competition in the DRC is low, with only eleven seed companies operational in the entire country, all
based in the East and South.7 By comparison there are 23 seed companies operational in Kenya and 30 in
Tanzania. The low number of seed companies and the large geographic expanse of the country mean that
there is very little overlap in sales territories.
The rural agro-dealer network is small but growing. A 2017 study estimated that the ratio of agro-dealers to
farming households was approximately 1:9,000 compared to 1:2,900 in Tanzania and 1:3,200 in Zambia
(TASAI, 2017). The rural agro-dealer network is growing as a result of sustained investment by development
programmes and the private sector. In 2017 and 2018 an estimated additional 390 agro-dealers were
established and trained in Eastern and Southern DRC – almost double the 199 agro-dealers recorded in 2016.
All 390 agro-dealers received comprehensive training on good agricultural practices and business
management.
4
For more information on agro-industrial companies operational in the DRC visit: www.fec-rdc.com
5
430 MT of rice seed valued at $860.000 was sold in the DRC in 2016 and sales volumes are estimated to have doubled since (ÉLAN
RDC, 2018).
6
Seed-to-grain ratios in Tanzania are: 8.7:1 for hybrid maize seed; 5.2:1 for OPV maize seed; 1.4:1 for bean seed.
Ratios in Uganda are 6.0:1 for hybrid maize seed; 3.0:1 for OPV maize seed; 1.2:1 for bean seed.
Ratios in Kenya are 4.5:1 for hybrid maize seed; 3.7:1 for OPV maize seed; 1.8:1 for bean seed.
Ratios in Zambia are 13.4:1 for hybrid maize seed; 10.0:1 for OPV maize seed; 1.4:1 for rice seed; 2.3:1 for bean seed.
For more information visit: www.tasai.org
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There are no seed companies operational in the West or the North of the country.
4
Sales Strategies
The DRC is defined by four relatively distinct sales zones, which broadly coincide with the country’s four
principal climate zones. The highest potential of the zones in terms of seed sales are the East and the South
zones followed by the West zone, labelled Zone A, Zone B and Zone C, respectively, in the map below. Low-
quality infrastructure and natural barriers draw distinct divides between the zones, and differences in culture,
language and agricultural practices mean that the DRC is constituted of not one but four markets. Seed
companies and start-ups that intend to operate in the DRC will need to establish regional offices to manage
local operations.
Zone A covers the East of the DRC and includes, from North to South, the cities of Bunia, Beni,Zone
Zone D. Butembo,
A.
Rutshuru, Goma, Bukavu and Uvira. This zone is the most agro-climatically diverse and has the highest
population density8. Cross-border trade (CBT) occurs mainly via the Kasindi (DRC to Uganda), Goma (DRC to
Rwanda), Rusizi (DRC to Rwanda) and Kamanyola (DRC to Rwanda) Zone C.border posts. Travel between the cities
listed above is complicated by poor infrastructure and security concerns. Intra-regional travellers therefore
commonly transit via Rwanda or Uganda.
Equatorial monsoonal
Zone C.
Zone B.
8
Population density in the Zone A. is 97 per km2
9
Average relative humidity in Zone B ranges between 45% and 85%.
5
Zone D is not currently a commercially viable market.
As noted above, sales and distribution strategies tailored to smallholder farmers have been piloted and scaled
with remarkable success in the DRC. Research has indicated that price is not the principal determinant in the
willingness of smallholder farmers to pay for seed. Smallholder farmers have proven capable and prepared to
pay from $1.5 for OPV maize seed to $4.0 for hybrid maize seed as long as the quality of the product has
been clearly demonstrated and the product is physically accessible. Sales strategies that target this
demographic therefore necessarily include consumer education tools and emphasize the establishment of
points of sale (POS) in close proximity to the target demographic.
The above tactics have gained significant traction among smallholder farmers.
