A DC Microgrid System For Powering Remote Areas: Article
A DC Microgrid System For Powering Remote Areas: Article
A DC Microgrid System For Powering Remote Areas: Article
Article
A DC Microgrid System for Powering Remote Areas †
Tri Ardriani 1, Pekik Argo Dahono 1,*, Arwindra Rizqiawan 1, Erna Garnia 2, Pungky Dwi Sastya 3,
Ahmad Husnan Arofat 3 and Muhammad Ridwan 3
1 Institut Teknologi Bandung, School of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Jl. Ganesha 10, Bandung
40111, Indonesia; ardriani.t@gmail.com (T.A.); windra@std.stei.itb.ac.id (A.R.)
2 Faculty of Economics, Universitas Sangga Buana, Jl. PHH Mustofa (Suci) 68, Bandung 40111, Indonesia;
erna.garnia@usbypkp.ac.id
3 Technology Development Division, PT. Len Industri (Persero), Jl. Soekarno‐Hatta 442, Bandung 40111,
Indonesia; pungkydwisastya@gmail.com (P.D.S.); ahmad.husnan@len.co.id (A.H.A.);
muhammad.ridwan@len.co.id (M.R.)
* Correspondence: pekik@konversi.ee.itb.ac.id
† This paper is an extended version of our paper published in the Proceeding of 2018 Conference on Power
Engineering and Renewable Energy (ICPERE), 29–31 October 2018, Solo, Indonesia.
Abstract: DC microgrid has been gaining popularity as solution as a more efficient and simpler
power system especially for remote areas, where the main grid has yet to be built. This paper pro‐
poses a DC microgrid system based on renewable energy sources that employs decentralized con‐
trol and without communication between one grid point and another. It can be deployed as an in‐
dividual isolated unit or to form an expandable DC microgrid through DC bus for better reliability
and efficiency. The key element of the proposed system is the power conditioner system (PCS) that
works as an interface between energy sources, storage system, and load. PCS consists of modular
power electronics devices and a power management unit, which controls power delivery to the AC
load and the grid as well as the storage system charging and discharging sequence. Prototypes with
3 kWp solar PV and 13.8 kWh energy storage were developed and adopt a pole‐mounted structure
for ease of transportation and installation that are important in remote areas. This paper presents
measurement results under several conditions of the developed prototypes. The evaluation shows
Citation: Ardriani, T.; Dahono, P.A.; promising results and a solid basis for electrification in remote areas.
Rizqiawan, A.; Garnia, E.; Sastya,
P.D.; Arofat, A.H.; Ridwan, M. A DC Keywords: DC microgrid; power conditioner system; renewable energy; scalable microgrid
Microgrid System for Powering
Remote Areas. Energies 2021, 14, 493.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14020493
Received: 20 December 2020
1. Introduction
Accepted: 14 January 2021 As an archipelago with more than 17,000 islands, Indonesia faces a challenge in de‐
Published: 18 January 2021 livering electricity to all its citizens, particularly to those who live in the remote areas and
outer islands. According to the Indonesian Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources [1],
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu‐ although the total electrification ratio of Indonesia in 2019 has reached almost 99%, there
tral with regard to jurisdictional are places that lag behind and around 1 million families still without access to electricity.
claims in published maps and insti‐ Additionally, strong grids are only available to the main islands of the country, where the
tutional affiliations.
central government and most of the population live. There are also areas where electricity
is available only for several hours a day.
Located in the equator, the solar potential in Indonesia is estimated to be around 208
GWp, much higher than other types of RES such as hydro (75 GWp), wind (60 GWp), and
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li‐
geothermal (29.5 GWp) [2]. It is one of the most evenly distributed RES throughout the
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
country. Therefore, a solar‐based system is very suitable to accelerate providing electricity
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and con‐
to rural villages.
ditions of the Creative Commons At‐
Solar PV has been a popular choice RES because they are getting cheaper by the day
tribution (CC BY) license (http://crea‐ and are easy to install. In urban cities, small‐scale solar power systems are installed on
tivecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). rooftops, such as described in [3,4], both to provide green energy and to reduce bills. The
Energies 2021, 14, 493. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14020493 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, 493 2 of 16
disadvantage of PV rooftops is that it usually needs the AC grid to run and cannot operate
in stand‐alone mode. Extending the main grid to remote areas require a lot of time and
effort. One viable solution to this problem is to build independent power systems that do
not need to rely on the main grid, i.e., a microgrid. These systems tap into RES near the
local load, effectively eliminating the cost needed to draw long cables from the main grid
and reducing dependency on fossil fuel‐based power generation.
