Submarine Tailings Workshop

94
PROCEEDINGS OF THE GESAMP

REPORTS AND STUDIES
INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON
THE IMPACTS OF MINE TAILINGS
IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
10 to 12 June 2015, Lima, Peru
GESAMP Reports & Studies No. 94
Published by the
INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION
4 Albert Embankment, London SE1 7SR
www.imo.org
Printed by Micropress Printers Ltd.
ISSN: 1020-4873
Cover photo: Red shows mine tailings deposits resulting from deep sea tailings disposal (DSTP)
at Batu Hijau in Indonesia.
Credit: Stuart Simpson, CSIRO, Australia.
Notes:
GESAMP is an advisory body consisting of specialized experts nominated by the Sponsoring Agencies
(IMO, FAO, UNESCO-IOC, UNIDO, WMO, IAEA, UN, UNEP, UNDP). Its principal task is to provide scientific
advice concerning the prevention, reduction and control of the degradation of the marine environment to the
Sponsoring Agencies.
The report contains views expressed or endorsed by members of GESAMP who act in their individual
capacities; their views may not necessarily correspond with those of the Sponsoring Agencies.
Permission may be granted by any of the Sponsoring Agencies for the report to be wholly or partially
reproduced in publication by any individual who is not a staff member of a Sponsoring Agency of GESAMP,
provided that the source of the extract and the condition mentioned above are indicated.
Information about GESAMP and its reports and studies can be found at: http://gesamp.org
ISSN 1020-4873 (GESAMP Reports & Studies Series)
Copyright © IMO, FAO, UNESCO-IOC, UNIDO, WMO, IAEA, UN, UNEP, UNDP 2015
For bibliographic purposes this document should be cited as:
GESAMP (2016). “Proceedings of the GESAMP International Workshop on the Impacts of Mine Tailings in the
Marine Environment”. (IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/UNIDO/WMO/IAEA/UN/UNEP/UNDP Joint Group of Experts
on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection). Rep. Stud. GESAMP No. 94, 84 p.
Report editors: Edward Kleverlaan, Fredrik Haag and Craig Vogt1
Contributors to the report: Michael Akester, Carlos Aranda, Patricio Bernal, Kissao Gnandi, Samuel
Hormazabal, Mike Huber, Christian Ihle, David Johnson, Ricardo Katz, Carlos Lema, Robert Moran, Carlos
Neira, Raymond Nepstad, Martin Palmer, Eva Ramirez-Llodra, Renzo Rebisso, Amanda Reichelt-Brushett,
Ashley Rowden, Ana-Carolina Ruiz, Tracy Shimmield, Stuart Simpson, Harald Sørby, Andrew Sweetman,
Walter Vera Tudela, David Vela.
1
Craig Vogt Inc, Ocean & Coastal Environmental Consulting. Hacks Neck, Virginia, USA. Craig@CraigVogt.com.
Contents
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1 Rationale for conducting the workshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2 Workshop objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3 Organization of the workshop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Background: mining and marine disposal of mine tailings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 MINING PRACTICES, WASTE GENERATION AND DISPOSAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.1 Mining: production, waste generation and tailings disposal in Chile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.1 Mining in Chile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.2 Mine tailings disposal and future constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.3 What needs to be done and policy options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Mining practices in Peru: the impact of mineral exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Assessment of land-based mining pollution: a case study in Sinaloa, Mexico. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 UNDERSTANDING THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3.1 Unique attributes of marine ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2 Unique characteristics of deep-sea ecosystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3 Ecosystem services and anthropogenic impact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4 Physical oceanography and Deep-sea Tailings Placement (DSTP)
in the Peru-Chile Current System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.5 The application of water and sediment guidelines to DSTP management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.6 Proposed seabed mining off New Zealand: What had to be learnt about the
marine environment before mining could begin?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4 WHAT WE KNOW AND WHAT WE DO NOT KNOW ABOUT THE EFFECTS OF MINE
TAILINGS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.1 Impacts of large-scale disposal of mining waste in the deep sea (Papua New Guinea). . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2 Major and minor element concentrations in sediment from Lihir. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3 Major and minor element concentrations in sediment from Misima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4 Numerical modelling of particle spreading from mine tailing deposits in Norwegian fjords. . . . . . . . 39
4.5 How fast do mine tailings deposits colonize, can we boost colonization, and does
colonization imply recovery of ecosystem functioning? Faunal Colonization
of Submarine Mine Tailings: An Intertidal Experiment to Investigate
the Influence of Sediment Organic Carbon Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.6 Impacts of discharge into the sea of mine tailings from phosphorite mines in Africa.
The environmental impact of the dumping of mine tailings in the West African sea:
the case of the disposal of phosphorite tailings in Togo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.7 Studies of metal release during deep-sea mining activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.8 Copper pollution effects on benthic faunal communities:
lessons from shallow water studies for submarine and deep-sea tailings disposal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.9 Deep-sea tailings placement: unknowns, secrets, and differing perceptions:
a non-industry perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.10 The ecosystem diagnostic analyses of the various impacts on the
Humboldt Current Large Marine Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.11 Open questions on the flow and mixing of hyperconcentrated, cohesive gravity currents. . . . . . . . . 50
GESAMP REPORTS & STUDIES No. 94 – IMPACTS OF MINE TAILINGS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT · 3
5 EXISTING REGULATORY (BEST) PRACTICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.1 International framework: disposal of wastes at sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2 Current approaches, limitations and future needs in DSTP risk assessment:
experiences from the Ramu Nickel challenge in Papua New Guinea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3 Environmental impact assessment, permitting and monitoring process for DSTP
in Indonesia: the Batu Hijau Project. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.4 Deep sea tailings placement in Papua New Guinea, environmental impact assessment,
monitoring and regulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.5 Granting the permit for a rutile mine with tailings placed in a fjord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.6 Mining and mine tailings in Peru: past and present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.7 Proposed seabed mining off New Zealand: what would it entail, and why did the first
applications for mining consents fail? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6 WORKSHOP FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

6.1 Evaluation of potential impacts of marine disposal of mine tailings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.2 Physical oceanography and tracking plumes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.3 Recovery and recolonization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.4 Lessons learned in case studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.5 Discussion regarding best practices and guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.6 Other observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
ANNEXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
ANNEX I – LIST OF REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
GESAMP-related publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
References from speaker summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
The application of water and sediment guidelines to DSTP management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Numerical modelling of particle spreading from mine tailing deposits in Norwegian fjords. 72
How fast do mine tailings deposits colonize, can we boost colonization,
and does colonization imply recovery of ecosystem functioning?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Copper pollution effects on benthic faunal communities:
lessons from shallow water studies for submarine and deep-sea tailings disposal . . . . . . 73
Open questions on the flow and mixing of hyperconcentrated, cohesive gravity currents. 73
Current approaches, limitations and future needs in DSTP risk assessment:
experiences from the Ramu Nickel challenge in Papua New Guinea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
ANNEX II – WORKSHOP PROGRAMME. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
ANNEX III – WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
A. PARTICIPANTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
B. GESAMP Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
C. SECRETARIAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
ANNEX IV – GLOSSARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4 · GESAMP REPORTS & STUDIES No. 94 – IMPACTS OF MINE TAILINGS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The secretariat for the workshop was provided by Mr. Edward Kleverlaan and Mr. Fredrik Haag, Office for the London
Convention/Protocol and Ocean Affairs, International Maritime Organization (IMO). Coordination for the report prepara-
tion was provided by Mrs. Chrysanthe Kolia, the GESAMP Office, IMO.
The organizers would like to thank the participants for contributing to the discussion in an open and positive spirit,
especially those who willingly took on chairing sessions, acting as rapporteurs, and joining in the panel discussions.
The workshop was made possible through the generous support from the following organizations: Research Council
of Norway (Norges Forskningsråd (NRF)); Government of Peru; DOSI (Deep Ocean Stewardship Initiative); INDEEP
(International Network for Scientific Investigation of Deep-Sea Ecosystems); Chilean and Peruvian mining industries;
the Office for the London Convention/Protocol and Ocean Affairs and the GESAMP Office at IMO.
DISCLAIMER
This report contains a summary of the presentations and discussions at the GESAMP mine tailings work-
shop, held from 10 to 12 June 2015 in Lima, Peru, and is not a study or review performed by GESAMP itself.
The views expressed may not necessarily correspond with those of GESAMP, nor its Sponsoring Agencies.
Every effort has been made to provide an accurate, comprehensive and balanced account of the pre-
sentations and discussions at the GESAMP mine tailings workshop; any omissions, inaccuracies or other
shortcomings remain the responsibility of the authors of this report.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (Norges Forskningsråd, NFR) through the MITE-DEEP
project. In addition, excellent support was received
The GESAMP International Workshop on the Impacts from the Sociedad Nacional de Minería, Petróleo
of Mine Tailings in the Marine Environment was held y Energía (National Society for Mining, Petroleum
at the Meliá Hotel, Lima, Peru, from 10 to 12 June and Energy) of Peru and Iniciativas Sustentables
2015 and attended by more than 90 participants. The para la Minería (Chilean Mining Industry Initiatives in
workshop was hosted by the Maritime Authority of Peru Sustainability), and the Peruvian Coast Guard. Funds
(DICAPI) and organized as a joint IMO‑GESAMP activ- were also allocated from the GESAMP Trust Fund.
ity. The workshop was supported by the Office for the The invited participants represented the scientific com-
London Convention/Protocol and Ocean Affairs, the munity, the mining industry, policy makers, coastal and
International Maritime Organization, the International marine managers, and environmental NGOs. The aim
Network for Scientific Investigations of Deep‑Sea was to create a forum where key stakeholders could
Ecosystems (INDEEP), the Deep Ocean Stewardship discuss the broader issues and inform GESAMP on
Initiative (DOSI), and the Research Council of Norway the topic.
A snapshot of the workshop participants
The primary findings and conclusions along with ment and other potential users of marine resources.
recommendations from the workshop are set out in the Furthermore, scientific gaps in measurement and mon-
following paragraphs. itoring techniques in assessing impacts of existing and
proposed new deep-sea discharges of mine tailings
need to be addressed. Although much is known about
Findings and conclusions impact assessment methods in the upper ocean, fur-
ther work is needed regarding how to conduct impact
Overall, the workshop concluded that there are major
assessments in the upper stratified ocean waters.
gaps that need to be addressed in the scientific under- However, much more needs to be done to extend and
standing of the behaviour of mine tailings in the sea at modify physical, chemical, and biological assessment
depths greater than 20 to 80 m and consequently the techniques developed for surface waters in order to
short and long term impacts on the marine environ- apply them to the deep sea.
