Chapter 9

C0111plex NU111bers

9.1 Drawing the Complex Numbers

The standard picture of the real numbers is a line:

.. I I I I I I ~ ~ I I I I I I I •
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Each real number is associated with a point on the line, and each point with a real number.

Can we devise a similar representation for all 6i

complex numbers? Suppose we place the pure
5i
imaginaries on a line perpendicular to the reals.
J +4i
If we then put the two lines together, so that 4i •
they overlap at their zero points (since Oi = 0), 3i
then we can associate every point in the plane
2i
with a complex number, where the x-coordinate
-5 + i
is the real part and the y-coordinate is the com­ •
1 2 3 4 5 6
plex part. To see how this works, examine the
figure at right. It should be fairly clear that we -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
can represent any complex number by a point
in this plane, and that every point in the plane • 2i
-2 ­ 2i
represents a different complex number. 3i
4i
5i
6i

EXERCISE 9-1 Draw a complex plane with the points ! + ~i and -~ + Y2 i.

EXERCISE 9-2 Draw the set of points z in the complex plane such that:
1. Re(z) = l.
ii. Im(z) + Re(z) = 1.
iii. Im(z) < 1.

<l 88 t>
 e ART of PROBLEM SOLVING <II 89

RCISE 9-3 For z =3 + 2i, draw z, Z, Z2, and z-1.

.~. Once we understand the complex plane, we can use it to expand our understanding of complex
,timbers. For example, we have used rectangular coordinates to locate points in the complex plane.

'But these are not the only coordinates we could use. Let's apply polar coordinates instead. In our

,;diseussion of polar coordinates (page 47) we saw that the polar coordinates (r, e) of a point (x, y) are

"'such that
X = r cos e and {r = y'x2 + y2
{ Y = rsine e =arctan(y/x)
For a complex number z, we have chosen the rectangular coodinates to be (Re(z),Im(z»). Thus the
; associated polar coordinates (r, e) of z will be such that

Re(z) = rcos e

Im(z) = rsine. (9.1)

But since z :::: Re(z) + i Im(z), we then have

Z :::: r cos e + ir sin e. (9.2)

This is called the trigonometric representation of a complex number, and is sometimes written

simply z = cis e. Of course, just giving the polar coordinates (r, e) is enough to determine z

completely; this is called the polar representation.

EXAMPLE 9-1 Find the polar representation for i.

Solution: We use equations (9.1) to get rcose = 0 and rsine :::: 1. Clearlye must be n/2

and r must be 1, so the polar representation is (1, Tl/2).

EXERCISE 9-4 Draw the points r = 2, e = n/3 and r = 3, e = n.

EXERCISE 9-5 Draw the curves r = 1 and e : : n/3 in the complex plane.

As with regular polar coordinates, the numbers rand e are the distance from the origin to z

and the angle between z and the positive real axis, respectively. It is important to remember the

ambiguity in the value of e as well; for a given e we could just as well use e + 2n, e + 4n, etc. See

page 47 for a discussion of this ambiguity.

9.2 The Complex Absolute Value

The value of r is particularly important. Like the absolute value for real numbers, it is simply

the distance to the origin of coordinates. We therefore call r the absolute value, or sometimes

magnitude, of a complex number z and denote it by 14 For a generic complex number x iy, we
*
have Ix + iyl =r = y'x2 + y2.

The complex absolute value has some interesting properties. Perhaps the most important is that ~ fI>

. -_._.-- .. ~._------------......;....;......----------- ..
90 ~ CHAPTER 9. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Izwl = Izllwl for any z and w. To see this, we just write

Izwl = I(ZI + Z2 i)(WI + W2 i)1
= I(ZIWI - Z2 W 2) + (ZIW2 + Z2WI)il
= J(ZIWI - Z2 W 2)2 + (ZIW2 + Z2WI)2
(cancelling terms) = J ziwf + z~u?z + ziu?z + z~u?z
= J(zi + z~)(wf + u?z)
= Jzi+z~Jwf+u?z
= Izllwl,

and we're done. Similarly we can show that Iz/wl = Izl/lwl.