There are two types of microgrids, AC and DC microgrids. In AC microgrids, energy
sources that produce DC power, such as PV panels and a fuel cell, will obviously need
DC‐AC conversion to connect to the lines. Interestingly, sources that produce AC power,
such as wind, hydro, and geothermal, may require AC‐DC‐AC conversion for better syn‐
chronized connection to the grid [5–7]. Meanwhile, in DC microgrid, both DC‐producing
and AC‐producing sources may require only one conversion, resulting in fewer convert‐
ers needed, which in turn gives better efficiency. Nowadays, DC microgrid is gaining pop‐
ularity due to its simplicity and higher power quality than its AC counterpart [7–9]. In DC
system, the control is simpler because there is no problem with synchronization and reac‐
tive power [5–17].
Many DC microgrid systems have been proposed in the literature. Refs. [18,19] dis‐
cuss microgrid systems that are reliant on AC utility. These systems are similar to the ones
in [3,4] in that they are more suited for urban areas where the network is strong. In [10], a
DC microgrid system for rural areas is designed to be able to operate independently in
the absence of power network, but it only has stand‐alone mode, meaning it does not have
power sharing capability.
For rural areas, building centralized microgrids is a poor choice [11–13]. This is due
to the socio‐environmental conditions of rural areas. Firstly, the geographical terrain is
difficult. This calls for a system that can be easily transported and installed. Secondly,
communities are formed in clusters where homes, schools, hospital, and other public fa‐
cilities are built apart from each other, which means a centralized generation system will
have a lot of conductor losses. Thirdly, in rural areas, communication infrastructure is
lacking. Therefore, the system needs to be able to operate in stand‐alone mode. To accom‐
modate future expansion, the equipment that go into the system have to be modular and
can be installed in a plug‐and‐play manner [5].
Distributed DC microgrid systems are proposed in [11–17]. Ref. [11–15] take into ac‐
count the fact that a lot of home appliances can run on low‐voltage DC power. These de‐
vices also do not require a lot of power. Because of that, the system can be designed with
low specification that costs considerably less than other systems. Unfortunately, its
strength can also be its weakness, because at present, AC‐powered home appliances are
still very common.
The systems described in [16,17] are made of a DC bus and power converters that
interface it with the energy source, ESS, and other microgrid elements. Loads will tap into
the DC bus directly. This system can be built for large scale; however, loads may be located
far away from the source and the distribution losses may be quite high.
In addition to the topology, discussion on power electronics technology and control
methods is indispensable. There are a lot of different power converter topologies to choose
from, all ranging from basic, uni‐directional DC‐DC converter, to multilevel and modified
converters [14,16,20–23] with unique features that can be harnessed for a plethora of dif‐
ferent purposes. Although, a system with many different kinds of power converters, such
as in [10,16,24], may be expensive due to the higher design and production cost. Further‐
more, replacement units may be limited to the same manufacturer, making it an inflexible
system. Ref. [25] proposes a uniform design of multi‐purpose converters for microgrids,
but presently the technology has only been applied to DC‐to‐DC conversion.
In the realm of control techniques, one of the central issues is the power sharing
method between microgrid elements. Ref. [26] proposes forecasting algorithm for an iso‐
lated DC microgrid system to regulate power flow. This algorithm has succeeded in re‐
ducing generation costs, but the predictive aspect of the control is prone to uncertainties
Energies 2021, 14, 493 3 of 16
and complex to implement. Ref. [27] propose droop control method based on state of
charge (SoC). These methods are easier to implement, especially because in rural areas,
maintenance and operation have to be kept simple. Ref. [28] proposes using peer‐to‐peer
control between microgrids, while [29] opts using switching frequency modulation‐based
communication, which is a good choice for systems in urban area where communication
link can be established fairly easily, but not as feasible in the country and remote islands.
Generally, individual microgrid control is preferred because failure in one system may
not affect the others [30,31].