10N 28.5
27
05N
25
EQ 24
22.5
05S
21
19.5
10S
18
15S
10E 15E 20E 25E 30E In °C
Average rainfall in the DRC varies between 800 mm and 1,800 mm per annum, depending on location. Bimodal
and extended unimodal rainfall patterns allow for two agricultural seasons in approximately 75% of the country
(FEWS NET, 2015). In addition to abundant rainfall, the DRC contains almost half of Africa’s fresh water
reserves (Ibid).
Average relative humidity varies considerably across the country. Zone A is defined by average relative
humidity of between 60% and 80%, while average relative humidity in Zone B varies between 45% and 85%.
Average relative humidity in zone C ranges between lows of 70% and highs of 95%.
Of the total 80 million hectares of agricultural land in the DRC, an estimated 4 to 7 million are irrigable. Current
total irrigated land is estimated at a mere 13,500 hectares (FAO, 2005).
6
Figure 4. Average Rainfall in the DRC
DJF MAM JJA SON
15N 15N 15N 15N
EQ EQ EQ EQ
Precipitation in mm
Agricultural Concessions
Foreign investors can now acquire agricultural concessions in the DRC. The Agricultural Code, Loi n°11/002 of
24 December 2011, was heavily criticized by local and international commentators for the fact that it severely
restricted access to land for foreign investors. In particular Article 16, which stipulated that applicants:
“be a natural person of Congolese nationality or a legal person governed by Congolese law whose shares
are majority owned by the Congolese State and/or nationals.”
The law elicited concerted criticism from local and international commentators and resulted in a sharp decline
of FDI inflows into the DRC agricultural sector. The law was eventually revised on 13 November 2017. The
revised Article 16 states that applicants:
Agricultural concessions in the DRC are established by a registration certificate and granted by the Congolese
State. The concession is unassailable after two years from the date of delivery.
The perpetual concessions are reserved for natural persons of Congolese nationality and legal persons under
Congolese law whose majority shares are owned by the Congolese State and/or nationals. The ordinary
concessions are available to the aforementioned persons as well as foreigners.
1) Identify the concession with the Ministry of Land Affairs or the National Investment Promotion Agency
(ANAPI);
2) Sign an agreement with the traditional authority of the area against payment of a sum of money and
goods in-kind according to custom;
3) Conduct a land vacancy inquiry and demarcation of the land by the relevant government authorities
including the local departments of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Land Affairs;
4) Obtain a signature for the concession contract with the Registrar of Real Estate Titles;
5) Establish the registration certificate by the Registrar of Real Estate Titles.
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For large concessions special approval is required. Concessions of over 2,000 hectares require approval by
law. Concessions of between 1,000 and 2,000 hectares require approval by order of the President of the
Republic. Concessions of between 200 and 1,000 hectares require approval from the Ministry of Land Affairs.
Concessions of under 200 hectares require approval from the Governor of the Province; the Provincial
Government may delegate their powers to the Registrar of Real Estate Titles for land areas under 50 hectares.
The entire process takes 26 months in the DRC, six months longer than the process takes in Uganda but
shorter than in Tanzania and Kenya. However, the cost of variety release in the DRC is significantly higher
than the cost in neighbouring countries (TASAI, 2017).
The National Seed Catalogue is generally updated every three years but, because of financial constraints, it
has not been updated since 2012. In the interim, the Minister of Agriculture has issued decrees to the same
effect on an annual basis. In November 2018, TASAI started working with stakeholders to update the National
8
Seed Catalogue, taking into account all of the ministerial decrees of recent years. The 2012 catalogue contains
some 137 varieties and an additional 20 varieties were released in the DRC between 2014 and 2016 (see
appendix 1 for further information).
Production of certified seed in the DRC is regulated and must be accredited by SENASEM. SENASEM will inspect
the production site prior to planting and will conduct three additional inspections throughout the vegetative
cycle. Upon harvest, SENASEM will conduct tests and produce a report that certifies the quality of the seed.
Inspection costs total approximately $160 per visit and certification costs total approximately $13 per metric
tonne.10
Foundation Seed
There are 14 active seed breeders in the DRC, all linked to either INERA or the University of Lubumbashi
(UNILU). The majority of seed breeders receive insufficient support from the government in spite of their
importance to the sector. While the majority of foundation seed in the DRC comes from either INERA or UNILU,
it is possible to import foundation seed from private and public suppliers outside the DRC; permitted sources
include CIMMYT, CIAT and ICRISAT (TASAI, 2017).