EXERCISE 9-6 Find the absolute value of the complex number (12 + 5i)(7 - 24i).
EXERCISE 9-7 Find a counterexample to the false claim Iw + zl = Iwl + Izl'.
Let's examine the relationship between Iw + zl and.lwl + Izi. Above you should have found that
these two quantities are not always equal, but you should also have seen, or at least suspected, that
Iw + zl is never larger than the sum Iwl + Izl. To prove our suspicion, we write Iwl + Izi ~ Iw + zl in
terms of w = WI + W2i and z =ZI + Z2i:

Squaring both sides and cancelling common terms leaves

2 Jzi + z~ Jwf + u?z ~ 2zIWI + 2z2W2.

Cancelling the 2's and squaring again, we get

ziwi + zi~ + z~wi + z~~ ~ ziwi + 2zI Z2WI W2 + ~~,

or
zi~ - 2zIZ2WIW2 + ~wi ~ O.
Recognizing the left as a perfect square, we write

(ZIW2 - Z2WI)2 ~ 0,

which is clearly always true. Furthermore, we can find when Iwl + Izi = Iw + zl by noting that these
can only be equal when (ZIW2 -Z2WI)2 = O. (Why?) This occurs when:ZIw2 = Z2WI, or ZI/WI = Z2/W2.
If we let this common ratio be c, we find that our equality condition is ZI = CWI and Z2 = CW2, so
Z =cw and one number is just a real multiple of the other!
The inequality Iwl + Izi ~ Iw + zl is called the Triangle Inequality for complex numbers. Given
the name, you might think the inequality has something to do with geometry. You're right; using
a geometric representation of complex numbers and complex addition, we can prove the Triangle
Inequality quite easily. (This is done on page 103.)
the ART of PROBLEM SOLVING <I 91

EXERCISE 9-8 What is the equality condition of the Triangle Inequality when wand z are written

in polar form?

----------------------------------
EXERCISE 9-9 Prove that Izi + Iwl 2: Iz - wi·

9.3 Complex Multiplication and Coordinates

We now ask the question: what is the effect of complex multiplication in our new coordinate
perspective? We can answer this immediately. Consider two complex numbers ::t = 1'1 (cos 8 1 +
i sin 8 1 ) and 22 = r2(cos 8 2 + i sin 82). Their product is
2122 = 1'1 1'2 (cos 01 cos8z + icos8 1 sin 82 + isin8 1 cos8z - sin8 l sin 82)
= 1'11'2 (cos 8 1 cos 8 2 - sin 8 1 sin 8 2) + i(cos 8 t sin 82 + sin 8 1 cos 82))

= 1'11'2 (COS(81 + 8 2) + i sin(81 + 82)).

The coordinates of the product of (rl, 8 1) and (1'2,8 2 ) are thus (1'11'2,8 1 + 82). When we multiply two
complex numbers, the magnitudes multiply and the angles add.

f
EXAMPLE 9-2 Take the complex number! + i = (cos} + i sin}). When it is multiplied by any
complex number r(cos 8 + isin 8), the product is l' (cos(8 + 1) + isin(8 +~)). Thus multiplication by
~ + i 'f' is a rotation by the angle }.
-------_._---­
EXERCISE 9-10 To what geometrical motion does multiplication by i correspond, in the sense of
Example 9-2?
EXERCISE 9-11 On a complex plane, draw the points 2 + 3i, 1 + 2i, and (2 + 3i)(1 + 2i) to convince
yourself that the magnitudes multiply and the angles add to form the product.

While the polar method is a more satisfying way to look at complex multiplication, for routine
calculation it is usually easier to fall back on the distributive law as used in Volume 1. HO\'vcver,
for more complicated calculations and clever applications, the polar approach is often much more
fruitful.

9.4 Complex Powers and Geometry

Once \\oe have a representation for multiplication, we can tackle powers. Consider the generic com­
plex number z = r(cos 8+ i sin 8). The power zl1 (wh-ere II is a positive integer) is just a product .::z ... ::
with /I :'s multiplied together. Thus the magnitude is the product of the individual magnitudes, or
r'!, ,lnd the angle is the sum of the individual angles, or /lA. For positive integers 11, we immediately
ha\'l' .
[r(cos 0 + i sin 8)] I; = rii (cos(118) + i sin(l1m).
which (elll be \vritten in the more memorable form
(9,:1)
92 • CHAPTER 9. COMPLEX NUMBERS

EXERCISE 9-12 How could we express the powers of i in'polar form?

EXAMPLE 9-3 To see what exponentiation looks like, let's consider
the powers of "1/2 + i"1/2 = 2(cos ~ + i sin ~). The second power is c
3:
4(cos! + i sin !) = 4i, the third power 8(cos + i sin 3:)
= -4 "1/2 + 4 "1/2 i, B
A
the fourth power 16(cos n + i sin n) = -16, etc. The first three powers
are at points A, B, and C at right, where one tick mark equals 2 units. 2
To go from one power to the next, we rotate 45° counterclockwise and
double the distance from the origin.