This paper proposes a DC microgrid system that has all the requirements mentioned
above, as well as the main building block of the system. The key features of this system
are as follow: (1) Modular; (2) expandable; (3) independent/without communication; (4)
easily transported; and (5) each system covers a small ground area. The last point is crucial
for places with land‐ownership problems. Figure 1 shows a multi‐point DC microgrid of
the proposed system, with the primary equipment denoted as PCS. Each system consists
of the following four elements: (1) A locally available energy source; (2) ESS; (3) AC loads;
and (4) DC bus interconnection. If more points are to be integrated, they can be connected
via the DC grid. Each point is capable of both taking and giving energy from and to the
grid.
POWER
CONDITIONER
DC GRID DC GRID
SYSTEM (PCS) PCS PCS PCS
This paper is structured as follows: PCS as the main element of the proposed system
will be explained in Section 2. Comparison with other DC microgrid systems that have
been proposed and implemented for rural areas will also be covered in this section.
Section 3 discusses the evaluation of PCS to show the feasibility of implementing this sys‐
tem. Section 4 touches on the business and investment side of the proposed DC microgrid
installation for a remote area in Indonesia. Finally, Section 5 contains the conclusion to
this paper.
2. A Modular, Independent, and Expandable DC Microgrid System
2.1. Power Conditioner System
PCS is the primary element in the DC microgrid system proposed in this paper. It
interfaces an energy source such as solar PV, wind, and hydro, an ESS, AC loads, and the
DC grid. PCS consists of power converters to harvest energy from the source, charge and
discharge the ESS, and regulate power to loads and grid. Figure 2a shows the inner con‐
figuration of a PCS. It may be deployed to form an isolated, independent system, but it
can also connect to other PCS and share power between each other. Each PCS has its own
management unit that keeps track the energy stored in its ESS, and export or import
power to and from its neighboring points according to this data [32].
Energies 2021, 14, 493 4 of 16
TO DC BUS
DC GRID CHOPPER
DC LINK
L S1 S2
SOURCE
250 Vdc
S3 S4
Source Chopper (DC‐DC) S1 S2 L
C
L S1 S2
C S3 S4
DC Grid Chopper (DC‐DC) DC GRID
STORAGE 370 Vdc
250 Vdc
S3 S4
Storage Chopper (DC‐DC)
L S1 S2
AC LOAD
230 Vac
S3 S4
Inverter (DC‐AC)
DC LINK
500 Vdc
(b)
Figure 2. (a) Block diagram of a power conditioner system (PCS). (b) Converters topology employed in PCS.
Figure 2b shows the converter topology that is being used for this system. It can be
seen that the hardware has the same bridge topology that can be used either as DC‐DC,
DC‐AC, or AC‐DC converter. However, at present the system is designed primarily for
solar PV. By using this approach, the technology is made simple, which is important for
application in remote islands. Modular plug and play feature may be expected of this sys‐
tem.
The power converters inside PCS are connected by an internal DC link bus
(Figure 2b), whose voltage is being maintained at 500 V. At the beginning of operation,
precharging action takes place as soon as the ESS is plugged into the storage chopper ter‐
minal. Once the DC link voltage is established, the management unit then activates the
source chopper, inverter, and DC grid chopper depending on the specified SoC limits.
Each PCS has the total capacity of 3 kW.
Table 1 lists the specification of the converters in every PCS, whereas Table 2 shows
the state of each converter based on SoC. The flowchart in Figure 3 shows the decision‐
making process of the management unit according to guidelines set in Table 2.
Energies 2021, 14, 493 5 of 16
Table 1. Specifications of each converter in a PCS unit.
Table 2. PCS converter states based on state of charge (SoC).
SoC Source Chopper *Storage ChopperDC Grid ChopperInverter
0—10% ON or OFF Charging Charging OFF
10—30% ON or OFF Charging Charging ON
OFF Charging Charging
30—70% ON
ON Discharging Discharging
70—100% ON or OFF Discharging Discharging ON
* Source chopper operates based on the availability of power generated by PV panels.
START
PRECHARGE DC LINK VIA
STORAGE CHOPPER
NO SoC NO SoC NO NO
SoC < 10% SoC > 70%
10‐30% 30‐70%
SOURCE NO
ACTIVE
YES
DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
CHARGE ESS CHARGE ESS CHARGE ESS
ESS ESS
Figure 3. Flowchart of the PCS management unit.
