Fluid and Thermal Physics

Kebede Shogile.

June 3, 2021
Contents

1 Fluid Mechanics 3
1.1 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Variation of Pressure with Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Pressure Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Buoyant Forces and Archimedess Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Streamlines and the Continuity Equation for Fluids . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.8 Bernoullis Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.9 Viscosity and Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.10 Other Applications of Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.11 Context Connection: Turbulent Flow of Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 Thermodynamics 22
2.1 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Thermometers and the Celsius temperature Scale . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 The Constant-Volume Gas thermometer and the Absolute temperature
Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

i
CONTENTS CONTENTS

The purpose of this course is to let learners conceptualize, understand and prac-
tice the fundamental scientific concept of temperature and heat, heat energy and heat
transfer, thermal properties of matter and the fundamental laws of thermodynamics.
Learners are also expected to conceptualize, understand and practice the fundamen-
tal scientific concept of pressure, pressure variation with depth, buoyant force and
Archimedes’ principles, Bernoulli’s principle and equation of continuity. The overall
intention of addressing this course is to bridge the gap that students may face between
school and university physics teaching and learning process framing on non-calculus
based approach.

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CONTENTS CONTENTS

Introduction
Matter is normally classified as being in one of three states: solid, liquid, or gas.
Everyday experience tells us that a solid has a definite volume and shape. A
brick maintains its familiar shape and size over a long time.
We also know that a liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape. For
example, a cup of liquid water has a fixed volume but assumes the shape of its con-
tainer.
Finally, an unconfined gas has neither definite volume nor definite shape.
For example, if there is a leak in the natural gas supply in your home, the escaping
gas continues to expand into the surrounding atmosphere. These definitions help us
picture the states of matter, but they are somewhat artificial. For example, asphalt,
glass, and plastics are normally considered solids, but over a long time interval they
tend to flow like liquids. Likewise, most substances can be a solid, liquid, or gas (or
combinations of these states), depending on the temperature and pressure.
In general, the time interval required for a particular substance to change its shape
in response to an external force determines whether we treat the substance as a solid,
liquid, or gas.

A fluid is a collection of molecules that are randomly arranged and held

together by weak cohesive forces between molecules and forces exerted by
the walls of a container. Both liquids and gases are fluids.
Fluids play a vital role in many aspects of everyday life. We drink them, breathe
them, swim in them. They circulate through our bodies and control our weather.
Airplanes fly through them; ships float in them. A fluid is any substance that can
flow; we use the term for both liquids and gases. We usually think of a gas as eas-
ily compressed and a liquid as nearly incompressible,although there are exceptional
cases.
We begin our study with fluid statics,the study of fluids at rest in equilibrium sit-
uations. Like other equilibrium situations, it is based on Newtons first and third
laws. We will explore the key concepts of density, pressure, and buoyancy. Fluid
dynamics,the study of fluids in motion, is much more complex; indeed, it is one of
the most complex branches of mechanics. Fortunately, we can analyze many impor-
tant situations using simple idealized models and familiar principles such as Newtons
laws and conservation of energy. Even so, we will barely scratch the surface of this
broad and interesting topic.

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Chapter 1

Fluid Mechanics

1.1 Density
A property of any substance is its densityρ (Greek letter rho), defined as the amount
of mass contained in a unit volume, which we usually express as mass per unit volume.
A homogeneous material such as ice or iron has the same density throughout:
m
ρ= (1.1)
v
Two objects made of the same material have the same density even though they may
have different masses and different volumes. That’s because the ratio of mass to
volume is the same for both objects[1].
The difference in density between aluminum and lead is due, in part, to their different
atomic masses. The atomic mass of an element is the average mass of one
atom in a sample of the element that contains all the element’s isotopes,
where the relative amounts of isotopes are the same as the relative amounts
found in nature.
kg
The SI unit of density is the kilogram per cubic meter 1 m 3 The cgs unit, the gram
g
per cubic centimeter 1 cm3 is also widely used:
1 cmg 3 = 1000 m
kg
3

The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of its density to the density of water
at4.00 C, 1000kg
m3
it is a pure number without units.
The density of some materials varies from point to point within the material. One
example is the material of the human body, which includes low-density fat (about
kg kg
940 m 3 ) and high-density bone (from 1700 to 2500 m3 ).

Two others are the earth’s atmosphere (which is less dense at high altitudes) and
oceans (which are denser at greater depths). For these materials, Equation 1.1 de-
scribes the average density.
In general, the density of a material depends on environmental factors such as tem-
perature and pressure

3
1.2. PRESSURE CHAPTER 1. FLUID MECHANICS

1.2 Pressure
Fluids do not sustain shearing stresses or tensile stresses; thus, the only stress that
can be exerted on an object submerged in a static fluid is one that tends to compress
the object from all sides. In other words, the force exerted by a static fluid on an
object is always perpendicular to the surfaces of the object, as shown in Figure 1.1
When a fluid (either liquid or gas) is at rest, it exerts a force perpendicular to any

Figure 1.1: At any point on the surface of a submerged object, the force exerted by
the fluid is perpendicular to the surface of the object. The force exerted by the fluid
on the walls of the container is perpendicular to the walls at all points.

surface in contact with it, such as a container wall or a body immersed in the fluid.
This is the force that you feel pressing on your legs when you dangle them in a
swimming pool. While the fluid as a whole is at rest, the molecules that make up the
fluid are in motion; the force exerted by the fluid is due to molecules colliding with
their surroundings.
If we think of an imaginary surface with in the fluid, the fluid on the two sides of the
surface exerts equal and opposite forces on the surface. (Otherwise,the surface would
accelerate and the fluid would not remain at rest.) Consider a small surface of area
dA centered on a point in the fluid; the normal force exerted by the fluid on each side
is dF⊥ (Figure 1.2). We define the pressure p at that point as the normal force per
unit area that is, the ratio of dF⊥ to dA(Figure 1.3):
dF⊥
P = (1.2)
dA⊥
If the pressure is the same at all points of a finite plane surface with area A, then
F⊥
P = (1.3)
A
where F⊥ is the net normal force on one side of the surface. The SI unit of pressure
is the pascal,where

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1.3. VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH
CHAPTER 1. FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 1.2: Forces acting on a small surface within a fluid at rest

Figure 1.3: pressure on either side of a surface is force divided by area.