The DRC is one of four countries expected to ratify national legislation in line with the COMESA Seed Trade
Harmonization Regulations in 2019. Following stated support for the draft seed law from the Minister of
Agriculture and the Speaker of the House in 2017, COMSHIP is confident that the aligned seed law will be
ratified by parliament and promulgated by the incoming President of the Republic by Q3 of 2019. From Q3 of
2019 onwards, COMSHIP intends to train provincial regulators and the private sector on the COMESA Seed
Trade Harmonization Regulations.
The DRC is expected to align with all three of the core components of the COMESA Seed Trade Harmonization
Regulations:
This move will enable seed companies based in COMESA member-states to legally commercialize seed varieties
listed on the COMESA Plant Variety Catalogue in the DRC and it will thereby greatly facilitate the importation
of seed. To further bolster regional trade of seed, COMESA anticipates the launch of the COMESA Seed Labels
and Certificates in Q1 of 2019. The Seed Labels and Certificates will accompany large consignments of seed
crossing borders.
Export of seed from the DRC to COMESA member-states will remain problematic due to the limited technical
capacity of SENASEM and the fact that the DRC does not have a laboratory certified by the International Seed
Testing Association (ISTA). COMSHIP has neither the resources nor the remit to support the development of
capacity of SENASEM, so coordinated donor action will be required to bring the capacity of the National Seed
Services up to the required standard.
The current import processes in the DRC are not clearly defined and vary from region to region. There are
three main mechanisms by which seed companies and agro-dealers import seed into the DRC:
10
In total there are 105 seed inspectors in the DRC. In spite of this high number, the quality of seed inspection services in the DRC is low
(TASAI, 2017).
9
1. Customs clearing agents
This mechanism is not defined by a regulatory framework and is generally the most expedient import
mechanism.
Research has indicated that the average length of time required to import seeds into the DRC is comparable
to regional benchmarks (TASAI, 2017), as indicated by the following table.
Research has also indicated that the import of seed through informal channels is generally more expedient
than the import of seed through formal channels. Informal import of seeds into the DRC takes approximately
seven days, compared to the average 16 days it takes to import seeds formally. It is important to note that
the length of time it takes to import seeds and the costs associated with the importation of seeds vary per
border region. Formal and informal import costs range between $45 and $2,000 per consignment across the
highly autonomous regions (TASAI, 2017).
Infrastructure
Infrastructure in the DRC is poor relative to regional standards. In spite of extensive road networks, travel
times between cities in the DRC are long and the routes are arduous (see appendix 4 for further information).
Trade routes in the East and South of the DRC generally avoid the poor national road network by transiting
through Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania and Zambia. As an example, the most expedient route from
Butembo in Zone A (East) to Lubumbashi in Zone B (South) is via Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia.
Access to electricity is also problematic in the DRC. Supply from the national electricity company, Société
Nationale d’Electricité (SNEL), is unreliable. Most companies that operate in the DRC invest in generators to
provide for their electricity requirements.