The proposed DC microgrid system has the capability of working both as a single‐
point and multi‐point system to serve single or multiple clusters of loads. Figure 4 shows
the multi‐point configuration with different kinds of loads. A single‐point system converts
Energies 2021, 14, 493 6 of 16
power from the source and stores it in the battery and/or transfer it to the AC loads. In the
multi‐point mode, the proposed DC microgrid system works similar to a single point, but
power sharing capability is through the DC bus. Each point controls its charge and dis‐
charge states with its own management unit the way it does in a single‐point system and
independent of what the other point does.
DC BUS DC BUS
PCS PCS PCS
Figure 5 shows the power flow in the system based on the storage SoC level. The
system that has higher energy level, or state of charge (SoC), exports power, whereas the
system that lacks energy imports it. Consider the leftmost system. Its SoC is above 70%,
so the DC grid chopper works in discharge mode regardless of what state the source chop‐
per and storage chopper are in. Similarly, if the SoC is under 30%, then the management
unit will automatically set the DC grid chopper to charging (not shown in the figure).
DC BUS
In the middle‐level SoC, DC grid chopper operation is based on the status of the
source and storage choppers. If the storage chopper is running, then power is supplied
from the source and the PCS has the ability to send power out via the DC grid terminal.
On the contrary, if the source chopper is not running, then the power of the unit is wholly
supplied by battery. This causes the management unit to set the DC grid chopper to charg‐
ing. Consider the middle and rightmost system in Figure 5. The system in the middle
charges its storage system because the source is unavailable, while the system on the right‐
hand side exports power even though its storage is not in full condition because the source
is available. The operational settings that are shown in Table 2 are configurable prior to
field installation.
2.2. Implementation of the Proposed DC Microgrid System in Isolated Remote Areas
In rural areas, oftentimes the land to install public facilities is difficult to obtain be‐
cause of unclear ownership or the land is forbidden to be used as per the local or cultural
Energies 2021, 14, 493 7 of 16
belief. To minimize the installation area, the proposed DC microgrid system can be con‐
figured as pole‐mounted along with the other equipment such as PV panels and batteries.
Figure 6 shows a solar tower with a set of PV panels, a PCS, batteries, and a control panel.
Multi‐point implementation of this configuration is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 6. Solar tower: An implementation of PCS.
Houses in remote islands are assumed to use electricity for very basic needs, such as
lighting, cooking, and, in places with access to communication facilities, to power up
phones. Therefore, in this context, each house may be limited to use around 0.5 kWh each
day. An individual system of the proposed DC microgrid has capacity of 3 kWp and 13.8
kWh of ESS per cluster, which is reasonable to serve 0.5 kWh per day for 10 houses. The
system such as the one in Figure 6 uses 12 PV panels of 260 Wp each to achieve 3 kWp.
The panels are positioned as a canopy shading around 18 m2 of ground to minimize land
utilization.
In the proposed system, every point is designed with higher power rating, where
loads can connect directly to the load converter side of PCS. Table 3 compares the key
characteristics of proposed method and several DC microgrid systems in the literature.
All of these systems have modular components that make scaling up the size of the net‐
work easy, and each independent unit is designed for small‐power use of rural homes.
The main advantage of the proposed DC microgrid system over the others are the AC
output into which the loads plug. Even though a lot of home appliances operate on DC
power, AC‐powered devices are still in abundance and easily obtained. By using a power
system that outputs AC power, users are not required to change all of their electronic
appliances. It will also be easier to switch to the AC utility grid when it reaches the remote
areas.
Energies 2021, 14, 493 8 of 16
Table 3. Comparison of several DC microgrid systems.
Every unit consists of PV
BATTERY
DC BUS 380 V
1. Ref [12] panels, battery, and power
converters. 1 HOME UNIT
DC grid voltage: 380 V. =
=
Load voltage: 48 V. BATTERY
Power rating per unit: 125 =
=
DC
LOADS
48 V
W.
SOURCE UNIT 2 ‐ 20 kW
=
Centralized generation for =
one cluster consists of sev‐ 1 HOME UNIT 100 W
= Local DC Bus 48 V =
eral households. = =
DC
LOADS
Distributed voltage control
12 V
FAN OUT
CONVERTER
assisted by digital commu‐
2. Ref [13]
nication. BATTERY
DC grid voltage: 360—400
V. 1 HOME UNIT 100 W
Load voltage: 12 V. = DC
= LOADS
Power rating per unit: 100 12 V
W.