1P ascal = 1P a = 1 mN2
We introduced the pascal previously. Two related units, used principally in meteo-
rology, are the bar,equal to 105 pa and the millibar,equal to 100 Pa.

Atmospheric pressure pa is the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere, the pressure

at the bottom of this sea of air in which we live. This pressure varies with weather
changes and with elevation. Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level (an average
value) is 1 atmosphere(atm), defined to be exactly 101, 325P a. To four significant
figures,
(P a)av = 1atm = 1.013 ∗ 105 pa = 1.013bar = 1013millibar = 14.70 inlb2

1.3 Variation of Pressure with Depth

As divers well know, water pressure increases with depth. Likewise, atmospheric
pressure decreases with increasing altitude; for this reason, aircraft flying at high

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1.3. VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH
CHAPTER 1. FLUID MECHANICS

altitudes must have pressurized cabins. We now show how the pressure in a liquid
increases with depth. As Equation 1.1 describes, the density of a substance is defined
as its mass per unit volume. These values vary slightly with temperature because the
volume of a substance is temperature-dependent.
Under standard conditions (at 00 C and at atmospheric pressure) the densities of
gases are about 1/1000 the densities of solids and liquids. This difference in densities
implies that the average molecular spacing in a gas under these conditions is about
ten times greater than that in a solid or liquid.
Now consider a liquid of density ρ at rest as shown in Figure 1.4. We assume that ρ
is uniform throughout the liquid; this means that the liquid is incompressible. Let us
select a sample of the liquid contained within an imaginary cylinder of cross-sectional
area A extending from depth d to depth d + h.
The liquid external to our sample exerts forces at all points on the surface of the
sample, perpendicular to the surface. The pressure exerted by the liquid on the
bottom face of the sample is P , and the pressure on the top face is P0 .
Therefore, the upward force exerted by the outside fluid on the bottom of the cylinder
has a magnitude P A, and the downward force exerted on the top has a magnitude
P0 A. The mass of liquid in the cylinder is M = ρV = ρAh; therefore, the weight of
the liquid in the cylinder is M g = ρAhg. Because the cylinder is in equilibrium, the
net force acting on it must be zero. Choosing upward to be the positive y direction,
we see that
P
F = P Aĵ − ρ0 Aĵ − M g ĵ = 0
or
P A − P0 A − ρAhg = 0

P A − P0 A = ρAhg

P = P0 + ρgh (1.4)
That is, the pressure P at a depth h below a point in the liquid at which
the pressure is P0 is greater by an amount ρgh. If the liquid is open to the
atmosphere and P0 is the pressure at the surface of the liquid, then P0 is atmospheric
pressure. In our calculations and working of end-of-chapter problems, we usually take
atmospheric pressure to be
P0 = 1.00atm = 1.013 ∗ 105 pa
Equation 1.4 implies that the pressure is the same at all points having the same depth,
independent of the shape of the container. In view of the fact that the pressure in a
fluid depends on depth and on the value of P0 , any increase in pressure at the surface
must be transmitted to every other point in the fluid. This concept was first recog-
nized by the French scientist Blaise Pascal(16231662) and is called Pascals law: a

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1.3. VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH
CHAPTER 1. FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 1.4: A parcel of fluid (darker region) in a larger volume of fluid is singled out.
The net force exerted on the parcel of fluid must be zero because it is in equilibrium.

change in the pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted undiminished to

every point of the fluid and to the walls of the container.

An important application of Pascals law is the hydraulic press illustrated in

Figure 1.5. A force of magnitude F1 is applied to a small piston of surface area A1 .
The pressure is transmitted through an incompressible liquid to a larger piston of
surface area A2 . Because the pressure must be the same on both sides, P = AF11 = AF22 .
A2
Therefore, the force F2 is greater than the force F1 by a factor A 1
.
By designing a hydraulic press with appropriate areas A1 and A2 , a large output force
can be applied by means of a small input force. Hydraulic brakes, car lifts, hy-
draulic jacks, and forklifts all make use of this principle. Because liquid is neither
added nor removed from the system, the volume of liquid pushed down on the left
in Figure 1.5 as the piston moves downward through a displacement δx1 equals the
volume of liquid pushed up on the right as the right piston moves upward through a
A2
displacement δx2 . That is, A1 ∗ x1 = A2 ∗ x2 ; thus, A 1
= xx21 . We have already shown
that A
A1
2
= FF12 . Thus, FF12 = xx12 , so F 1 ∗ x1 = F 2 ∗ x2. Each side of this equation is the
work done by the force. Thus, the work done by F1 on the input piston equals the
work done by F2 on the output piston, as it must in order to conserve energy.

Pascals law:Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undi-

minished to every portion of the fluid and the walls of the containing
vessel

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1.4. PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS CHAPTER 1. FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 1.5: Diagram of a hydraulic press. Because the increase in pressure is the
same on the two sides, a small force Fl at the left produces a much greater force F2
at the right.