Areas requiring more information
1. Understanding behaviour of sediment plumes; physical and chemical behaviour of pollutants through
the marine ecosystem.
2. Modelling of plumes (horizontal shearing and upwelling) and the resulting tailings footprint.
3. Enhanced toxicity testing to assess impacts to deep-sea ecosystems.
4. Understanding the ecological significance of smothering all benthic organisms in the disposal site foot-
print and physically altering the bottom habitat.
5. Identification of the reduction in species composition/abundance and biodiversity of marine communities.
6. Determining and understanding the significance of bioaccumulation of metals through food webs and
ultimately into human fish-consuming communities; and potential increases in risk to human health.
7.
Assessing recolonization potential of deep-sea benthos and limiting factors by deep-sea benthos;
timescale for recovery of impacted areas.
8. Specialized sampling equipment for the deep-sea.1
The workshop also concluded that the focus of future • The use of a wide taxonomic range of
work should initially be on the scientific gaps and the marine species; and
impact of mine tailings on the marine environment.
• Expanding available toxicity tests to rep-
These efforts should inform the policy discussion on
resent tropical marine environments.
the need to develop international guidelines, including
best management practices. • There is a need to better understand the
physical and chemical behaviour of mine tail-
ing slurries and sediment plumes in the deep
Gaps in scientific information and sea, including empirical work and modelling.
measurement techniques Available current studies are generally from
surface currents, not the deep sea. Issues
Gaps in the current science and information/under- include:
standing of deep-sea ecosystems as well as the behav-
iour of mine tailings in the marine environment were • Spatial and temporal variability of hori-
emphasized. These abiotic and biotic processes and zontal and vertical gradients of currents,
techniques include physical oceanography (e.g. plume and physical and chemical properties of
behaviour and modelling), chemistry, and impacts to the water-column; and
ecological systems in the deep sea, such as impacts • Shearing off and fate of plumes and sus-
to the composition and functioning of the pelagic and pended sediments after discharge into
benthic communities. the water column, in view of such factors
• Marine organisms normally used for toxicity as currents, flocculation, characteristics
testing are from the upper stratified layers of the tailings, and deep-sea pressures.
of marine water, not the deep sea. There is The dynamics of deep-sea canyons and
a need to develop standard sediment and sporadic events such as benthic storms
aquatic toxicity tests that use species from or dense shelf water cascading also need
deeper water. While the preference would be to be addressed.
to conduct in situ testing with marine species • The toxicological effects (and their signifi-
in the deep sea, that is recognized as both cance) of mine tailings in the water column, at
complicated and costly. Toxicity test issues the disposal site, and in the far field need to be
that should be addressed include: better understood. Key elements:
• The use of suitable test temperatures; • Deep-sea exposure pathways need to be
understood;
• Incorporating pressure into laboratory • The significance of physical smothering
experiments where possible to simulate of benthos, and the impact of bioavailable
the deep-sea environment;2 fractions of heavy metals upon biota;
• The measurement of bioavailability and • Understanding of the effects on abun-
bioaccumulation in the deep sea; dance and biodiversity, and the relation-
• Chronic studies with variable exposure ship (i.e. impacts) to biota in the upper
regimes/scenarios; stratified waters;
• Sensitivity of fauna to suspended loading,
1
The equipment for research is available (ROVs, AUVs, map-
ping systems, imaging systems, trawling, coring, water-column and recovery dynamics; and
studies), however this is very expensive and only available in
some countries.
• Cumulative effects over long periods of
2
Several institutions can maintain deep-sea animals under time (e.g. 50 years), possibly from multiple
pressure (e.g. NOCS in United Kingdom; IFREMER in France). sources.
• The knowledge base that currently exists Science to inform regulatory decision-
regarding recolonization is from intertidal and making
shallow water experiments. More research is
needed on the rates and factors that influence The development of new and enhanced measurement
recovery and recolonization in the deep-sea, tools and models and baseline surveys at disposal sites
as well as on the specific tailing variables that should be conducted with the end uses in view.
may limit such recolonization (e.g. grain angu-
• The information and data generated through
larity, heavy metal and/or process chemical environmental impact assessment of deep-
concentrations, and organic matter content). sea discharges of mine tailings should be
• More efforts are needed to define the spe- useful to regulatory authorities to provide suf-
cific elements that constitute a comprehensive ficient information from which they can make
oceanographic and ecological baseline survey decisions. Comprehensive baseline condi-
of a proposed disposal site and surrounding tions at the disposal site are critical to under-
areas. The workshop recognized that deep- stand potential impacts and actual impacts
sea surveys need specialized sampling gear during and post-disposal.
and procedures. • Information generated through scientific
The workshop noted that there were strong correlations assessments in understanding the risks at
between the issues identified for deep-sea tailings disposal sites from mine tailings discharges
placement (DSTP), such as the lack of knowledge on should be useful in informing the development
biota, unknown impacts of plumes, ecotoxicology, and of national or international best practices or
guidelines in relation to the management of
ecosystem recovery, and those identified for wastes
mine wastes.
produced during deep-seabed mining. Further work or
studies should address both activities as much as pos-
sible to reduce effort and costs. Gaps in best practices in waste
management
Gaps in evaluation tools – water and The workshop concluded that development of guid-
ance on best practices in relation to the management
sediment quality criteria of mine wastes should go beyond strictly engineering
The workshop noted that existing sediment and water aspects of marine discharge, generally thought of as
quality criteria are limited to specific contaminants addressing such items as piping materials, depth of
and not all contaminants. These criteria were devel- discharge, and angle of discharge. Best practices
oped using continuous dissolved chronic exposure, should include appraisal of all practical waste manage-
and mostly were based on single-species data. The ment options and evaluation of opportunities for waste
methods and thereby the criteria are not well devel- reduction and also address the comprehensive list of
oped for application in the deep sea. Thus, existing what data and information needs to be generated to
criteria rely on surrogate species, raising uncertainties prepare environmental risk assessments for use by
on the applicability to the deep-sea discharge of mine decision-makers.
tailings. It was noted that sediment quality guidelines The workshop also discussed what constitutes best
have greater uncertainty than water quality guide- practice beyond the engineering aspects, e.g. collec-
lines. Concerns were expressed about the unknown tion of information for assessment of environmental
influence of deep-water environmental conditions on impacts. The importance of monitoring was also high-
bioavailability, the effects of plumes of fine particulates lighted. Best practices should include such information
on filter feeders, and the uncertainties in fluctuating as the following:
exposure. Further efforts into developing guidelines
based upon ecological change (DNA-based tech- • Baseline surveys of physical, chemical, and
niques) should be considered. biological characteristics of the disposal site
and surrounding areas;
Total contaminant concentrations are often poor pre-
• Information on suitable discharge locations,
dictors of the risk posed by contaminants in sedi-
e.g. depth and current regimes, and ecological
ments. While total metal concentrations in sediments
resources;
impacted by mine tailings can often appear alarmingly
high, a large portion of the metals within tailings exist • Full knowledge of the physical, chemical, and
in highly mineralized forms that are less bioavailable toxicological characteristics of the mine tail-
to organisms when compared to metals introduced to ings proposed for discharge;
the environment from other common anthropogenic • Identification of in-plant process controls or
sources. While no standardized whole-sediment toxic- mine tailings treatment prior to discharge,
ity tests exist that utilize deep-sea organisms, tests e.g. treatment of process wastewater, modify
that use surrogate organisms are generally considered reagents and tailings size, and consider reuse
appropriate for assessing contaminant bioavailability or recycling;
and risks or toxicity. Tests on sediments containing
mine tailings indicate that site-specific sediment quality • Options for recycling or reuse of mine wastes;
guidelines that better reflect the low bioavailability of • Identification of key elements of environ-
mine-derived metals may be appropriate for manage- mental impact assessments, including impact
ment purposes. hypotheses and ecosystem risk evaluations;
• Identification of the detailed elements of moni- • Monitoring of the marine environment will be
toring programmes to assess the extent of essential to confirm any risk assessments
impacts of ongoing discharges; and made. This includes long-term monitoring
• Transparency and acknowledging what we do after closure. Some examples were given
and do not know. during the workshop where this kind of know-
ledge is now being gathered, but monitoring
of deep‑sea environments is expensive and
Moving forward with limited scientific data consequently examples are rare;
The workshop concluded that development of support- • Informed by the efforts to close the scientific
ing scientific assessment tools, conducting the environ- gaps and additional knowledge on the impacts
mental assessments, evaluating the resulting data and of mine tailings disposal to marine waters,
information, along with regulatory frameworks, guide- appropriate regulatory or guidance frame-
lines, or best practices in relation to the management works, including best management practices
of mine wastes all contribute to decision-making. The in relation to the management of mine wastes,
workshop identified the following fundamental ques- should be developed and implemented;
tions to be addressed: • There is a need to “socialize” the process,
• How to apply the precautionary principle and beyond only engineering issues, involving the
what level of precaution is needed? full range of stakeholders early in the informa-
tion gathering process, and during the evalua-
• What is important in ecological impact assess-
tion and decision-making processes; and
ment and how to prioritize necessary research
to support risk assessments? What are the • There is a need to assess cumulative impacts,
practical impacts? both from the same industry and with other
• How to assess the impacts to the deep-sea industries (fisheries, mining) and stressors relat-
ecosystem and determine the relationship ed to climate change and ocean acidification.
to the productive upper coastal waters? For
Consequently, the workshop recommended that a
example:
global assessment of the impacts of mine tailings in
• Is there a physical or biological indicator the marine environment as a whole should be initiated
or suite of indicators to determine signifi- under the leadership of GESAMP and with the coop-
cant effects? eration of the UN Agencies, Regional and National
• The workshop also asked the crucial ques- Administrations, IGOs, NGOs and the DOSI-DSTP
tions that will face decision-makers. Working Group,3 in order to further advise policy-
makers on the many aspects of mine tailings disposal,
• What is the cost to ecosystem services which are currently poorly understood.
versus the benefits of deep-sea disposal?