10
Bibliography:
Climate Service Center (2013) Climate Change Scenarios for the Congo Basin. Retrieved 24 October 2018:
https://www.climate-service-center.de/imperia/md/content/csc/csc-report11_optimized.pdf
ÉLAN RDC (2018) Consumer Education: How to Sell Seeds to Smallholder Farmers in the DRC
FAO (2005) L’Irrigation en Afrique en Chiffres. Retrieved 24 October 2018:
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/COD/COD-CP_fra.pdf
FEWS NET, (2015) Democratic Republic of the Congo Staple Food Market Fundamentals. Retrieved 24 October 2018:
https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/DRC_MarketFundamentals_20151026.pdf
TASAI (2017) Country Report DRC (2017). Retrieved 24 October 2018:
https://tasai.org/wp-content/themes/tasai2016/img/tasai_cs_2017_drc_final.pdf
UNAGRICO (2010) Basic Study of the Seed Sector in the Democratic Republic of Congo, in Keeping with Regional
Harmonization of Seed Legislation. Retrieved 24 October 2018: http://afsta.org/wp-
content/uploads/documents/DRC%20SEED%20SECTOR%20BASELINE%20STUDY.pdf
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Appendix 1. Varieties Released by SENASEM and in the Seed Variety Catalogue
Year of Year of
Variety Origin Country Institution Introduction into Inscription into
the DRC Seed Catalogue
Maize
Babungo 3 1988 2012
Babungo Tanzania 1989 1997
Bambou Rwanda 1990 2008
Kasai 1 DRC 1990 1997
Katanga Zimbabwe CIMMYT 2008 2008
Katoki Wa Lukasa Nigeria IITA 2011 2012
Mudishi 1 Uganda NARO 2012 2012
Mudishi 3 Nigeria IITA 2012 2012
Mus(angana) 1 DRC INERA 2003 2008
Salongo 2 Mexico CIMMYT 1987 1995
Samaru Nigeria IITA 1988 2008
Tambo Zambia 1999 2008
Unilu (ZM 623) Zimbabwe 2008 2008
Rice
Bainbinge 1 2002 2008
Hubei 6 China 2003 2008
IAO2 Ivory Coast 1997 1999
Inera 6 DRC INERA 1997 2005
Inera 7 DRC INERA 1997 2005
IRAT 112 Ivory Coast IRAT 1995 1990
IRAT 216 Ivory Coast IRAT - 2012
IRAT 233 Ivory Coast ADRAO 1997 2001
Liboga (IRAT 112) DRC INERA 1997 2008
Lienge 1992 2005
Lioto DRC INERA 1989 2008
Nercia 3 Ivory Coast ADRAO 2006 2008
Nerica 6 Ivory Coast ADRAO 2006 2008
Nerica 4 Ivory Coast ADRAO 2006 2008
Nerica 7 Ivory Coast ADRAO 2006 2008
PNR 1 Ivory Coast ADRAO 1996 2008
Jasmine IRRI 1999 2008
PRERP 1 Ivory Coast ADRAO 1996 2000
PRERP 3 Ivory Coast ADRAO 1997 2000
SIPI Nigeria IITA 1995 2008
Beans
Mpolo DRC INERA 2001 2008
Bombe 2000 2008
CIM 9321-2 South Africa CIAT 2002 2008
D6 Kenya CIAT 1988 1997
Lola DRC INERA 2000 2008
Muduku Colombia CIAT 2000 2008
PC 115-B4 2004 2008
PVO 14 - 1997
PVO 14/2 - 1997
SIMAMA Colombia CIAT 2000 2008
Ntendezi - 1997
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Year of Year of
Variety Origin Country Institution Introduction into Inscription into
the DRC Seed Catalogue
Mbidi DRC INERA 2006 2008
Nitu Colombia CIAT - 2012
Lyamungu Colombia CIAT 2006 2012
Sepe Colombia CIAT - 2012
C 12476-50 2003 2008
DB196 South Africa CIAT 2002 2008
DOR 715 South Africa CIAT 2002 2008
DPS-RS4 South Africa CIAT 2002 2008