1.4 Pressure Measurements

During the weather report on a television news program, the barometric pressure
is often provided. This is the current pressure of the atmosphere, which varies over a
small range from the standard value provided earlier. How is this pressure measured?
One instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure is the common barometer,
invented by Evangelista Torricelli (16081647). A long tube closed at one end is filled
with mercury and then inverted into a dish of mercury (Fig. 14.6a). The closed end
of the tube is nearly a vacuum, so the pressure at the top of the mercury column
can be taken as zero. In Figure 14.6a, the pressure at point A, due to the column of
mercury, must equal the pressure at point B, due to the atmosphere. If this were not
the case, there would be a net force that would move mercury from one point to the
other until equilibrium is established. Therefore, it follows that P0 = ρHg gh, where
ρHg is the density of the mercury and h is the height of the mercury column. As
atmospheric pressure varies, the height of the mercury column varies, so the height
can be calibrated to measure atmospheric pressure. Let us determine the height of a
mercury column for one atmosphere of pressure, P0 = 1atm = 1.013 ∗ 105 pa
P0 1.013∗105 pa
P0 = ρHg gh → h = ρHg g
= (13.6∗103 Kg3 )(9.80 m2 )
m s

Based on a calculation such as this, one atmosphere of pressure is defined to be the

pressure equivalent of a column of mercury that is exactly 0.7600m in height at 00 C.

A device for measuring the pressure of a gas contained in a vessel is the open-tube

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1.5. BUOYANT FORCES AND ARCHIMEDESS
CHAPTER
PRINCIPLE
1. FLUID MECHANICS

manometer illustrated in Figure 14.6b. One end of a U-shaped tube containing a

liquid is open to the atmosphere, and the other end is connected to a system of
unknown pressure P . The pressures at points A and B must be the same (otherwise,
the curved portion of the liquid would experience a net force and would accelerate),
and the pressure at A is the unknown pressure of the gas. Therefore, equating the
unknown pressure P to the pressure at point B, we see that P = P0 + ρgh. The
difference in pressure P − P0 is equal to ρgh.
The pressure P is called the absolute pressure, while the difference P − P0 is called
the gauge pressure. For example, the pressure you measure in your bicycle tire is
gauge pressure.

1.5 Buoyant Forces and Archimedess Principle

Have you ever tried to push a beach ball down under water 1.6? It is extremely
difficult to do because of the large upward force exerted by the water on the ball.
The upward force exerted by a fluid on any immersed object is called a buoyant
force.We can determine the magnitude of a buoyant force by applying some logic.
Imagine a beach ball sized parcel of water beneath the water surface as in Figure
15.8b. Because this parcel is in equilibrium, there must be an upward force that
balances the downward gravitational force on the parcel. This upward force is the
buoyant force, and its magnitude is equal to the weight of the water in the parcel. The
buoyant force is the resultant force on the parcel due to all forces applied by the fluid
surrounding the parcel. Buoyancy is a familiar phenomenon: A body immersed in

Figure 1.6: (a) A swimmer pushes a beach ball under water. (b) The forces on a
beach ballsized parcel of water.

water seems to weigh less than when it is in air. When the body is less dense than the
fluid, it floats. The human body usually floats in water, and a helium-filled balloon
floats in air.

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1.5. BUOYANT FORCES AND ARCHIMEDESS
CHAPTER
PRINCIPLE
1. FLUID MECHANICS

Archimedes’s principle: When a body is completely or partially immersed in a

fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force on the body equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body. Floating

When we release a block of lightweight wood just above the water in a pool, the block
moves into the water because the gravitational force on it pulls it downward. As the
block displaces more and more water, the magnitude Fb of the upward buoyant force
acting on it increases. Eventually, Fb is large enough to equal the magnitude Fg of the
downward gravitational force on the block, and the block comes to rest. The block is
then in static equilibrium and is said to be floating in the water. In general,
When a body floats in a fluid, the magnitude Fb of the buoyant force on the body is
equal to the magnitude Fg of the gravitational force on the body
We can write this statement as

Fb = Fg (floating) (1.5)

When a body floats in a fluid, the magnitude Fg of the gravitational force on the
body is equal to the weight mf gof the fluid that has been displaced by the body.
We can write this statement as

Fg = mf gfloating (1.6)

In other words, a floating body displaces its own weight of fluid.

textbfApparent Weight in a Fluid
If we place a stone on a scale that is calibrated to measure weight, then the reading
on the scale is the stone’s weight. However, if we do this underwater, the upward
buoyant force on the stone from the water decreases the reading. That reading is
then an apparent weight. In general, an apparent weight is related to the actual
weight of a body and the buoyant force on the body by
(apparent weight)=(actual weight)-(magnitude of buoyant force)
which we can write as

W eightapp = W eight − Fb (apparent weight) (1.7)

If, in some test of strength, you had to lift a heavy stone, you could do it more
easily with the stone underwater.Then your applied force would need to exceed only
the stone’s apparent weight,not its larger actual weight, because the upward buoyant
force would help you lift the stone.
The magnitude of the buoyant force on a floating body is equal to the body’s weight.
Equation 1.7 thus tells us that a floating body has an apparent weight of zero-the
body would produce a reading of zero on a scale. (When astronauts prepare to
perform a complex task in space, they practice the task floating underwater, where
their apparent weight is zero as it is in space.)