• How to competently compare risks of It is recognized that any such assessment (STD and
land versus sea disposal, which requires DSTP) would be necessary to compile data from pri-
integration of all of the disciplines to make mary sources including the scientific literature, and
judgements? The issue cannot be consid- the available regional assessments, some of which
ered solely on tailings placement in the may provide quantitative data overviews on this topic.
oceans. The costs and benefits analysis Without waiting for all the unknowns to be filled in, such
needs to include the alternative of land an assessment will need to develop agreed method-
disposal. In order to do this, an appropri- ologies for estimating the fate and potential impacts of
ate institutional framework is needed. mine tailings in the marine environment.
Finally, in recognition that no international agency

Recommendations of the GESAMP has set global standards for mine tailings discharges
workshop to marine waters, the workshop concluded that the
London Convention and Protocol should address the
Finally, the workshop discussed the necessary steps to issue working with regional bodies and other inter-
move the issue forward. These included: ested international entities. The workshop recognized
• Generate basic knowledge to close the sci- that London Convention and Protocol members have
entific gaps, including development of scien- expertise and experience in addressing dumping of
tific measurement tools and assessment of wastes into the marine environment, and application of
impacts. While some knowledge is available these assets to marine discharges of mine tailings is a
and provides useful lessons, specific case logical next step, while addressing their general obliga-
studies of the behaviour and impacts of mine tion to protect and preserve the marine environment
tailings are needed; from all sources of pollution. The workshop also noted
ongoing discussions between the London Convention
• Operational practices for mining processes
and Protocol and the International Seabed Authority
and discharges must be adapted to the spe-
concerning regulation of deep-sea waste disposal.
cific conditions of deep sea disposal in order
to minimize impacts, such as treatment of 3
The DOSI-DSTP Working Group is preparing a global GIS
mine tailings before discharge or modifying map of Submarine Tailings Disposal (STD) and Deep-sea
use of chemical reagents in processing; Tailings Placements (DSTP).
It is hoped that this workshop report will provide a thanks all the participants who gave generously of their
balanced and reliable perspective as well as a good time and ideas both during the workshop and in the
starting point for such a global assessment. GESAMP writing of this report.
Marine discharge versus submarine tailings disposal (STD) versus deep-sea tailings placement (DSTP)
In the context of this report, these terms mean the same thing – disposal of mine tailings into deep marine waters.
Discharges in marine waters are intended to be placed below the mixing zone, such that impacts to the biologically
productive zone are avoided.
The notion of deep water is different in Norway from other marine discharges in Turkey, Indonesia, and Papua New
Guinea (PNG). Norway’s fjords can be 30 to 300 metres in depth whereas placement in Turkey, Indonesia and PNG
is intended for the mine tailings to reach the bottom at 1,000 to 4,000 metres’ depth.
The term deep-sea tailings placement has been in use since the 1990s as a more descriptive phrase.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Rationale for conducting the • An oceanographic model for the disper-
sion of wastes disposed of in the deep sea
workshop (GESAMP, 1983);
This report is the record of a workshop organized by • Land-sea boundary flux of contaminants: con-
GESAMP as part of its “New and Emerging Issues” tributions from rivers (GESAMP, 1987);
Programme and the MITE-DEEP project funded by the
Norwegian Research Council. It was held at the Meliá • Long-term consequences of low-level marine
contamination: An analytical approach
Hotel, Lima, Peru, from 10 to 12 June 2015 and hosted
(GESAMP, 1989);
by the Maritime Administration of Peru. The work-
shop was generously sponsored by the Office for the • Guidelines for Marine Environmental
London Convention/Protocol and Ocean Affairs, the Assessments (GESAMP, 1994);
International Maritime Organization, the International • Protecting the oceans from land-based
Network for Scientific Investigations of Deep-Sea activities: land-based sources and activities
Ecosystems (INDEEP), the Deep Ocean Stewardship affecting the quality and uses of the marine,
Initiative (DOSI), and the Research Council of Norway coastal and associated freshwater environ-
(Norges Forskningsråd, NFR). In addition, excellent ment (GESAMP, 2001); and
support was received and appreciated by the Sociedad
Nacional de Minería, Petróleo y Energía (National • Pollution in the open oceans: a review of assess-
Society for Mining, Petroleum and Energy) of Peru ments and related studies (GESAMP, 2009).
and Iniciativas Sustentables para la Minería (Chilean
The issue of mine tailings in the marine environment
Mining Industry Initiatives in Sustainability), and the
was recently discussed at a side-event organized by
Peruvian Coast Guard. Funds were also allocated from
GESAMP and UNIDO entitled “Discharge of mine tail-
the GESAMP Trust Fund.
ings and coastal runoff in the marine environment” at
The invited participants represented the scientific GESAMP’’s 40th session in Vienna, 2013. The event
community, the mining industry, policy makers and addressed three related topics:
environmental NGOs in developing as well as devel- • industrial submarine tailings disposal (STD),
oped countries. The aim was to create a forum where also known as deep-sea tailings place-
key stakeholders could discuss the broader issues and ment (DSTP);
inform GESAMP on the topic. The workshop agenda
• industrial riverine tailings disposal; and
is reproduced in Annex I and the list of participants in
Annex II. • artisanal tailings disposal, which is riverine.
GESAMP has a remit to advise its sponsoring UN Presentations and panel discussions during GESAMP’s
Agencies (IMO, FAO, UNESCO-IOC, UNIDO, WMO, Vienna meeting in 2013 highlighted gaps in interna-
IAEA, UN, UNEP, and UNDP) on “New and Emerging tional governance, as it is not clear which international
Issues” in relation to the state of the marine environ- agency should take the lead on these issues. GESAMP
ment. Members of the Joint Group of Experts and its also acknowledged the importance of adequately
Working Groups may propose new topics for GESAMP describing the receiving environment, as well as a
to consider in the form of a short proposal. Once number of knowledge gaps including the behaviour of
approved, GESAMP may appoint a correspondence slurries underwater, physical smothering, ecotoxico-
group to prepare a scoping paper. Upon discussion logical effects and recovery times. GESAMP agreed
of the scoping paper, GESAMP, with the support of to develop a scoping paper for possible activities to
its Sponsoring Organizations, may recommend an fill knowledge gaps and to inform further action by the
international workshop to bring stakeholders together Sponsoring Organizations.
in order to formulate advice on the weight and merits
GESAMP also noted that the issues raised at the side
of the issue in question. As a final step, GESAMP may
event are of great interest to a number of the Sponsoring
recommend that a Working Group be set up to provide Organizations including IMO, UNIDO, UNEP-GPA and
a global Assessment of the topic in order to advise IAEA-EL. GESAMP further noted that it would be use-
policy makers. ful to organize an international workshop either at one
GESAMP has, since 1975, conducted several assess- of the Sponsoring Organizations or in a country where
ments that are relevant to the current issue of disposal mining operations using riverine or submarine tailings
disposal are underway or being planned. GESAMP
of wastes at sea, namely:
agreed to the formation of a correspondence group to
• Scientific criteria for the selection of produce a scoping paper and make recommendations.
sites for dumping of wastes into the sea The draft scoping paper, entitled: Impacts of Mine
(GESAMP, 1975); Tailings in the marine environment was discussed at
GESAMP’s forty-first session, held in Malmo, Sweden,
• Scientific aspects of pollution arising from the
in September 2014 where it was concluded that the
exploration and exploitation of the seabed
most appropriate next step was to organize the work-
(GESAMP, 1977);
shop and encourage participation from a wide variety
• Scientific criteria for the selection of waste of sectors (science, industry, regional and global pol-
disposal sites at sea (GESAMP, 1982); icy and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The
workshop was therefore designed as a collaborative organize an international workshop on DSTP issues. As
exercise to include different views from stakeholders. this was coinciding in scope and time with the planned
A key objective was also to hear from developing coun- GESAMP workshop, it was decided to merge the avail-
try representatives and from regional bodies directly able resources, both human and financial, and hold a
involved with the problem of mine tailings. single, large international workshop in Lima, Peru, in
June 2015.
The Parties to the London Convention and Protocol
(LC/LP) have also been interested in riverine and
submarine disposal of tailings and associated wastes 1.2 Workshop objectives
since 2001, and in 2012 noted the cooperation of the
LC/LP Secretariat at IMO with UNEP-GPA in gather- As the title suggests, the focus of this workshop was on
ing information on the issue. The LC/LP Secretariat the impacts of mine tailings in the marine environment
also commissioned a report on the issue, which was resulting largely from disposal at sea via pipelines. The
submitted to the LC/LP Scientific Groups and finalized overall objectives of the workshop were:
during the meetings of the governing bodies of the LC/
• To provide a synthesis of the current under-
LP in November 2013. The report, entitled International
standing of the impacts of marine disposal of
Assessment of Marine and Riverine Disposal of Mine
mine tailings and to identify gaps in scientific
Tailings (Vogt 2013), is available on the IMO, London
knowledge in this field; and
Convention and Protocol website at: http://www.imo.
org/en/OurWork/ Environment/LCLP/minetailings/ • To develop partnerships to address issues
Documents/Mine%20Tailings%20Marine%20and%20 through further work.
Riverine%20Disposal%20Final%20for%20Web.pdf.
The workshop was attended by more than 90 partici-
The Parties to the LC/LP noted the absence of inter- pants, including relevant researchers, policy makers,
national guidance and/or codes of conduct and, like coastal and marine managers and industry. The final
GESAMP, noted there is a governance gap and it is not programme, the list of participants, and presentations
clear which international body should take the lead. are available at: http://www.gesamp.org.
During the November 2013 meetings the governing
bodies also established a correspondence group to, This report is a record of these discussions and is
inter alia: intended to lay the groundwork for a possible global
assessment in the future and to highlight information
• Develop an inventory and understanding of gaps.
the scope of the LC/LP and other international
bodies; and
• Gather information on best practices, existing 1.3 Organization of the workshop
guidance and other issues of marine and river-
The workshop was organized into six plenary sessions
ine disposal of mine tailings around the world.
following the official welcome by the Maritime Authority
In May 2014 and again in April 2015, the LC/LP of Peru, a keynote presentation providing an overview
Scientific Groups reviewed progress reports of the of the nature and scale of the issues associated with
correspondence group. They were also informed that marine discharges of mine tailings and possible environ-
Chile had established, in 2013, a National Deep-sea mental impacts, and a panel discussion providing
Tailings Placement Initiative. This is a research pro- perspectives from key stakeholders. The six plenary
gramme established by mining companies to conduct sessions included:
research to close knowledge gaps relating to STD • Mining practices, waste generation and dis-
and evaluate it as an alternative to land disposal. The posal (tailings) (session 1);
Scientific Groups were also provided with a summary
of the International Workshop on Deep-sea Tailings • Mine tails disposal research and current ques-
Placement held in Chile in January 2014. At the May tions (session 2 and session 3);
2014 meetings, the delegation of Peru offered to host a • What we know and what we do not know
workshop on STD, and the delegation of Chile offered about the effects of mine tailings in the marine
to provide support. Thus, there is considerable interest environment (session 4);
in STD by a wide range of stakeholders, as well as sup-
port for GESAMP’s involvement in addressing informa- • Existing regulatory (best) practices (session 5);
tion gaps, with the aim of supporting the development and
of international guidance and/or codes of conduct for • Panel discussion: the gaps in regulatory frame-
assessing and implementing STD. works and science – path forward (session 6).