Kirundo Burundi ISABU 1985 1988
Maharagi Soya Colombia CIAT 2003 2008
MCR 2301 2003 2008
M'Futila Rwanda ISAR 2002 2008
M'Sole Rwanda ISAR 2000 2008
Mvuazi Tanzania CIAT 2001 2008
Ntomo Colombia CIAT 2000 2008
Uyole 96 Tanzania CIAT 2003 2008
XAN 76 South Africa CIAT 2002 2008
Aliya CIAT 1981 2012
Diasivi Colombia CIAT - 2012
G 59 / 1-2 Colombia CIAT 2000 2008
Kihembe Colombia CIAT 2000 2008
Lib 1 Colombia CIAT 2000 2008
Lumbua - 2012
Manseki DRC INERA - 2012
Moore 88002 Burundi ISABU 2003 2008
Mpolo DRC INERA 2001 2008
Soya
Afya Nigeria IITA 1989 1997
Imperial 2012
Kitoko Nigeria IITA 1989 1997
Munanga Nigeria IITA 1990 1997
Siatsa Nigeria IITA 1988 1997
TGX573-209D Nigeria IITA 1990 1997
TGX1440-1D Nigeria IITA 2004 2008
TGX1830-20 Nigeria IITA 2003 2008
UFV 1 Nigeria IITA 1988 1997
Vuangi IITA 1989 1997
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Appendix 2. Varieties Released by SENASEM but not in the Seed Variety Catalogue
Variety Origin Country Institution
Maize
Nsima (ZM 625) Zimbabwe CIMMYT
Apska (ZM 725) Zimbabwe CIMMYT
Bukidi Bukidi (ZM 525) Zimbabwe CIMMYT
Kitoko (ZM 627) Zimbabwe CIMMYT
Tokachini (ZM 625) Zimbabwe CIMMYT
Amani (UH 50-53) Uganda NARO
Rice
ARC 37-16-1-51G
ARICA2
NERICA-L14
GIZA 182
Beans
Manjonjo / Masese (NUV 131-1)
Baliahamwabo / Kinja (RWV1129)
Binja / Sawasawa / Gobwine (CODMLV095)
Kipendwa / Mushagalusa (MBC23)
Pendeza (CODMLV096/2013A)
Nsimire / Namunene / Kombidoki (MAC 44)
Tochachini / Duchime / Democratia (Munyanya)
Nambiyo Mbiyo / Rukundo (NABE4)
Nafranga / Zirimo (HM 21-7)
Kinja / Mwizarahenda (RWR1668)
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Appendix 3. Varieties Diffused in the DRC and to be Assessed by SENASEM
Maize Rice
Ecavel 1; Bazooka; Sam4Vita; Longe10H; Pannar 53; Rukarumu; Fashingabo; TOX3154;
H629; H628; H627; PNR67; ZM607; SC117; SC719; Namweru; Nerica 1; IRAT 13; Mayiyakunya
SC627; SC647; PN53; SC727; SC701; SC633; SC634;
SC637; SC608; SC602; SC513; SC506; SC403; SC720;
Zamseed 700; 634MRISEED; 624MRISEED
Beans Soya
Kabulangi; HM21-7; CODLMB001; RWV1129; PK6; SB24; SAFARI; SEQUELE; CANADA;
RWR2154; RWR2245; Namulengi; Pigeon Vert; Kaleya; Hernon; MRISEED
Kabulanketi; KAROUGE; Kasoda; Kademayi; PNR148
15
KINSHASA MATADI BANDUNDU KANANGA MBUJI MAYI LUBUMBASHI KINDU BUKAVU GOMA KISANGANI MBANDAKA
KINSHASA 355 490 1,105 1,283 2,317 2,033 2,66 2,709 2,624 3,192
MATADI 355 1,051 1,46 1,638 2,672 2,388 3,015 3,064 2,979 3,547
BANDUNDU 490 1,051 973 1,151 2,184 1,901 2,528 2,577 2,492 3,059
MBUJI MAYI 1,283 1,638 1,151 179 1,036 752 1,379 1,428 1,344 1,911
LUBUMBASHI 2,317 2,672 2,184 1,212 1,036 1,421 1,432 1,655 2,013 2,831
KINDU 2,033 2,388 1,901 928 752 1,421 627 841 591 1,878
BUKAVU 2,66 3,015 2,528 1,556 1,379 1,432 627 220 647 2,028
GOMA 2,709 3,064 2,577 1,604 1,428 1,655 841 220 856 2,237
KISANGANI 2,624 2,979 2,492 1,52 1,344 2,013 591 647 856 1,577
Appendix 4. Distances Between Main Cities in the DRC
MBANDAKA 3,192 3,547 3,059 2,087 1,911 2,831 1,878 2,028 2,237 1,577
16