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1.6. FLUID DYNAMICS CHAPTER 1. FLUID MECHANICS

1.6 Fluid Dynamics

Ideal Fluids in Motion

The motion of real fluids is very complicated and Instead, we shall discuss the mo-
tion of an ideal fluid,which is simpler to handle mathematically and yet provides
useful results. Here are four assumptions that we make about our ideal fluid; they all
are concerned with flow:

1. Steady flow In steady (or laminar) flow, the velocity of the moving fluid at
any fixed point does not change with time, either in magnitude or in direction.
The gentle flow of water near the center of a quiet stream is steady; the flow
in a chain of rapids is not. Figure I4-I3 shows a transition from steady flow
to non steady (or non laminar or turbulent) flow for a rising stream of smoke.
The speed of the smoke particles increases as they rise and, at a certain critical
speed, the flow changes from steady to non steady.

2. In compressible flow We assume, as for fluids at rest, that our ideal fluid is
in compressible; that is, its density has a constant, uniform value.

3. Non viscous flow Roughly speaking, the viscosity of a fluid is a measure of

how resistive the fluid is to flow. For example, thick honey is more resistive to
flow than water, and so honey is said to be more viscous than water. Viscosity
is the fluid analog of friction between solids; both are mechanisms by which
the kinetic energy of moving objects can be transferred to thermal energy. In
the absence of friction, a block could glide at constant speed along a horizontal
surface. In the same way,an object moving through a non viscous fluid would
experience no viscous drag force-that is, no resistive force due to viscosity; it
could move at constant speed through the fluid. The British scientist Lord
Rayleigh noted that in an ideal fluid a ship’s propeller would not work, but, on
the other hand, in an ideal fluid a ship (once set into motion) would not need
a propeller!

4. Irrotational flow Although it need not concern us further, we also assume

that the flow is irrotational. To test for this property, let a tiny grain of dust
move with the fluid. Although this test body may (or may not) move in a
circular path, in irrotational flow the test body will not rotate about an axis
through its own center of mass. For a loose analogy, the motion of a Ferris
wheel is rotational; that of its passengers is irrotational.

We are now ready to consider motion of a fluid. Fluid flow can be extremely complex,
as shown by the currents in river rapids or the swirling flames of a campfire. But
some situations can be represented by relatively simple idealized models.

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1.6. FLUID DYNAMICS CHAPTER 1. FLUID MECHANICS

An ideal fluid is a fluid that is incompressible(that is, its density cannot change) and
has no internal friction (called viscosity). Liquids are approximately incompressible
in most situations, and we may also treat a gas as incompressible if the pressure
differences from one region to another are not too great.
Internal friction in a fluid causes shear stresses when two adjacent layers of fluid move
relative to each other, as when fluid flows inside a tube or around an obstacle. In
some cases we can neglect these shear forces in comparison with forces arising from
gravitation and pressure differences.

The path of an individual particle in a moving fluid is called a flow line.If the overall
flow pattern does not change with time, the flow is called steady flow.In steady flow,
every element passing through a given point follows the same flow line. In this case
the map of the fluid velocities at various points in space remains constant, although
the velocity of a particular particle may change in both magnitude and direction
during its motion.
A streamline is a curve whose tangent at any point is in the direction of the fluid
velocity at that point. When the flow pattern changes with time, the streamlines
do not coincide with the flow lines. We will consider only steady-flow situations, for
which flow lines and streamlines are identical.
The flow lines passing through the edge of an imaginary element of area, such as the
area A in Figure 1.7, form a tube called a flow tube.From the definition of a flow line,
in steady flow no fluid can cross the side walls of a flow tube; the fluids in different
flow tubes cannot mix.

Figure 1.8 shows patterns of fluid flow from left to right around three different

Figure 1.7: A flow tube bounded by flow lines. In steady flow, fluid cannot cross the
walls of a flow tube.

obstacles. The photographs were made by injecting dye into water flowing between
two closely spaced glass plates. These patterns are typical of laminar flow, in which
adjacent layers of fluid slide smoothly past each other and the flow is steady. (A
lamina is a thin sheet.) At sufficiently high flow rates, or when boundary surfaces
cause abrupt changes in velocity, the flow can become irregular and chaotic. This is
called turbulent flow(Figure 1.8). In turbulent flow there is no steady-state pattern;
the flow pattern changes continuously.

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1.7. STREAMLINES AND THE CONTINUITY
CHAPTER
EQUATION
1. FLUID
FOR FLUIDS
MECHANICS

Figure 1.8: Laminar flow around obstacles of different shapes.

Figure 1.9: The flow of smoke rising from these incense sticks is laminar up to a
certain point, and then becomes turbulent

1.7 Streamlines and the Continuity Equation for

Fluids
The Continuity Equation
The mass of a moving fluid doesn’t change as it flows. This leads to an important
quantitative relationship called the continuity equation. Consider a portion of a
flow tube between two stationary cross sections with areas A1 and A2 (Figure 1.10).
The fluid speeds at these sections are v1 and v2 respectively. No fluid flows in or out
across the sides of the tube because the fluid velocity is tangent to the wall at every
point on the wall. During a small time interval dt, the fluid at A1 moves a distance
v1 dt so a cylinder of fluid with height v1 dt and volume dV1 = A1 v1 dt flows into the
tube across A1 . During this same interval, a cylinder of volume dV2 = A2 v2 dt flows
out of the tube across A2 . Let’s first consider the case of an incompressible fluid so
that the density ρ has the same value at all points. The mass dm1 flowing into the
tube across A1 in time dt is dm1 = ρA1 v1 dt. Similarly, the mass dm2 that flows out
across A2 in the same time is dm2 = ρA2 v2 dt. In steady flow the total mass in the

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1.7. STREAMLINES AND THE CONTINUITY
CHAPTER
EQUATION
1. FLUID
FOR FLUIDS
MECHANICS

Figure 1.10: A flow tube with changing crosssectional area. If the fluid is incompress-
ible, the product Av has the same value at all points along the tube.