In parallel, the Deep-ocean Stewardship Initiative
(DOSI) acknowledged in 2014 the need to address 1.4 Background: mining and marine
knowledge gaps and for fluent communication path-
ways between science, industry, policymakers and
disposal of mine tailings4
environmental organizations interested in DSTP activi- Mining is the process of extracting minerals from
ties. Thus, a DOSI-DSTP Working Group was estab- the earth’s crust. Mining is a huge industry with
lished (http://dosi-project.org/working-groups/tailings- over 2,500 industrial-sized mines around the world,
placement). The first activity of this working group was and thousands more smaller mining operations.
to secure funds from the Norwegian Research Council
and the INDEEP network (MITE-DEEP project) to 4
Mike Huber, GESAMP, and Craig Vogt, Craig Vogt Inc.
Approximately 100,000 exploration licenses are award- Table 1 Mines around the world using marine
ed per year worldwide. At any one time there are disposal of mine tailings
about 8,000 drilling projects underway, 1,500 reserve-
definition studies, 800 feasibility studies and 400 mines
Country Mine
under construction (Vogt 2013).
Chile Huasco
The biggest environmental challenge of mining opera-
England Cleveland Potash
tions is the safe and environmentally sound disposal
of mine tailings. Mine tailings are what is left after the France Gardanne
target metal (e.g. copper) is removed from the ore Greece Agios Nikolaos
because the separation process does not recover all
Indonesia Batu Hijau
of the minerals. Mine tailings contain heavy metals, mill
processing chemicals and reagents, and commonly Norway Sibelco Nordic, Stjernøya
include sulphide-bearing materials. Norway Bokfjorden
In the vast majority of operating mines around the Norway Skaland
world, on-land disposal of mine tailings is conducted Norway Rana Gruber
using impoundments or dams to store mine tailings
under water to avoid generation of sulphuric acid and Norway Hustadmarmor
control the potential impacts of exposure to heavy Norway Quartz Corp
metals. In 2015, 16 major mining operations were Norway Norcem
discharging their mine tailings into marine waters
(Table 1), plus four others that are using riverine dis- Papua New Guinea Lihir
posal.5 In 2015 during the workshop, it was reported Papua New Guinea Ramu Nickel
that there are several additional mines discharging
Papua New Guinea Simberi
mine tailings from phosphoric mines in Togo, Morocco,
Tunisia, and Algeria in Africa. Phosphoric acid and Turkey Cayeli Bakir
fertilizers are produced resulting in a waste of phos- Marine disposal is no longer practiced along shorelines
phogypsum, rich in uranium, cadmium, lead, polonium in shallow water, except for mine discharges in western
and radium. About 10 to 15 million tons of phosphogyp- and northern Africa. Currently, marine disposal dis-
sum are dumped yearly into the sea in these countries charges are in deep water at final deposition depths
(Gnandi, ppt 2015). of 30 metres to 300 metres and often at depths over
Deep-sea tailings disposal has become increasingly 1,000 metres. The intent is to discharge the mine tail-
the disposal method of choice for certain areas of ings in deep stratified waters below the pycnocline,
the world since the early 1990s. It is estimated that such that the mine tailings flow as a dense coherent
marine disposal of mine tailings is being considered by slurry to a deposition site on the bottom of the seabed,
upwards of 15 to 20 existing and new mines worldwide. essentially trapped below the biologically productive,
For example, five applications in Norway; Papua New oxygenated zone (i.e. not mixing with the surface layer).
Guinea (PNG) approved Woodlark and is considering After release into marine waters from the pipeline,
Simberi, and an Initiative in Chile is evaluating DSTP. plumes of finer material including tailings process
Marine disposal of mine tailings (also termed subma- water and suspended sediment can form at various
rine tailings disposal STP or deep-sea tailings place- depths. The intention is for these plumes to remain in
ment (DSTP)) means disposal of mine tailings into the deep waters below the stratified layer. Knowledge
marine waters via a pipeline.6 of the distribution and fate of mine tailings is only
beginning to emerge.
The rationale for use of deep-sea disposal of mine tail-

ings varies from site to site, but commonly cited are
economics, land-use conflicts, avoidance of acid mine
drainage, and engineering constraints (e.g. geotechni-
cal, topography, rainfall, and seismic activity), avoid-
5
Riverine disposal is simply piping the mine tailings to the ing the need for long term maintenance, and avoiding
river and discharging them. This technique has been prac- environmental and human health risks of storage dams.
ticed throughout mining history. However, because of the Potential environmental impacts of marine disposal of
catastrophic environmental consequences experienced by
mine tailings include:
the discharge of mine tailings to rivers, riverine disposal is no
longer practiced except at four mines in Indonesia and Papua • Smothering all benthic organisms in the dis-
New Guinea (Vogt 2013). Another mine, the closed Panguna posal site footprint and physically altering the
gold/copper mine on Bougainville Island, PNG, is taking steps
toward re-opening and may be considering riverine disposal.
bottom habitat;
This is not clear, however, and UNEP has agreed to assist with • Reduction in species composition/abundance
remediation of environmental damage caused by the mine’s and biodiversity of marine communities; and
former riverine discharge, which would appear to make resum-
ing the practice unlikely. The focus of the GESAMP workshop • Bioaccumulation of metals through food webs
was therefore on marine discharges. and ultimately into human fish-consuming
communities; increases in risk to human
6
Note: This report uses STP and DSTP interchangeably, and
is usually directly related to the participant in the workshop that health.
provided the information contained in the text at the point in the
report.
In addition to the fundamental question of whether the Management of mine tailings discharges to the deep
size of the footprint and associated direct impacts are sea should focus initially on design and operation,
acceptable, critical to the understanding of potential including de-aeration, discharge below the euphotic
impacts to ecosystem services is whether the impacts zone and mixed layer (including upwelling and over-
reach beyond the intended footprint. Are there currents turn), a low energy environment, and a final receiving
that move plumes of the material to adjacent marine environment that is soft-bottom and depositional. In
habitats? Does periodic upwelling bring the con- addition to the above best practices, new proposals to
taminants to the shallow water fisheries and habitats? use marine disposal, as well as renewal of existing per-
Figure 1 attempts to display the many complexities of mits, should include sufficient information from studies,
assessing impacts of marine discharge of mine tailings. site-specific research, and monitoring programmes to
support comprehensive environmental risk assess-
ment and evaluation of alternatives prior to government
permit decisions.
Figure 1 Generalized conceptual model of exposure pathways of deep-sea mine tailings placement.
Credit: Amanda Reichelt-Brushett (2012), Southern Cross University, Australia
2 MINING PRACTICES, WASTE GENERATION AND
DISPOSAL
This section provides information on mining and mine • El Teniente, being the world’s largest under-
tailings experiences in Chile, Peru and Mexico. ground copper mine, started operating in 1905
and produces 450,390 tons of fine copper;
• Los Pelambres, which started operating in
2.1 Mining: production, waste 1992 and produces 419,200 tons of fine cop-
generation and tailings disposal in Chile7 per;
Metallic mining practices in Chile are summarized • Collahuasi, which started operating in 1999
here, as well as one of its most relevant environmental and produces 444,500 tons of fine copper;
effects, specifically tailings management and disposal,
• Andina, which started operating in 1970 and
being undoubtedly the most challenging aspect of min-
produces 236,000 tons of fine copper; Andina
ing development.
is in the middle of a big expansion oriented to
Mining in Chile is an extraordinarily important activity. double its production;
In fact it is the main economic industry that supports • Los Bronces, which started operating in 1927
much of the economic and social development of and produces 416,300 tons of fine copper; and
the country and represents around 11% of the gross
domestic product. Just copper (2013), represented 51% • CMP Iron Mines that produce 9,088 kilotons of
of the total country’s exports: US $39,800 million. iron ore concentrate and has mines located in
Chile’s III and IV Regions.
This presentation focuses primarily on the metallic sec-
tor, and particularly copper (without forgetting the other In 2013, Chilean mines produced 5,900 thousand tons
ores and minerals). Chile is home to the largest copper of copper, 51 thousand tons of gold, 38 thousand tons
mines in the world, and produces about 34% of global of molybdenum, 1,200 thousand tons of silver, 9.1
copper production. It also has more than 320 million thousand tons of iron, and 30 thousand tons of zinc.
tons of fine copper reserves and therefore will even- Major production of other non-metals includes nitrates,
tually, if those reserves are mined, and processed lithium, iodine, boron, and potassium (National
through flotation/concentration processes, generate Geological Service (Sernageomin)).
large amounts of mine tailings. In terms of undeveloped resources, the situation is as
Copper mines consist primarily of open pit, hard-rock shown in Figure 2 below.
mining of sulphide minerals, and are characterized by Mine tailings are the solid fraction of unrecoverable and
being of low ore content. Most of the current mines uneconomic metals, minerals, chemicals, organics and
operate with minerals that are less than 1% cop- process water discharged normally as slurry to a final
per, meaning that for each ton of copper produced, storage area. It is a solid residue generated by crushing
990 kilograms of tailings are to be managed. and flotation processes.
2.1.1 Mining in Chile Its composition is directly dependent on the ore and
mineral extraction processes (oxides and sulphides)
A basic premise of this presentation is that mining in and can be treated as needed or as mandated by regu-
Chile is a legal and regulated activity. This regulation is lations. Dominant chemical compounds will depend on
especially severe with regard to environmental effects the ore and process. Chemical reagents used in the
and it is strictly enforced. We are also aware that the flotation/extraction process in copper mines tend to be
way it is performed continuously evolves and we do not xanthates, sodium sulphide (NaSH), dithiophosphate,
see an end to it in the coming decades, even though dithiocarbamate, methyl isobutyl carbinol (MIBC),
current mines are reaching maturity and therefore their sodium hydroxide, polyacrylamides and refined oils.
ore content diminishes (consequently producing more
In the case of iron mines (mostly magnetic concentra-
tailings per unit of copper produced).
tions processes are used), they tend to be composed
The most important metal mines in Chile are: mainly of calcium and magnesium aluminium silicates.