1 CLUSTER BATTERY
DC BUS 380 V
= 48 V =
Distributed generation. = =
1 POWER UNIT
DC grid voltage: 380 V.
=
Load voltage: 48 V. =
100 W
Power rating per unit: 100 BATTERY
3. Ref [14]
W. =
=
DC loads are connected di‐
1 POWER UNIT
rectly to 48 V bus to avoid =
=
100 W
conversion losses.
BATTERY
DC
LOADS
Energies 2021, 14, 493 9 of 16
Load voltage: 230 VAC 1‐
500 V
=
=
phase BATTERY
Power rating per unit: 3 ≈ =
= =
kW. AC LOADS
Proposed Each unit supplies a cluster DC BUS 370 V
5
System of houses and manages its
= =
own energy consumption = =
individually. =
500 V
=
Outputs 230 VAC to accom‐ BATTERY
modate common home ap‐
=
pliances that run on AC ≈
3. Functional and Performance Evaluation of the Proposed DC Microgrid System
3.1. Evaluation Methodology
There are two evaluation sections: Lab testing and field testing. In lab testing, the
proposed DC microgrid system are tested as a single‐point system and a multi‐point sys‐
tem. Dummy SoC data are used to avoid having to charge or discharge the batteries to the
desired level as doing so is too time‐consuming. Single‐point system evaluation mainly
focuses on each point’s functional specifications. Precharging sequence is done manually
using 192‐ohm resistor and 40‐amps DC circuit breaker. The multi‐point system evalua‐
tion tests the PCS operation sequence. Their DC grid terminals are being connected and
the parameters observed. The units automatically precharge as they get connected to
power source and then follow the same procedure as in single system initialization.
The parameters and equipment used for lab testing are as follow: Two sets of batter‐
ies: OPZV batteries 240‐V 1,000‐Ah and LiFePo batteries 256‐V 70‐Ah; two sets of PV mod‐
ules: each consists of 40 50‐Wp 12‐V PV panels in series and parallel to achieve a total 340
V and 2 kWp; and two sets of 3‐kW heater as resistive loads.
The field testing is conducted to gather data regarding conductor losses. Conductor
losses need to be evaluated because in the target location for implementing this system,
the residential area is thinly distributed. Figure 7 shows the field‐testing setup. PCS are
loaded with LED lights located 100 m away from it, assuming that the houses in rural
villages could be this far apart from the energy source. Measurements are done at the AC
output terminal of the PCS and at the load connection point. The charging and discharging
process are also monitored with changing load currents.
Energies 2021, 14, 493 10 of 16
Figure 7. PCS field evaluation with distant loads.
3.2. Evaluation Results
3.2.1. Lab Testing
The storage chopper activates after the management unit (operated manually by us‐
ing a laptop PC) gives the signal. Current drawn from battery indicates that the battery
chopper is working. The measured voltage at DC link is 500 V. The battery chopper
charges battery after the PV is connected to the source input terminal and the SoC in the
management unit is set to 4%. The battery charging operation indicates that the PV chop‐
per is working. When the inverter is activated and loaded, the current flows from both the
PV and battery via their respective choppers.
Performance of the inverter is summarized in Figure 8. During this test, PV is deac‐
tivated, and the supply goes solely from the battery. The inverter voltage output is stable
at 228 V AC, loaded at maximum 2.4 kW. The amount of DC power that is converted into
AC is generally measured by the efficiency that can be calculated by using Equation (1).
AC Output
Efficiency= (1)
Battery Input
100%
95% 92.662%
91.594%
92.752%
90% 92.582%
91.262%
85% 88.747%
80%
Efficiency
75%
70%
65%
60%
55%
50%
- 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Load (W)
(a)
2.4%
2.124%
2.2%
Total Harmonic Distortion
2.022%
1.967%
2.0% 2.078%
1.840% 1.980%
1.800% 1.948%
1.8%
1.558% 1.790%
1.6% 1.700%
1.567%
1.4% VoltageTHD
Series1
1.0%
- 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Load (W)
Energies 2021, 14, 493 11 of 16
(b)
300
Voltage (V)
150
100
Battery Voltage
Series1
50
Inverter Output
Series2
0
- 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Load (W)
(c)
Figure 8. Inverter evaluation: (a) Efficiency vs. load, (b) voltage and current THD vs. load, and (c)
battery and inverter voltage vs. load.