tube is constant, so dm1 = dm2 and

ρA1 v1 dt = ρA2 v2 dt
or
A1 v1 = A2 v2 (continuityequation, incompressiblef luid) (1.8)
The product Av is the volume flow rate dV dt
the rate at which volume crosses a
section of the tube:
dV
= Av(volumef lowrate) (1.9)
dt
The mass flow rate is the mass flow per unit time through a cross section. This is
equal to the density ρ times the volume flow rate dV
dt

Equation 1.8 shows that the volume flow rate has the same value at all points along
any flow tube. When the cross section of a flow tube decreases, the speed increases,
and vice versa. A broad, deep part of a river has larger cross section and slower
current than a narrow, shallow part, but the volume flow rates are the same in both.
This is the essence of the familiar maxim, Still waters run deep. The stream of water
from a faucet narrows as it gains speed during its fall, but dV
dt
s the same everywhere
along the stream. If a water pipe with 2 − cm diameter is connected to a pipe with
1 − cm diameter, the flow speed is four times as great in the 1 − cm part as in the
2 − cm part.
We can generalize Equation 1.8 for the case in which the fluid is not incompressible.
If ρ1 and ρ2 are the densities at sections 1 and 2, then

ρ1 A1 v1 = ρ2 A2 v2 (1.10)

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1.8. BERNOULLIS EQUATION CHAPTER 1. FLUID MECHANICS

If the fluid is denser at point 2 than at point 1 (ρ2 > ρ1 ) the volume flow rate at
point 2 will be less than at point 1 (A2 v2 < A1 v1 ) We leave the details to you. If the
fluid is incompressible so that ρ1 and ρ2 are always equal, Equation 1.10 reduces to
Equation 1.8.

Example
Incompressible oil of density 850 Kg
m3
is pumped through a cylindrical pipe at a rate of
9.5 liters per second. (a) The first section of the pipe has a diameter of 8.0cm. What
is the flow speed of the oil? What is the mass flow rate? (b) The second section of
the pipe has a diameter of 4.0cm. What are the flow speed and mass flow rate in that
section?

1.8 Bernoullis Equation

According to the continuity equation, the speed of fluid flow can vary along the paths
of the fluid. The pressure can also vary; it depends on height as in the static situation,
and it also depends on the speed of flow.
We can derive an important relationship called Bernoulli’s equation that relates
the pressure, flow speed, and height for flow of an ideal, incompressible fluid.
—smallskip
Bernoullis equation is an essential tool in analyzing plumbing systems, hydroelectric
generating stations, and the flight of airplanes.

The dependence of pressure on speed follows from the continuity equation, Equation
1.8. When an incompressible fluid flows along a flow tube with varying cross section,
its speed must change, and so an element of fluid must have an acceleration. If
the tube is horizontal, the force that causes this acceleration has to be applied by
the surrounding fluid. This means that the pressure must be different in regions of
different cross section; if it were the same everywhere, the net force on every fluid
element would be zero. When a horizontal flow tube narrows and a fluid element
speeds up, it must be moving toward a region of lower pressure in order to have a net
forward force to accelerate it. If the elevation also changes, this causes an additional
pressure difference.

Deriving Bernoullis Equation

To derive Bernoullis equation, we apply the workenergy theorem to the fluid in

a section of a flow tube. In Figure 1.11 we consider the element of fluid that at some
initial time lies between the two cross sections a and c. The speeds at the lower and
upper ends are v1 and v2 In a small time interval dt, the fluid that is initially at a
moves to b, a distance ds1 = v1 dt, and the fluid that is initially at c moves to d, a
distance ds2 = v2 dt. The cross-sectional areas at the two ends are A1 and A2 , as
shown. The fluid is incompressible; hence by the continuity equation, Equation 1.8,

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1.8. BERNOULLIS EQUATION CHAPTER 1. FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 1.11: Deriving Bernoullis equation. The net work done on a fluid element by
the pressure of the surrounding fluid equals the change in the kinetic energy plus the
change in the gravitational potential energy

the volume of fluid dV passing any cross section during time dt is the same. That
is,dV = A1 ds1 = A2 ds2 .

Lets compute the work done on this fluid element during dt. We assume that there is
negligible internal friction in the fluid (i.e., no viscosity), so the only non gravitational
forces that do work on the fluid element are due to the pressure of the surrounding
fluid. The pressures at the two ends are p1 and p2 ; the force on the cross section at
a is p1 A1 and the force at c isp2 A2 . The net work dW done on the element by the
surrounding fluid during this displacement is therefore

dw = p1 A1 ds1 − p2 A2 ds2 = (p1 − p2 )dV (1.11)

The second term has a negative sign because the force at c opposes the displacement
of the fluid.
The work dW is due to forces other than the conservative force of gravity, so it
equals the change in the total mechanical energy (kinetic energy plus gravitational
potential energy) associated with the fluid element. The mechanical energy for the
fluid between sections band c does not change. At the beginning of dt the fluid
between a and b has volume A1 ds1 , mass ρA1 ds1 and kinetic energy 21 ρ(A1 ds1 )v12 . At
the end of dt the fluid between c and d has kinetic energy 12 ρ(A2 ds2 )v22 . . The net

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1.9. VISCOSITY AND TURBULENCE CHAPTER 1. FLUID MECHANICS

change in kinetic energy dK during time dt is

1
dK = dV (v22 − v12 ) (1.12)
2
What about the change in gravitational potential energy? At the beginning of dt,
the potential energy for the mass between a and b is dmgy1 = ρdV gy1 . At the end of
dt, the potential energy for the mass between c and d is dmgy2 = ρdV gy2 . The net
change in potential energy dU during dt is

dU = ρdV g(y2 − y1 ) (1.13)