As most copper ores are sulphide minerals (pyrite),
• Chuquicamata, which saw its first industrial their tailings can oxidize and generate acid drainage in
operations start around 1882, produces contact with oxygen.
630,000 tons of copper, and is the world’s
largest open pit. The dimensions of its main pit
are 5 km long, 3 km wide and 800 m depth. It
is now starting its underground phase;
• Escondida, which started operating in 1988,
produces 1,193.7 tons of fine copper (the
world’s largest single producer of copper);
7
Ricardo Katz, Environmental Consultant, Managing Director
GAC (Gestion Ambiental Consultores SA, Chile).
Figure 2 Chile’s undeveloped and developed resources
2.1.2 Mine tailings disposal and future constraints surface impoundments (Figure 5). Riverine and shallow
disposition are no longer allowed as surface impound-
Chile has experience with several disposal methods ments are by far the most common storage method
for mine tailings, including riverine (Figure 3), shallow used today, mainly located on river basins or ravines.
submarine (Figure 4), submarine (but not deep), and
Figure 3 Riverine and shallow submarine disposal created new beach sediments
Figure 4 Current location of marine disposal of mine tailings from iron producer
Figure 5 Mine tailings storage facility on land in Chile
Copper reserves in the Central Region of Chile are shown in the boxes below, which compare the differ-
located near highly populated areas that generate a ent effects of land versus sea-based disposal. The
competition for land use as there are limited options mining and environmental (NGO) communities would
for building new mine tailing storage impoundments. like to minimize the associated impacts and internalize
Storage facilities using dams are considered of high environmental costs into production to reflect the real
environmental and health impact and risk, with a very costs/impacts of mining.
negative perception by local populations. This situation
collides with the generation of large amounts of tail- In terms of knowledge related to the development and
ings, which need to be disposed of. Interestingly, given operations of different forms of tailings management,
its economic relevance for Chile, the majority of the a qualitative comparison is provided below. It is obvi-
population do not consider mining activities valuable. ous that the mining community has developed a far
Most reserves are located in Central Chile where more larger amount of evidence for land-based situations
than 50% of Chileans live. compared to deep-sea based placement. If deep-
sea placement is to become an option, the gap must
Tailings placement, on land or in marine waters, car- decrease.
ries a great deal of social and environmental risk as
Tailings placement:
environmental impacts and risks
Land-based disposal Deep-sea disposal
• Potential chemical reactions • Few studies on chemical reactions with seawater:
requires comprehensive study of tailings’ character-
• Infiltration to groundwater, streams and rivers
istics
• Dispersion of dust to surrounding areas
• Resuspension of tailings by upwelling events
• Requires a considerable area
• Larger footprint area (two orders of magnitude
• Permanent (in terms of human life span) destruction larger)
of environment
• Temporary destruction (in terms of human life span)
• Ecosystem’s damage relatively easy to assess of the environment
• Unpredictable climate and natural events: floods, • Difficult to quantify damage to ecosystem
earthquakes, hydrological events, landslides
• Unpredictable natural events: tsunamis, earth-
• Operational failure quakes
• High level of experience, known capex and opex • Operational failure
costs
• Low level of experience, undetermined capex and
• Experience of contingency requirements opex monitoring
• Known closure environmental requirements and • Little experience of contingency requirements
monitoring
• Little experience of closing environmental require-
ments and monitoring
Tailings placement:
communities’ impacts and risks
Land-based disposal Deep-sea disposal
• Might require relocation of surrounding populations • Probable relocation of small coves (land operations)
• Space availability and competition for agricultural/ • Site specific option
urban development use
• Negative perceptions
• Negative perceptions
• Pollution of water
• Pollution of water, land, wildlife, and vegetation
• Economic losses for fishing communities
• Health impact
• Health impact by bio-accumulation through
• Continuous engagement of local community food webs
• Mining benefits not valued by population • Continuous engagement of local communities
• Well-developed regulatory framework • Mining benefits not valued by population
• Existence of mitigation, compensation, and repara- • Lack of proper regulatory framework
tion measures
• Little experience of proper mitigation,
compensation and reparation measures
Disposal options
Knowledge level Current developments/knowledge
Land disposal alternatives • Conventional impoundments
• Paste tailings
• Filtered
• Burrowed fill
• Backfilling
and/or
Reduce, recycle (other uses) • Arsenic: extraction from smelter’s gases;
preliminary results for extraction from copper
concentrates (still require dumping space)
• Bricks/roads: amounts generated exceed the
potential use
• No commercially viable developments on the
long term
and/or
Deep-sea Disposal (DSTP) • Existing “niche” option. No definite conclusions
so far
• Operational history of around 30 years
2.1.3 What needs to be done and policy options On the other hand, mining projects last a long time
and whatever solution is selected it normally will
The development of a mine and/or of a tailings deposit be subject to regulatory and social changes. What
is a long-term endeavour. It takes on average 10 years, is permitted today could be deemed unacceptable
taking into account location definition, permitting (con- tomorrow. Mining timescales are often lengthy in the
sidering the need for an EIA process), and construction sense that they normally transcend human timescales.
before it can operate. This process means that when The concept of irreversibility is also an issue. This
a tailing disposal option is rejected, it is likely that the means, at the most, we cannot reinstate changes or
whole mine development breaks down. In view of this impacts that have occurred, in our lifespan or that
situation, tailings disposal is probably the core aspect of our children, and therefore these aspects must
of the permitting and development process for mining; be included in the evaluation of impacts. When we
therefore, especially but not exclusively in the case of economically evaluate a project, costs or benefits
Chile, it is necessary to have a portfolio of options that beyond 25 years are not captured in the present value.
allows society as a whole to come forward with the The same criteria must be taken into account for
social and environmental cost solution. environmental impacts. It is not enough to develop and
implement plans for closure and monitoring. They must
be “observed and perceived” by the people who are
impacted by the project.
Therefore the following list of actions are proposed: So why is the mining sector important to Peru?
• “Think outside the box.” Be open to scientific Peru is a mining country; it has developed out of the
and technical information. Business as usual diversity of its geography, its people and its weather. Its
is bad advice when innovation is needed. This culture is rich and diverse. Peru is potentially one of the
piece of advice includes mine developers, who countries with the greatest ecological and economic
are set in their ways. Probable new options for variation in the world.
upstream measures will be needed, especially
in terms of changing processes and eventually If Los Andes created a dividing line between a sandy
minimizing and treating tailings before dis- coast and a tropical forest, it also resulted in a history
posal. Consider residues management issues of more than 5,000 years of mining activity. Mining has
as a challenge not a difficulty; been present in the country since before the Incas or
• DSTP could be a viable option, but it requires the Spaniards and they have learned to live with it, har-
scientific research and regulatory adaptation vest it and use it.
prior to evaluation and decision-making. It is
According to a World Bank study, 75% of world mining
necessary to understand that scientific know-
production is concentrated in China, Russia, the United
ledge that is not validated socially does not
States, Canada, Chile, Zambia, Australia, Peru, Zaire,
exist and therefore the interaction with gov-
South Africa, Mexico and Brazil. Minerals are sold as
ernment, NGOs and civil society is a priority;
concentrates – more bulk mineral content of the main
• Any option selected must prioritize risk mini- metal: zinc, lead, copper, gold, silver and iron.
mization not only from a “catastrophic” point
of view but from the perspective of assessing The minerals produced in Peru are in high demand in
sustainable solutions, ensuring their viabil- today’s global market, where development is based
ity from the human health and environmental on production and industry. The United States, China,
perspectives based on the best information Switzerland, Japan, Canada and the European Union
available; are the main buyers.
• Assessment of all potential disposal options Despite this importance in world production, mining in
(without exception) is recommended well in Peru is not an intensive activity in its territory. Only 1.3%
advance (10 to 15 years) of a project’s devel- of Peruvian territory is used for exploration or exploita-
opment; and tion of minerals.
• This assessment should state the environ-
mental (including social) costs of all options. Today, Peru is the first Latin American producer of gold,
The proper evaluation of environmental effects zinc, lead, and tin, and the second in copper and silver
should stress the avoidance of irreversible in the world. Peru is the third producer of copper, silver,
impacts, and therefore prioritize recovery. zinc and tin, fourth in lead and seventh in gold.
A conclusion could be: “If mining as we know it is to be Peruvian exports have been growing in recent years.
performed, tailings will be produced. This undesirable The mining sector currently accounts for 58% of total
outcome of the process has to be managed to cause exports. Due to the large share of foreign sales, the
least environmental and social cost and therefore all mining sector contributes significantly in taxes. Mining
options have to be considered. Those management accounts for 29% of income tax paid by companies
options tend to be site specific and have to be sup- operating in Peru and is the main contributor (Figure 6).
ported by scientific and technical information validated
The share of the mining sector in exports in the last
by society, and they have to consider the human time
10 years has been, on average, 58%. However the value
frame and be flexible enough to adapt to natural and
of mining exports has been falling.
social evolution”.
The taxes paid by the mining sector enable the State to
provide money to the communities where this activity
2.2 Mining practices in Peru: the impact is developed, and, with the help of the “Canon Minero”,
of mineral exports8 communities finance their own social projects.
Peru has had an interesting GDP evolution. The author- In addition, the mining sector is inextricably linked to
ities managed to reduce Peru’s inflation drastically in the country in the demand for goods and services,
line with global inflation. GDP growth and the reduction contract labour and consumer inputs, linked to public
in inflation generated a solid macro-economic frame- spending through taxes, and linked to production and
work that increased investment in the country. Finally, exports, affecting the internal exchange rate. All these
this reduced poverty, both in overall terms as well as factors make the mining sector an activity that drives
for extreme poverty. the country’s economic performance.
This improvement allowed Peru to bring about a major For Peruvians, mining invigorates the domestic mar-
change in the structure of the country. Not only did ket, causing a virtuous circle of investment, increasing
this lead to Peru becoming a more developed country, operations and uniting it with the country.
but the mining sector has become more dynamic and
important. The mining industry’s contribution to GDP
increased from 4% to 14%.
8
David Vela. Mining Society of Peru.