The efficiency data are shown in Figure 8a. The efficiency rises together with the load
increase, reaching over 90% with load above 1100 W. It can be expected that at full load
the efficiency will be higher than 92.75%. The power quality measurement results in
Figure 8b shows that the harmonic level is well below standardized limits according to
the IEEE Std 519‐2014. The distortion levels increase along with the load in an almost lin‐
ear manner. According to the trend, at full load they are predicted not to exceed the stand‐
ard limit. The inverter also feeds stable voltage throughout the test, delivering up to 80%
of rated output power without any significant drop in voltage, as shown in Figure 8c.
The DC grid chopper is being activated last. During this test, because the SoC is set
to 4%, the DC grid chopper runs in charging mode (refer to Figure 4). When it is not con‐
nected to the other PCS to draw current from, the measured voltage at the DC grid chop‐
per terminal is 390 V.
During this test, the power consumption of PCS units is also measured. In idle state
when no switching occurs, the power consumed is 16–20 W. When switching occurs, the
power consumption rises to 100 W.
For the multi‐point evaluation, the precharging sequence is done automatically using
precharging module within PCS. The precharging is done in 1.5 s and the discharging in
2 s. To make the PCS share power between each other, SoC of one PCS is set to 30% with
the PV disconnected, while SoC of the other PCS is set to 70%. The management unit of
the first PCS will detect that its battery needs to be charged. Therefore, management unit
of the first PCS sets its DC grid chopper to charging mode. Meanwhile, management unit
of the second PCS sets its DC grid chopper to discharging mode. Because the first PCS is
set to absorb power from the DC bus and the second PCS to inject power, power will
naturally flow from the second PCS to the first one.
Energies 2021, 14, 493 12 of 16
3.2.2. Field Testing
Figure 9a shows that the inverter output voltage drops at the load point of connec‐
tion. The proposed DC microgrid system does not use closed‐loop control to keep constant
voltage in the consumer to keep the simplicity. In addition, the household devices in re‐
mote area are not sensitive to constant voltage. At 9 A of load current (70% of rated cur‐
rent), the voltage drop does not exceed 10% of its nominal value, which is still acceptable
for common AC‐powered household devices. The voltage drops more when the load cur‐
rent is bigger due to the losses at the cable. Figure 9b shows the measured power at both
end of the cable. During this experiment, the cable type NYYHY 3 × 2.5mm2 that is readily
available in general stores was used. If a better quality is required, a different type of cable
with less resistance may solve the problem.
240
AT PCS
230
AC Voltage (V)
220
210
AT LOAD
200
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Current (A)
(a)
2500
2000
1500
AT PCS
Power (W)
1000 AT LOAD
500 P LOSSES
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Current (A)
(b)
Figure 9. Field testing results: (a) Voltage drop on cable, and (b) losses on cable.
Figure 10 shows the charging and discharging of battery bank with varying load cur‐
rent. This experiment is done by increasing and then decreasing the load demand. When
the PV produces power more than the load demand (the charging process at the left‐hand
side), PCS will charge the battery, signified by the negative battery power. When the load
demands power higher from the PV capacity (the discharging process in the middle), the
battery enters discharging mode, hence the positive battery power. Battery gives out the
necessary power to meet the load demand, and the power it exerts rises along with the
increase in load current. PCS then goes back to charging mode when the load demand
decreases to under the PV production. This experiment shows that the charging and dis‐
charging of the battery bank has worked well to meet the needs of the varying loads.
Energies 2021, 14, 493 13 of 16
POWER (W)
600
400
200
0 P BATTERY
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
10.1 21.8 3
4.1 64 5
7.3 66 7
4.6 2.48 9
0.4
CURRENT (A)
Figure 10. Battery charging and discharging process with varying load current.
4. LCOE and Investment Analysis
Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is defined as the average total cost to build and op‐
erate a power plant per output energy in a certain period of time. LCOE can be calculated
Equation (2).