Combining Eqs. (1.11), (1.12), and (1.13) in the energy equation dw = dK + dU , we

obtain
1 1
(p1 −p2 )dV = ρdV (v22 −v12 )+ρdV g(y2 −y1 )p1 −p2 = ρ(v22 −v12 )+ρg(y2 −y1 ) (1.14)
2 2
This is Bernoullis equation.It states that the work done on a unit volume of fluid
by the surrounding fluid is equal to the sum of the changes in kinetic and potential
energies per unit volume that occur during the flow. We may also interpret Equation
1.14 in terms of pressures. The first term on the right is the pressure difference
associated with the change of speed of the fluid. The second term on the right is the
additional pressure difference caused by the weight of the fluid and the difference in
elevation of the two ends. We can also express Equation 1.14 in a more convenient
form as
1 1
p1 + ρgy1 + ρv12 = p2 + ρgy2 + ρv22 (1.15)
2 2
The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to any two points along the flow tube, so we can also
write
1
p + ρgy + ρv 2 = canstant (1.16)
2
Note that when the fluid is not moving (so v1 = v2 = 0) Equation 1.15 reduces to the
pressure relationship we derived for a fluid at rest.

CAUTION Bernoullis principle applies only in certain situations. We stress again

that Bernoullis equation is valid for only incompressible, steady flow of a fluid with
no internal friction (no viscosity). It’s a simple equation that’s easy to use; don’t let
this tempt you to use it in situations in which it doesn’t apply!

1.9 Viscosity and Turbulence

In our discussion of fluid flow we assumed that the fluid had no internal friction and
that the flow was laminar. While these assumptions are often quite valid, in many
important physical situations the effects of viscosity (internal friction) and turbulence

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1.9. VISCOSITY AND TURBULENCE CHAPTER 1. FLUID MECHANICS

(non laminar flow) are extremely important. Let’s take a brief look at some of these
situations.
Viscosity
Viscosity is internal friction in a fluid. Viscous forces oppose the motion of one por-
tion of a fluid relative to another. Viscosity is the reason it takes effort to paddle a
canoe through calm water, but it is also the reason the paddle works. Viscous effects
are important in the flow of fluids in pipes, the flow of blood, the lubrication of engine
parts, and many other situations.
Fluids that flow readily, such as water or gasoline, have smaller viscosities than do
thick liquids such as honey or motor oil. Viscosities of all fluids are strongly temper-
ature dependent, increasing for gases and decreasing for liquids as the temperature
increases. Oils for engine lubrication must flow equally well in cold and warm con-
ditions, and so are designed to have as little temperature variation of viscosity as
possible.
A viscous fluid always tends to cling to a solid surface in contact with it. There is
always a thin boundary layer of fluid near the surface, in which the fluid is nearly at
rest with respect to the surface. That’s why dust particles can cling to a fan blade
even when it is rotating rapidly, and why you can’t get all the dirt off your car by
just squirting a hose at it.

Viscosity has important effects on the flow of liquids through pipes, including the
flow of blood in the circulatory system. First think about a fluid with zero viscosity
so that we can apply Bernoullis equation. If the two ends of a long cylindrical pipe
are at the same height (y1 = y2 ) and the flow speed is the same at both ends (so
v1 = v2 ) Bernoullis equation tells us that the pressure is the same at both ends of the
pipe. But this result simply isn’t true if we take viscosity into account. To see why,
consider Figure 1.12, which shows the flow-speed profile for laminar flow of a viscous
fluid in a long cylindrical pipe. Due to viscosity, the speed is zero at the pipe walls
(to which the fluid clings) and is greatest at the center of the pipe.

The motion is like a lot of concentric tubes sliding relative to one another, with the
central tube moving fastest and the outermost tube at rest. Viscous forces between
the tubes oppose this sliding, so to keep the flow going we must apply a greater pres-
sure at the back of the flow than at the front. That’s why you have to keep squeezing
a tube of toothpaste or a packet of ketchup (both viscous fluids) to keep the fluid
coming out of its container. Your fingers provide a pressure at the back of the flow
that is far greater than the atmospheric pressure at the front of the flow.

The pressure difference required to sustain a given volume flow rate through a cylin-
drical pipe of length L and radius R turns out to be proportional to RL4 . If we decrease
R by one-half, the required pressure increases by 24 = 16 ; decreasing R by a fac-
tor of 0.90(a 10% reduction) increases the required pressure difference by a factor of

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1.9. VISCOSITY AND TURBULENCE CHAPTER 1. FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 1.12: Velocity profile for a viscous fluid in a cylindrical pipe.

1 4
( 0.90 ) = 1.52 (a 52% increase). This simple relationship explains the connec-
tion between a high-cholesterol diet (which tends to narrow the arteries)
and high blood pressure. Due to the R4 dependence, even a small nar-
rowing of the arteries can result in substantially elevated blood pressure
and added strain on the heart muscle.

Turbulence
When the speed of a flowing fluid exceeds a certain critical value, the flow is no
longer laminar. Instead, the flow pattern becomes extremely irregular and complex,
and it changes continuously with time; there is no steady-state pattern. This irreg-
ular, chaotic flow is called turbulence. Figure 1.8 and Figure1.9 show the contrast
between laminar and turbulent flow for smoke rising in air. Bernoullis equation is not
applicable to regions where there is turbulence because the flow is not steady.

Whether a flow is laminar or turbulent depends in part on the fluid’s viscosity. The
greater the viscosity, the greater the tendency for the fluid to flow in sheets or lamina
and the more likely the flow is to be laminar. (When we discussed Bernoullis equa-
tion, we assumed that the flow was laminar and that the fluid had zero viscosity. In
fact, a little viscosity is needed to ensure that the flow is laminar.)