Figure 6 Mining exports are important for the country. In millions of US $, red shows non-mining exports
and blue shows mining exports
Metals are very important to people’s daily lives. They 2.3 Assessment of land-based mining
can be used for construction, housing, transportation,
heavy industry and light vehicles, telecommunications,
pollution: a case study in Sinaloa, Mexico9
new technology (mobile computing appliances), in jew- Worldwide, it is estimated that two to five major acci-
ellery, health, nutrition and especially in research and dents associated with tailing dam failures occur per
development. year; and about 25% of these accidents are related to
extreme meteorological events. However, many failures
Today, it is almost impossible to do anything without a
go unpublished due to sensitivity and legal implica-
cell phone and a cell phone is one hundred per cent a
tions.
product of mining and technology.
Mining has been practiced on a large scale in Mexico,
They may have a huge mining projects portfolio, but
for five centuries. Currently 29% of the surface area
mining companies continue to struggle with difficult
of Sinaloa, Mexico, is under concessions for min-
market conditions, including price volatility, geopolitical
ing exploration and extraction and, according to the
tensions, rising costs, and a general lack of finance.
Federal Attorney’s Office for Environmental Protection,
Peru also has a logistical advantage in the arrangement among the 1,252 mines legally established in Sinaloa,
of its various ports embarking minerals, where other one in every 20 carries a potential risk of an accident.
economic activities also take place. This is why our Mine tailing failures might cause the accumulation of
country has been a member of IMO since 1968. pollutants in soils and sediments, which are prone to
erosion by water and wind, and to diagenesis altera-
Working with this international institution, Peru follows tion, which might release the pollutants back to the
all IMO agreements, guides and instructions, including water column. Thus, the pollutants are recycled and
the Directorate General of Harbours and Coastguards might disperse further than if they had been released
(DICAPI), rules for maritime issues such as ports, and for longer periods.
ships, etc.
Between 2013 and 2014, at least three tailing dam
However, other public institutions, such as failures have been reported to affect rivers that cross
Environmental Affairs, Defence, Communication, and Sinaloa State and are connected either to water reser-
Transportation Ministries, are also important, some voirs or to coastal lagoons where fish production is an
of whom guide the private sector in improving their important economic activity.
performance. One such piece of advice was the under-
water tailings disposal that changed the way that they The dam failure from the Minas de Bacis Company
were released. Since the mid-90s no mining company provoked an avalanche of waste that killed a family
has released or discharged tailings into the sea. They of tourists, and contaminated with trace elements the
are treated, disposed of and controlled within specially sediments of Remedios River, as well as the drinking
prepared areas. water reservoir of Comedero, that hosted a successful
tilapia farming project.
Peru is a good example of a country which implements
rules and laws, including international treaties.
9
Ana-Carolina Ruiz-Fernández, F. Páez-Osuna, J. A.,
Sanchez-Cabeza; Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología,
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
The contamination assessment of Comedero reservoir This is an example of a recurrent scenario associated
showed high concentrations of trace elements in water with mining activities in Mexico: mine-tailing spills that
and biota, which greatly enriched the sediments to result in contamination of the surrounding aquatic
levels that might be harmful for the biota and humans environment, which are covered up by the mining
through fish consumption. The tilapia fish produc- companies, and poorly handled by the environmental
tion has been strongly affected by the spill and more authorities (Figure 7). There is an evident lack of regu-
than 300 fishermen’s families have lost their income. lation concerning trace metal pollution in sediments,
According to local newspapers, the authorities of the including the absence of reference values to demon-
National Water Commission recognized that 130 km strate the metal enrichment, and the proper guidelines
of Remedios River “was contaminated by bacteria that to identify the impact on the biota.
killed the fish the length of the river” and Minas de
Bacis Mines Company paid an imposed fine equiva- The frequent tailing spills recently observed in Sinaloa
lent to 5,000 times the minimum daily wage in Mexico have shown the need to improve management prac-
(about US $24,000). tices in the mining industry, as well as the environ-
mental regulations, taking into account the role of the
sediment compartment either to retain or to redistribute
the metals released by the mine tailings to the aquatic
environment.
Figure 7 El Universal. Mine tailing dam overflow in Durango; one person died. 21 January, 2013
3 UNDERSTANDING THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
3.1 Unique attributes of marine 3.2 Unique characteristics of deep-sea

ecosystems10, 11 ecosystems
Planet ocean Because of its unique abiotic attributes, the deep sea
hosts a specialized fauna (Figure 10). Although there
The deep sea, the largest biome on Earth, has a series are no phyla unique to deep waters, at lower taxonomic
of characteristics that make this environment both levels the composition of the fauna is distinct from that
distinct from other marine and land ecosystems and found in the upper ocean (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2010).
unique in the entire planet. Seventy-one per cent of Deep-sea biodiversity is among the highest on the
the planet’s surface is ocean and 50% lies below a planet, mainly composed of macro and meiofauna, on
depth of 3,000 m, with a mean depth of 3,800 m. Of continental margins and abyssal plains (Snelgrove and
this, only an area equivalent to a few football fields has Smith, 2002), and new species are regularly described.
been sampled and studied in detail (Ramirez-Llodra et Although not universal, large-scale biodiversity pat-
al., 2010). Deepsea fauna was sampled as early as 1818 terns often follow a unimodal relationship with depth,
by Sir John Ross, while dredging at 1,600 m during with a peak at intermediate depths (Rex et al., 1993).
his exploration of the Northwest Passage (Menzies et Most deep-sea ecosystems are heterotrophic, thus
al., 1973). However, systematic investigations of the depending ultimately on the flux of organic matter
deep-sea and its fauna did not begin until the late 19th produced in the overlying surface ocean through photo-
century. In 1844, Forbes published his Azoic Theory synthesis. Surface productivity varies regionally and
of deep ecosystems, based on the decreasing num- seasonally, resulting in spatio-temporal differences of
ber of species as he sampled deeper in the Eastern organic matter input to the seafloor (Billett et al., 1983).
Mediterranean (Forbes, 1844). The theory stimulated Only about 0.5 to 2% of the net primary production in
debate and investigation, with the Challenger expedi- the euphotic zone reaches the deep seafloor below
tion marking the birth of modern oceanography (Murray 2,000 m, resulting in abyssal benthic communities
and Hjort, 1912) and the Galathea expedition which being amongst the most food-limited on the globe
sampled marine life from the greatest ocean depths in (Smith et al., 2008). In these food-limited regions, faunal
the Philippines Trench, at 10,190 m depth (Gage and biomass and productivity are low, but biodiversity is
Tyler, 1991). high (Rex and Etter, 2010). On the other hand, chemo-
Since Forbes’s Azoic Theory, 22 new habitats and synthetically-based ecosystems such as hydrothermal
associated fauna have been discovered, often with new vents and cold seeps (amongst others) are supported
species and new physiological adaptations (Ramirez- by in situ primary productivity from chemoautotrophic
Llodra et al., 2010). In the 1960s and 1970s, the devel- microorganisms that use the reduced compounds from
opment of new sampling equipment allowed for the the fluids as a source of energy. This high-energy avail-
collection of quantitative samples, providing evidence ability supports oases of life in the deep sea, character-
of very high levels of biodiversity in deep-sea sedi- ized by high abundance and densities of fauna but low
ments (Grassle and Sanders, 1973). Furthermore, in biodiversity of highly specialized species (Tunnicliffe
recent decades, the development of modern research et al., 2003). Other ecosystems, such as seamounts,
submersibles and other underwater technologies led canyons or cold-water corals have an increased pro-
to one of the most important discoveries of recent ductivity through specific physical processes, includ-
oceanographic research: the discovery of hydrothermal ing topographic modification of currents and enhanced
vents and their associated fauna, in 1977 in the East transport of particles and detrital matter. (Refer to
Pacific (Lonsdale, 1977). Figure 8, below, for illustrations of such unique fauna).
Large-scale patterns of abundance show that these
parameters decrease with depth for macro- and mega-
fauna, probably because these groups are more vul-
nerable to low energy availability, while the trend of
abundance for bacteria and meiofauna is more stable
with depth (Rex et al., 2006). The same is found for bio-
mass, with a decreasing trend for macro- and mega-
fauna even more pronounced. These large-scale pat-
10
Eva Ramirez-Llodra Norwegian Institute for Water Research terns cause a shift in fauna composition from the upper
(NIVA), Oslo, Norway; and Maria Baker, University of bathyal zone, where macro- and megafauna domi-
Southampton, National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, nate, to the lower bathyal and abyssal zones, where
United Kingdom. meiofauna and microorganisms dominate. Large-scale
11
Based on the papers: Ramirez-Llodra, E., Brandt, A.,
biodiversity patterns of deep-sea fauna often show
Danovaro, R., De Mol, B., Escobar, E., German,, C.R., Levin,
L.A., Martinez Arbizu, P., Menot, L., Buhl-Mortensen, P., a unimodal pattern of diversity with depth. However,
Narayanaswamy, B.E., Smith, C.R., Tittensor, D.P., Tyler, P.A., this trend is not universal and the drivers that shape
Vanreusel, A. & Vecchione, M. (2010). Deep, Diverse and this pattern are not fully understood (Rex and Etter,
Definitely Different: Unique Attributes of the World’s Largest 2010). There are complex interacting factors at different
Ecosystem. Biogeosciences, 7: 2851–2899.Ramirez-Llodra, E., spatio-temporal scales, including biological processes,
Tyler, P.A., Baker, M.C., Bergstad, O.A., Clark, M.R., Escobar,
food availability and habitat heterogeneity, that shape
E., Levin, L.A., Menot, L., Rowden, A.A., Smith, C.R., & Van
Dover, C.L. (2011) Man and the Last Great Wilderness: Human bathymetric patterns of biodiversity for different groups
Impact on the Deep Sea. PLoS ONE, 6, e22588. and in different geographic regions.
Figure 8 Fauna that make the deep sea unique.
Benthic: A, aplacophoran. B, monoplacophoran. C, xenophyophore. D, sipunculid. E, echiuran.
F, pycnogonid. G, H, isopods Pelagic: A, cnidarian. B, ctenophore. C, gastropod. D, amphipod. E, crustacean.
F, decapod crustacean; G, octopod. H, urochordate or salp, I, hatchetfish. J, scaly dragonfish.
From Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2010. Biogeosciences
3.3 Ecosystem services and Although single anthropogenic pressures can have
direct effects on deep-sea communities, there may
anthropogenic impact also be cumulative impacts where two or more impacts
The high biodiversity of deep-sea ecosystems support interact and result in synergies with a magnified effect
important ecosystem functions, including among on the ecosystem.
others, the biological pump, nutrient regeneration,
There is, thus, an increasing urgency to conduct
microbial processes and the trophic web. These
research (Figure 10) to better understand the pro-
functions are often poorly investigated in deep-sea eco-
cesses that drive and maintain deep-sea ecosystems
systems and operate at small spatial scales. However,
to better assess their resilience and recovery poten-
because of the vast expanse of the deep seafloor, their
tial, providing sound scientific knowledge from which
cumulative processes are crucial for the global func-
to develop robust ecosystem-based management
tioning of the ocean, and thus of the planet (Thurber et
options (Mengerink et al., 2014). To address this issue,
al., 2014). These functions, in turn, provide important
the Deep-ocean Stewardship Initiative (DOSI, http://
ecosystem services, including provisioning (biological,
dosi-project.org/) was created in 2013, with the mission
hydrocarbon and mineral resources), supporting and
to integrate science, technology, policy, law and eco-
regulating (e.g. nutrient cycling, water circulation, CO2
nomics to advise on ecosystem-based management
exchange, waste disposal) and cultural (e.g. scientific
of resource use in the deep ocean and strategies to
knowledge, education, literature, tourism) (Armstrong
maintain the integrity of deep-ocean ecosystems within
et al., 2012; Thurber et al., 2014).
and beyond national jurisdiction. DOSI has recognized
Recently a positive relationship between biodiversity the importance of deep-sea tailing placement (DSTP)
and ecosystem function has been proposed (Danovaro and, in 2014, the DSTP working group was created
et al., 2008). Thus, a reduction in biodiversity, often (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2015).
of small and uncharismatic organisms, may lead to
significant reductions in functions and services. This is
particularly important in an era where the depletion of
biological and mineral resources on land and in shal-
low waters, coupled with technological developments,
are promoting an increased exploitation of deep-sea
resources. The deep ocean is increasingly affected by
a number of human activities (e.g. commercial fishing,
oil and gas exploitation, exploration for deep-sea min-
erals, marine litter and waste, such as mine tailings),
(Figure 9), as well as effects from climate change and
ocean acidification (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011).
Figure 9 Potential human impact on deep-sea ecosystems. (Ramirez-Llodra E, Tyler PA, Baker MC, Bergstad OA,
Clark MR, et al. (2011); Man and the Last Great Wilderness: Human Impact on the Deep Sea. PLoS ONE 6(8): e22588.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022588)
Figure 10 Deep sea research technology
The overall goal of this working group is to promote Council (MITE-DEEP project, ref. 243664/E40) and
international collaboration and sharing of information at INDEEP (http://www.indeep-project.org/) to co-orga-
all levels (i.e. institutional, scientific, industrial, economic nize the International Workshop on the Impacts of Mine
and societal) to enhance the effective use of informa- Tailings in the Marine Environment (Lima, June 2015)
tion and data and, thus, facilitate the development of with GESAMP-IMO. This was followed by an additional
robust best available practices and management mea- one-day DOSI-DSTP meeting, where a number of fol-
sures. One of the main activities of the DOSI-DSTP WG low up activities were agreed, which are now progress-
was to secure funding from the Norwegian Research ing, including the analysis of an online survey on DSTP
issues, a scoping paper, the creation of a centralized Coastal current and sea level at mid-latitude along
data repository for STD and DSTP activities, a GIS map the coasts of Peru and Chile are strongly modulated
and initial discussions for a potential capacity-building by the El Niño/La Niña cycle in the intra-seasonal (30-
workshop on DSTP in Papua New Guinea. 90 days) and semi-annual bands. This modulation is
linked to coastal trapped waves and Rossby waves13
forced by winds blowing on the equator, and equato-
3.4 Physical oceanography and Deep- rial Kelvin waves and their interaction with the South
sea Tailings Placement (DSTP) in the Peru- American coast (Figure 11). This well-known equatorial-
mid-latitude connection within PCCS has been con-
Chile Current System12 firmed by good agreement between conceptual model
The Peru-Chile Current System (PCCS) is recognized simulations forced by satellite winds from the equator
as one of the most biologically productive regions of and the South American coast with local observa-
the global ocean. Several important factors support tion of currents and sea level fluctuation off central
this high marine production. These include a persistent Chile. However, some oceanic variability observed over
coastal poleward undercurrent which carries nutrient- PCCS in coastal current and sea level is forced by local
rich but oxygen-poor Equatorial Subsurface Water, a winds. For instance, in the intra-seasonal band, local
persistent wind-driven upwelling which lifts the nutri- wind variability appears linked to the tropical Pacific
ent-rich water towards the surface and recurrent meso- by equatorial-mid-latitude teleconnections in the atmo-
scale eddies which transport Equatorial Subsurface sphere. Intra-seasonal variability is a prominent feature
Water westward extending the upwelling region to the in coastal currents, sea level, and sea surface tem-
deep ocean. Here, long time series (about a decade) of perature. Intra-seasonal equatorial Kelvin waves14 force
current observations, sea level and sea surface tem- strong coastal-trapped waves during austral summer.
perature along the coasts of Peru and Chile, together The former waves are particularly strong during the
with satellite data of wind stress, sea level anomalies initial phase of El Niño, and rather weak during La Niña
and chlorophyll are used to understand the spatial and periods.
temporal variability (from regional to mesoscale and
from intra-seasonal to interannual, respectively) along
the west coast of South America. 13
Rossby waves, also known as planetary waves, are a natural
phenomenon in the atmosphere and oceans of planets that
12
Samuel Hormazabal, Pontificia Universidad Católica de largely owe their properties to rotation.
Valparaíso, PBox. 10120, Valparaíso, Chile and Instituto 14
A Kelvin wave is a wave in the ocean or atmosphere that bal-
Milenio de Ocenografía (IMO), Universidad de Concepción, ances the Earth’s Coriolis force against a topographic bound-
Concepción, Chile. ary such as a coastline, or a waveguide such as the equator.
Figure 11 Sources of variability: Rossby and Kelvin Waves
A significant interannual variability related to El Niño- Some questions associated with the knowledge gaps
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is found in coastal sea on a smaller scale are related to:
level and sea surface temperature in the PCCS. This
• The spatial and temporal variability of the
variability is stronger near the equator and decreases
dominant physical process;
southward along the coast. A significant fraction of
interannual mid-latitude disturbances have been asso- • The temporal variability of horizontal and
ciated with westward propagation of free baroclinic vertical gradients of currents and physical
Rossby waves forced by equatorial winds. A time- and chemical properties of the water column
frequency analysis performed on a 10-year period of (e.g. gradients of temperature, salinity, den-
current observations in a mooring station located at sity, oxygen);
the slope off Coquimbo (30°S) revealed that during the
• The characteristics of the intra-seasonal, sea-
warm ENSO phase (El Niño) semi-annual fluctuations
sonal and interannual fluctuations of currents
dominate seasonal scale variability of coastal currents
and physical and chemical properties in the
and during the cold ENSO phase (La Niña) the annual
smaller area;
band is dominant. Both frequencies appear to be asso-
ciated with seaward propagation of baroclinic Rossby • The effect of local forcings (e.g. coastal wind)
waves. Semi-annual Rossby waves seems to be forced and remote forcings (e.g. coastal trapped
by equatorial winds through equatorial Kelvin waves. waves, Rossby waves) on currents and physi-
In addition, annual fluctuations are also important for cal and chemical properties of the water
the seasonal-scale variability of coastal currents and column;
appear to be more related to winds along the South • The dynamics of internal waves and their
American coast than to winds along the equator. role in the mixing processes in the study
Rossby waves emanating from the eastern boundary, region; and
alongshore wind stress, and baroclinic instability of • The impact of internal waves on currents and
coastal currents play important roles in current variabil- physical and chemical properties of the water
ity and in the surface and subsurface eddy formation, column.
including their propagation in the Coastal Transition
Zone off Chile. Observations and high resolution From the above, to use the DSTP technique we claim
model results have revealed that along the coast off that is mandatory to develop research activities neces-
Chile several anticyclone subsurface eddies denomi- sary to obtain in situ and modelling data. Those data
nated “Intra-thermocline eddies” (ITEs) are detached are requested to fill the knowledge gaps in the study
annually from the Peru-Chile Undercurrent. Within the area, especially the gaps associated with the dynamics
PCCS region observed ITEs are around 400 m thick, of submarine canyons (one of the less explored areas
~ 100 kilometres in diameter (horizontal scale), exhibit a in the Peru-Chile Current System) and the offshore
westward mean speed of ~ 2.5 km/d, and live from sev- transport associated with mesoscale eddies. Some
eral months to years. The ITEs transport into the deep of the research activities that would be included are
ocean a large volume of cold, high-salinity, low-oxygen research cruises to cover seasonal and interannual
and nutrient-rich coastal water, extending the nutrient- variability, monitoring with autonomous submarine
rich waters beyond the zone which is directly affected vehicles (Glider and Micro Rider), long term moorings
by coastal upwelling. This aspect exerts an important (e.g. acoustic Doppler current profiles, sediment traps,
influence on the different trophic levels in oceanic oxygen sensors), coastal stations (weather stations,
waters. Model results show that the variability of the monitoring by high frequency radars, sea level) and
ITEs (number and transport) is significantly correlated numerical modelling (regional and local resolution).
with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation equatorial signal.