I t +M t +F (t)
∑ t
NPVCost (1+r)
LCOE= = E(t) (2)
NPVProduce ∑ t
(1+r)
where:
I = initial investment cost,
M = O&M cost,
F = fuel cost,
E = energy produced by the plant,
r = discount rate,
t = time,
NPVCost = net present value from the total cost spent in the plant’s lifetime, and
NPVProduce = net present value of the total energy generated by the plant during its life‐
time.
The LCOE is computed using the following assumptions: Three systems such as de‐
scribed in Figure 1 will be installed, which amount to total capacity of 9 kWp, each system
can be used to serve 10 homes running common home electronic appliances; investment
cost of each system is US$23,375; system efficiency is 95%; sun light is accessible for an
average 4.5 h/day all year; PV panel output degradation is 0.5%/year; O&M cost is 0.5%
from investment cost/year; O&M growth rate is 2%; interest rate is 9%/year, and because
70% of the investment comes from bank loan, the discount rate is 10.8%; and the project
lifespan is 20 years.
For 20 years, the total NPV for investment and O&M is US$72,975 and the total gen‐
NPVCost $ ,
erated energy is 107.4 kW. Therefore, the LCOE = = = US$0.68/kWh. If
NPVProduce 107,4
the tariff is the same as LCOE, the internal rate of return (IRR) is 10.82% and pay out in
8.26 years. This implies that in order for this project to be economically feasible, the LCOE
specifies the minimum tariff for this system. US$ 0.68/kWh is inexpensive compared to
diesel generator that is generally the main electricity source in remote areas. Adding up
the costs of transporting fuels, the total production cost may be well above US$ 1/kWh.
Moreover, by using the proposed DC microgrid, we will reduce dependency on the al‐
ready dwindling fossil fuel reserves.
Energies 2021, 14, 493 14 of 16
5. Conclusions
This paper proposes a new DC microgrid system concept that is suitable for acceler‐
ating electricity delivery to rural and remote areas that has no access to the main utility
grid. Its modularity makes it easily transported and provides flexibility to the overall sys‐
tem. The DC interface between points is also advantageous when they need to combine
with other points due to the absence of the need to synchronize as in AC‐interfaced sys‐
tems.
PCS is the key equipment for the proposed microgrid system. It interfaces the mi‐
crogrid elements such as energy sources, ESS, and load, by using the same converter to‐
pologies for those different purposes. It can be deployed as an individual isolated unit
and also form a grid through the DC bus for better reliability and efficiency. PCS manages
the available power and the load requirements, while able to exchange power between
connected points.
Prototypes have been developed to demonstrate the proposed DC microgrid system,
with capacity of 3 kWp of solar PV and 13.8 kWh of battery each. One such system can be
used to supply a cluster of 10 households. They are implemented in a pole‐mounted struc‐
ture to save space, while the PV panels form a canopy shading 18 m2 of ground. The sys‐
tem can be expanded to create a DC microgrid network by connecting several single iso‐
lated systems through 370 VDC bus.
The proposed DC microgrid system has been tested in laboratory and in the field,
both as a single‐point and a multi‐point system. Each of them runs well both in either
modes, reaching 92.75% of efficiency, and confirmed low THD levels, where the voltage
THD is 2.078% and current THD is 2.124%. The prototype field testing successfully
demonstrated the battery charge and discharge sequences following several load condi‐
tions. Voltage drops is also tested to confirm the acceptable level of voltage in the con‐
sumer’s household devices. Financial analysis based on LCOE concludes that the pro‐
posed system is feasible for implementation with the minimum tariff US$0.68/kWh.
Author Contributions: Conceptual development P.A.D., A.R., and T.A.; economic analysis E.G.;
implementation and field testing A.H.A., P.D.S., and M.R. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research is funded by the LPDP, Indonesia. This research is also partially funded by
the Indonesian Ministry of Research and Technology/National Agency for Research and Innovation,
and Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture, under World Class University Program man‐
aged by Institut Teknologi Bandung.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would also like to thank Sanken Electric Co., Ltd. and PT Len In‐
dustri (Persero), for cooperation during this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
GWp gigawatt‐peak
ESS Energy Storage System
kWh kilowatt‐hour
kWp kilowatt‐peak
LCOE Levelized Cost of Energy
O&M Operation and Maintenance
PCS Power Conditioner System
PV Photovoltaic
Energies 2021, 14, 493 15 of 16
RES Renewable Energy Sources
SoC State of Charge
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
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