EXAMPLE 9-4 We can easily extend the result of equation (9.3) to

negative integers as well. Take (r, 8t n , where n is a positive integer. We
can set (r, 8)-n = (5, ep) and write 1 = (r, 8)-n(r, 8)n = (5, ep )(r", n8), where
the last equality comes from equation (9.3). Using the fact that magnitudes multiply and angles add,
we then have (sr", ep + n8) = (1,0), so 5 = r- n and ep = -n8. Thus (r, 8t n = (r- n, -n8), as desired.
EXERCISE 9-13 What is the geometrical relationship of z = (1, 8) and
its reciprocal for any angle 8?
EXAMPLE 9-5 Let's extend Example 9-3 to some negative powers of
!
"1/2 + i"1/2 =2(cos ~ + i sin ~). The -1st power is (cos(-~) + i sin( -~»),
the -2nd power ~ (cos(- 1{) + i sin(- 1{)), the -3rd power A(cos(_ 3:) +
i sin(- 3:)), etc. The Oth power is 1(cos 0 + i sin 0) = 1, as we expect. The
first three negative powers are at A, B, and C, where we get from each C
1
one to the next by rotating by 45° clockwise and halving the distance to B A
the origin.

EXERCISE 9-14 Duplicate Example 9-3 and Example 9-5 for the numbers .if + i.if and ! + q.

9.5 DeMoivre's Theorem

In equation (9.3) we found a very nice property of integral powers of a complex number. However,
we can just as easily look at fractional powers. Consider a complex number which we have written
in the polar form (r, 8). How can we find (r, 8)P/q, where p and q are integers?
To begin with, we get rid of the p. By equation (9.3), we immediately have

(r, 8)p/q =(rP, p8)1/q.

Thus our problem boils down to finding the qth roots of (rP, p8). This isn't so hard. We can by
guesswork write down one qth root: (rP/ q, p8/ q). This is a qth root because its qth power is
the ART of PROBLEM SOLVING <I 93

using equation (9.3). So we have one qth root immediately. How do we find others? Remember that
the complex number (rP, p8) is equal to (rP, p8 + 2nk) for any integer k; adding a full circle to the angle
doesn't change our location. From these equivalent numbers we can easily write down the qth roots

(9.4)

In fact, the numbers generated by equation (9.4), as k ranges over the integers, are all the p/q powers
of (r,8). This assertion, the simple proof of which is below, is called DeMoivre's Theorem (de
MAUVE's theorem).

EXAMPLE 9-6 Find all cube roots of 4 + 4 ~i.

Solution: We can readily convert this number into the trigonometric form 8(cos60° + sin 60°),
which gives the polar form (8,60°). Then by DeMoivre, the cube roots (1/3 powers) are given
by (8 1/3 ,20° + 360 k/3) = (2,20° + 120 k). For k = 0, we have (2,20°). For k = 1, we have
0 0

(2,20° + 120°) = (2,140°). For k = 2, we have (2,260°). For k = 3, we have (2,380°), which is
equal to (2,20°) again. Similarly, as k takes on other integral values, we will just get our three basic
values over and over again. Thus our roots are (2,20°), (2,140°), and (2,260°).

EXERCISE 9-15 Find all values of (-4...;2 + 4...;2 i)3 /4.

Let's now prove DeMoivre's Theorem. Clearly every number of the form (9.4) with k an integer
is a p/q power of (r, 8). We verify this by taking the expression to the qth power and observing that
the result is a pth power of (r, 8) in agreement with equation (9.3). Since the expression (9.4) is a qth
root of a pth power of (r, 8), it is a p/q power.
We now need only to prove that every p/qpower of (r, 8) can be written in the form (9.4). Consider
some general complex number (s, cjJ) such that (r, 8)plq = (s, cjJ). We can write (r, 8)P = (s, cjJ)q, so (9.3)
gives (rl', p8) = (s'1, qcjJ). The only way these two sets of polar coordinates can be equal is if

and p8 + 2nk = qcjJ,

which clearly forces (s, cjJ) to be of the form (9.4), so we're done.

EXAMPLE 9-7 In Example 9-6 above, we found that there are three cube roots of 4 + 4 ~ i. This
is no accident. In fact, DeMoivre guarantees that there will be exactly q qth roots of any nonzero
complex number. Why? Because the allowed angles of (r, 8)1 /'1 are

8 2nk e 8 2n 8 4n
- +- = -, - + - , - + - , ...
q q qq qq q

All of these values will be different until we get to k = q, when we will have 8/q + 2nq/q = e/q + 2n.
Ihis is the :,dme as just 8/q, so we are back where we started: adding 2n/q just gives e/q + 2n/q
ugain, and so on. Similarly, negatiYe values of k give the same roots as well.