For a fluid of a given viscosity, flow speed is a determining factor for the onset of
turbulence. A flow pattern that is stable at low speeds suddenly becomes unstable
when a critical speed is reached. Irregularities in the flow pattern can be caused by
roughness in the pipe wall, variations in the density of the fluid, and many other
factors. At low flow speeds, these disturbances damp out; the flow pattern is stable
and tends to maintain its laminar nature (Figure 1.13a). When the critical speed
is reached, however, the flow pattern becomes unstable. The disturbances no longer
damp out but grow until they destroy the entire laminar-flow pattern (Figure 1.13b).
Example

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1.10. OTHER APPLICATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS
CHAPTER 1. FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 1.13: The flow of water from a faucet is (a)laminar at low speeds but
(b)turbulent at sufficiently high speeds

1.10 Other Applications of Fluid Dynamics

1.11 Context Connection: Turbulent Flow of Blood

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1.11. CONTEXT CONNECTION: TURBULENT
CHAPTER
FLOW1.OFFLUID
BLOODMECHANICS

Introduction

One of the principal branches of physics and engineering is thermodynamics, which

is the study and application of the thermal energy (often called the internal energy)
of systems. One of the central concepts of thermodynamics is temperature.
Since childhood, you have been developing a working knowledge of thermal energy
and temperature. For example, you know to be cautious with hot foods and hot
stoves and to store perishable foods in cool or cold compartments. You also know
how to control the temperature inside home and car, and how to protect yourself
from wind chill and heat stroke.

page 21 by Kebede Shogile

Chapter 2

Thermodynamics

We now direct our attention to the study of thermodynamics, which involves situa-
tions in which the temperature or state (solid, liquid, gas) of a system changes due
to energy transfers. As we shall see, thermodynamics is very successful in explaining
the bulk properties of matter and the correlation between these properties and the
mechanics of atoms and molecules.

Historically, the development of thermodynamics paralleled the development of the

atomic theory of matter. By the 1820s, chemical experiments had provided solid evi-
dence for the existence of atoms. At that time, scientists recognized that a connection
between thermodynamics and the structure of matter must exist.

In 1827, botanist Robert Brown reported that grains of pollen suspended in a liquid
move erratically from one place to another as if under constant agitation. In 1905,
Albert Einstein used kinetic theory to explain the cause of this erratic motion, known
today as Brownian motion. Einstein explained this phenomenon by assuming the
grains are under constant bombardment by invisible molecules in the liquid, which
themselves move erratically. This explanation gave scientists insight into the concept
of molecular motion and gave credence to the idea that matter is made up of atoms.
A connection was thus forged between the everyday world and the tiny, invisible
building blocks that make up this world.

Thermodynamics also addresses more practical questions. Have you ever wondered
how a refrigerator is able to cool its contents, or what types of transformations occur
in a power plant or in the engine of your automobile, or what happens to the kinetic
energy of a moving object when the object comes to rest? The laws of thermody-
namics can be used to provide explanations for these and other phenomena.

22
2.1. TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTHCHAPTER
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
2. THERMODYNAMICS

2.1 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of thermo-

dynamics
Temperature
Temperature is a concept we all understand from experience. We hear weather fore-
casters tell us that the temperature will be 72F today. We hear doctors tell us that
our body temperature is 98.6F . When we touch an object, we can tell whether it is
hot or cold. If we put a hot object in contact with a cold object, the hot object will
cool off and the cold object will warm up. If we measure the temperatures of the two
objects after some time has passed, they will be equal. The two objects are then in
thermal equilibrium.
Temperature is one of the seven SI base quantities. Physicists measure temperature
on the Kelvin scale,which is marked in units called kelvins. Although the tempera-
ture of a body apparently has no upper limit, it does have a lower limit; this limiting
low temperature is taken as the zero of the Kelvin temperature scale. Room temper-
ature is about 290 kelvins, or 290 K as we write it, above this absolute zero.
When the universe began 13.7 billion years ago, its temperature was about 1039K.
As the universe expanded it cooled, and it has now reached an average temperature
of about 3 K. We on Earth are a little warmer than that because we happen to live
near a star. Without our Sun, we too would be at 3 K (or, rather, we could not exist).
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
The properties of many bodies change as we alter their temperature, perhaps by mov-
ing them from a refrigerator to a warm oven.
To give a few examples: As their temperature increases, the volume of a liquid in-
creases, a metal rod grows a little longer, and the electrical resistance of a wire
increases, as does the pressure exerted by a confined gas.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that:
If bodies A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body T , then A and
B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
In less formal language, the message of the zeroth law is: Every body has a property
called temperature.When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium, their temperatures
are equal. And vice versa.

Heat is the transfer of a type of energy. This energy, sometimes called thermal
energy, is in the form of random motion of the atoms and molecules making up
the matter being studied. The concept of heat as thermal energy that is transferred
because of a temperature difference.
The temperature of an object is related to the tendency of the object to transfer
heat to or from its surroundings.
Heat will transfer from the object to its surroundings if the object’s temperature is
higher than that of its surroundings. Heat will transfer to the object if its tempera-
ture is less than its surroundings. Note that cold is simply the absence of heat; there

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2.1. TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTHCHAPTER
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
2. THERMODYNAMICS

is no such thing as a flow of coldness between an object and its surroundings. If an

object feels cold to your touch, this is simply a consequence of heat being transferred
from your fingers to the object. This is the macroscopic definition of temperature.
Measuring temperature relies on the fact that if two objects are in thermal equilibrium
with a third object, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. This third ob-
ject could be a thermometer,which measures temperature. This idea, often called the
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics,defines the concept of temperature and underlies the
ability to measure temperature. That is, in order to find out if two objects have the
same temperature, you do not need to bring them into thermal contact and monitor
whether thermal energy transfers (which may be hard or even impossible in some in-
stances). Instead, you can use a thermometer and measure each objects temperature
separately; if your readings are the same, you know that the objects have the same
temperature. Temperature measurements can be taken using any of several common
scales. Let’s examine these.

Temperature scales
Fahrenheit Scale Several systems have been proposed and used to quantify tem-
perature; the most widely used are the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scales. The
Fahrenheit temperature scale was proposed in 1724 by Gabriel Fahrenheit, a German-
born scientist living in Amsterdam. Fahrenheit also invented the mercury-expansion
thermometer. The Fahrenheit scale went through several iterations. Fahrenheit fi-
nally defined the unit of the Fahrenheit scale (0 F ) by fixing 00 F for the temperature
of an ice-salt bath, 320 F for the freezing point of water, and 960 F for the temperature
of the human body as measured under the arm. Later, other scientists defined the
boiling point of water as 2120 F . This temperature scale is used widely in the United
States.

Celsius Scale
Anders Celsius, a Swedish astronomer, proposed the Celsius temperature scale, often
called the centigrade scale,in 1742. Several iterations of this scale resulted in the
Celsius scale unit (0 C) being determined by setting the freezing point of water at
00 C and the boiling point of water at 1000 C (at normal atmospheric pressure). This
temperature scale is used worldwide, except in the United States.

Kelvin Scale
In 1848, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), a British physicist, proposed another tem-
perature scale, which is now called the Kelvin temperature scale.This scale is based
on the existence of absolute zero, the minimum possible temperature.

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2.2. THERMOMETERS AND THE CELSIUS
CHAPTER
TEMPERATURE
2. THERMODYNAMICS
SCALE

2.2 Thermometers and the Celsius temperature

Scale
Thermometers are devices used to measure the temperature of a system. All ther-
mometers are based on the principle that some physical property of a system changes
as the system’s temperature changes. Some physical properties that change with tem-
perature are (1) the volume of a liquid, (2) the dimensions of a solid, (3) the pressure
of a gas at constant volume, (4) the volume of a gas at constant pressure, (5) the
electric resistance of a conductor, and (6) the color of an object.
A common thermometer in everyday use consists of a mass of liquid usually mercury
or alcohol that expands into a glass capillary tube when heated.
In this case, the physical property that changes is the volume of a liquid. Any tem-
perature change in the range of the thermometer can be defined as being proportional
to the change in length of the liquid column.
The thermometer can be calibrated by placing it in thermal contact with a natural
system that remains at constant temperature. One such system is a mixture of water
and ice in thermal equilibrium at atmospheric pressure. On the Celsius temperature
scale,this mixture is defined to have a temperature of zero degrees Celsius, which is
written as 0 C; this temperature is called the ice point of water.
Another commonly used system is a mixture of water and steam in thermal equilib-
rium at atmospheric pressure; its temperature is defined as 1000 C, which is the steam
point of water.
Once the liquid levels in the thermometer have been established at these two points,
the length of the liquid column between the two points is divided into 100 equal
segments to create the Celsius scale. Therefore, each segment denotes a change in
temperature of one Celsius degree.
Thermometers calibrated in this way present problems when extremely accurate read-
ings are needed. For instance, the readings given by an alcohol thermometer cal-
ibrated at the ice and steam points of water might agree with those given by a
mercury thermometer only at the calibration points. Because mercury and alcohol
have different thermal expansion properties, when one thermometer reads a temper-
ature of, for example, 50C, the other may indicate a slightly different value. The
discrepancies between thermometers are especially large when the temperatures to
be measured are far from the calibration points.
An additional practical problem of any thermometer is the limited range of temper-
atures over which it can be used. A mercury thermometer, for example, cannot be
used below the freezing point of mercury, which is −390 C, and an alcohol thermome-
ter is not useful for measuring temperatures above 850 C, the boiling point of alcohol.
To surmount this problem, we need a universal thermometer whose readings are in-
dependent of the substance used in it. The gas thermometer, discussed in the next
section, approaches this requirement.

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2.3. THE CONSTANT-VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER AND THE
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALE CHAPTER 2. THERMODYNAMICS

2.3 The Constant-Volume Gas thermometer and

the Absolute temperature Scale
2.4 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids
Our discussion of the liquid thermometer makes use of one of the best-known changes
in a substance: as its temperature increases, its volume increases. This phenomenon,
known as thermal expansion, plays an important role in numerous engineering
applications. Thermal expansion is a consequence of the change in the average sepa-
ration between the atoms in an object.
At ordinary temperatures, the atoms in a solid oscillate about their equilibrium posi-
tions with an amplitude of approximately 10−11 m and a frequency of approximately
1013 Hz. The average spacing between the atoms is about 10−10 m. As the temperature
of the solid increases, the atoms oscillate with greater amplitudes; as a result, the
average separation between them increases; Consequently, the object expands.
If thermal expansion is sufficiently small relative to an objects initial dimensions, the
change in any dimension is, to a good approximation, proportional to the first power
of the temperature change.
Suppose an object has an initial length Li along some direction at some temperature
and the length increases by an amount ∆L for a change in temperature ∆T . Because
it is convenient to consider the fractional change in length per degree of temperature
change, we define the average coefficient of linear expansion as

2.5 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas

page 26 by Kebede Shogile

Bibliography

[1] F. Voss, K. Wisshak, and F. Kappeler.

27