During strong El Niño events (e.g. 1982; 1998), while the
Peru-Chile Undercurrent transport increases, the vol- 3.5 The application of water
ume of coastal waters transported by ITEs decreases. and sediment guidelines to DSTP
Strong mesoscale eddies and meanders, that charac-
management15
terize the Coastal Transition Zone, are closely associ- The process of quantifying the risks posed by deep-sea
ated with enhancement of primary production and fish tailings placement (DSTP) operations is complex, but
distribution. The offshore propagation of mesoscale can be assisted by the application of robust water and
eddies contributes significantly to expanding the area sediment quality guidelines and well-structured risk-
of high chlorophyll concentration beyond the coastal based assessment frameworks. General best practice
upwelling centre. The estimation of that transport for DSTPs includes consideration of the suitability of
indicated that eddies make up > 50% of the winter the location (bathymetry and physical oceanography),
chlorophyll peak in the coastal transition zone. From discharge depth and conditions (no upwelling, sub-
the physical oceanography viewpoint, to understand surface tailings plumes and resuspension of deposited
the possible impact of DSTP in the Peru-Chile Current tailings), and location of DSTPs in low productivity
System, it is pivotal to understand the physical dynam- environments (i.e. not impacting a precious ecosystem).
ics of smaller areas (e.g. submarine canyons) and also In the early stages of feasibility planning, environ-
in which extension smaller regions are affected by pro- mental impact assessment (EIA) studies are conducted
cesses acting on a larger scale. to inform communities, government, and the industry
15
Stuart Simpson, Senior Principal Research Scientist Group
Leader, Aquatic Contaminants, CSIRO Land and Water Centre
for Environmental Contaminants Research (CECR), Australia.
proponents of the risk to the ecosystem. The ecological which guidelines either do not exist or are of low reli-
risk assessment (ERA) will include evaluating the risk ability (e.g. many residual milling chemicals), as well as
of adverse effects to aquatic organisms both within the the ability to predict the bioavailability of major metals
water column (pelagic organisms) and sediment envi- and metalloids.
ronment (benthic organisms).
It is well recognized that total contaminant concentra-
The intent of DSTPs is to minimize impacts to the most tions are often poor predictors of the risk posed by
biologically productive surface waters (e.g. the surface contaminants in sediments (Simpson et al., 2011). While
mixed layer and photic zone), for no tailings to deposit total metal concentrations in sediments impacted by
in near-shore coastal environments, and for impacts mine tailings can often appear alarmingly high, a large
from the deep-sea deposition (e.g. below 500 m portion of the metals within tailings exist in highly min-
depth) to be predictable. The tools and frameworks for eralized forms that are less bioavailable to organisms
assessing potential impacts to pelagic species within when compared to metals introduced to the environ-
surface waters or organisms within near-shore environment from other common anthropogenic sources.
ments are reasonably well developed. For deep-sea While no standardized whole-sediment toxicity tests
environments, many of the desirable assessment tools exist that utilize deep-sea organisms, tests that use
do not yet exist and the residual uncertainty for assess- surrogate organisms are generally considered appro-
ments is greater. Prime examples include the lack of priate for assessing contaminant bioavailability and
species and the difficulty in replicating the conditions risks of toxicity. Tests on sediments containing mine
of deep-sea environments when conducting aquatic tailings indicate that site-specific sediment quality
toxicity testing (e.g. extreme pressure), and the inad- guidelines that better reflect the low bioavailability of
equate knowledge of deep-sea ecosystem structures, mine-derived metals may be appropriate for manage-
functions, and connectivity to enable informed ecologi- ment purposes (Figure 12).
cal assessments.
However, significant uncertainty remains with respect
The most recognized impacts of DSTPs on benthic to the potential longer-term transformation of mine tail-
organisms involve direct smothering, changes in the ings from largely inert into more bioavailable forms. For
benthic habitat, increases in suspended sediment, and many DSTP operations, a common justification is to
exposure to contaminants. The first two of these are minimize the problem of acid rock drainage associated
predictable impacts that remain for the entire DSTP with the oxidation of residual sulphide minerals within
operation. The occurrence (location or intensity) of sus- tailings. While risks posed by metal-sulphide phases
pended sediments is less predictable, and significant are predicted to be low in deep-sea environments due
challenges remain regarding the assessment of the fate to lower dissolved oxygen concentrations, burial of
and impacts of sub-surface tailings plumes at all water tailings and the buffering capacity provided by sea-
depths. Chemical impacts, i.e. those being caused water, the presence or formation of oxidized and more
through toxicity of metals or metalloids associated with bioavailable metal forms remain an uncertainty for both
the tailings liquid or solid, or that may be released from deposited and resuspended tailings. The issues of bio-
tailings in the short or long term, are potentially avoid- availability and transformations represents an example
able through tailings management from the mine to the of scientific uncertainty, and a knowledge gap, when
sea. However, challenges exist relating to chemicals for assessing risks posed by DSTPs.
Guideline value for copper, mg/kg
500
400
300
Copper
sulfide
200 mineral
Silty sediment
(strong binding)
100
Sandy sediment
(weak binding)
0
Increased metal binding phases or
mineralisation (lower metal bioavailability)
Figure 12 Schematic representation of the influence of sediment properties (increase metal-binding strength) on the
predicted sediment quality guideline value for copper
For all assessments, there is a need to consider multi- to develop new and specialized tools to provide new
ple lines of evidence (LOE) (Figure 13) in order to inform LOE for assessments (e.g. eco-genomics-based tools
communities, governments and industries of risks to provide new LOEs for ecology – community struc-
posed to the environment (Simpson and Batley, 2016). ture, function and connectivity). There will also remain
For many deep-sea assessments, there will be a need a need to utilize existing tools that are well developed
for near-shore coastal environments, as these can to improve as new science-based tools are developed
also provide useful information on environmental risks. to cover all aspects of chemistry, ecotoxicology, ecol-
Proposed and existing DSTP operations continue ogy, and oceanography. This is necessary to enable
to require a high level of environmental scrutiny and the most informed and robust management decisions
monitoring during operation and post-closure. The associated with DSTP.
assessments, approvals, and monitoring will continue
Figure 13 Decision-making needs to involve multiple lines of evidence. Credit: Stuart Simpson
3.6 Proposed seabed mining off New Both CRP and TTR gathered a wide range of data
including those which related to oceanographic condi-
Zealand: What had to be learnt about the tions; seabird, marine mammal, fish, plankton and ben-
marine environment before mining could thic fauna and habitats; current flow and particle dis-
begin?16 persal; sensitivity of benthic fauna to suspended and
deposited sediment; and ecosystem trophic structure.
New Zealand’s marine environment is rich in mineral
resources with economic potential. Exploratory and The lessons learnt about the collection and analysis of
prospecting permits have been issued for most of environmental data during the environmental assess-
these minerals (except cobalt-rich crusts and manga- ment process include the following:
nese nodules). Mining permits have been issued for
• Some important information was not col-
phosphorite nodules and ironsands to Chatham Rock
lected:
Phosphate (CRP) and Trans-Tasman Resources (TTR),
respectively. However, before commercial-scale mining • Whole faunal components were ignored,
can begin, a marine consent is required. e.g. meiofauna sampled in the South
Taranaki Bight (STB) but not on Chatham
Marine consents are decided upon, under the legal
Rise (hyperbenthos); and
requirements of New Zealand’s Exclusive Economic
Zone and Continental Shelf (Environmental Effects) • Limited characterisation of ecosystem
Act, by the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA). function, e.g. no examination of the rela-
Marine Consent applicants must provide the EPA with tionship with biodiversity; the importance
information on how their proposed activities relate to of habitat-providing species was exam-
a set of criteria, including ones concerning potential ined in STB but not Chatham Rise;
environmental effects. Applicants for a consent must • Some information only inferred:
include in their Environmental Assessment (EA) a
description of the current state of the area; identify any • No in situ or laboratory studies were
environmental effects of the activity; and specify mea- examined:
sures intended to avoid, remedy or mitigate adverse • Toxicity of re-deposited sediment to
effects of mining. local fauna;
16
Ashley A. Rowden and Alison MacDiarmid, National insti- • Sensitivity of fauna to suspended
tute of Water & Atmospheric Research, Private Bag 14-901, sediment loading;
Wellington, New Zealand.
• Impact of sedimentation on benthic
fauna (even short-term); and
• Recovery dynamics of benthic fauna
(even short-term);
• Some concepts in the Act are difficult to
address:
• Rarity – most species in deep sea are
rare; potentially a sampling and taxo-
nomic impediment issue;
• Threatened – the list of threatened inver-
tebrate species was inadequate, and data
from surveys was not always at species
level; and
• Vulnerable ecosystems – the concept was
not defined, and inconsistent with the
term ‘sensitive environments’ in associ-
ated regulations.
4 WHAT WE KNOW AND WHAT WE DO NOT KNOW
ABOUT THE EFFECTS OF MINE TAILINGS IN THE
MARINE ENVIRONMENT
4.1 Impacts of large-scale disposal increasingly being explored as a source of valuable

minerals. In January 2011, the Papua New Guinea
of mining waste in the deep sea (PNG) Government granted a mining licence for the
(Papua New Guinea)17 commercial extraction of metal-rich sulphide deposits
in the Bismarck Sea, and if this proves a success it
The need for economic growth to maintain the liv-
is likely to be followed by other mining operations in
ing standards of a rising human population is driving
deep-seabed environments.
demand for the Earth’s non-renewable resources,
particularly hydrocarbons and metals. Oil and gas Traditional land-based mining produces large volumes
extraction is being extended into ever more challeng- of waste, which includes overburden, waste rock and
ing oceanic environments and the deep-seabed is tailings. There are a number of different methods in
which tailings have been managed throughout the
17
Tracy Shimmield, Managing Director, SAMS Research world; one of these is the placement of tailings in the
Services Ltd (SAMS: Scottish Association for Marine Science). deep sea (DSTP) (Figure 14).
Figure 14 Mines in PNG currently using DSTP are Lihir, Simberi, and Ramu.
Proposing to use DSTP are Woodlark and Yandera
For all categories of industrial use of the ocean, it is Papua New Guinea’s aim is to promote a healthy and
essential to identify and measure potential impacts so sustainable mineral industry and provide a regulatory
that these can be minimized and mitigated as far as environment which maximizes mining opportunities
possible. It is essential for human communities, the and minimizes impact on the environment to ensure
environment and the mining sector that the best mining optimum benefits for the people of PNG.
practices and technologies are developed and adopted
to permit the highest standard of environmental impact Environmental issues associated with extraction of
assessment and monitoring to be achieved. minerals are receiving greater attention throughout
the world. In addition to developing seabed mining,
PNG is a mineral-dependent economy. In 2009, PNG the ocean also continues to be used as a repository
mines produced 63 tonnes of gold, 154,000 tonnes of for waste produced by land-based mines. For all cat-
copper and 75 tonnes of silver to contribute K7.5 billion egories of industrial use of the ocean it is essential to
which represented 62% of PNG’s total export receipts identify and measure potential impacts so that these
in that year (Figures 15 and 16). can be minimized and mitigated as far as possible. It is
essential for human communities, the environment and
the mining sector that the best mining practices and
technologies are developed and adopted to permit the
highest standard of environmental impact assessment
and monitoring to be achieved.
Minerals
Crude Oil
3% 14% Forestry
2% Agriculture
14%
5%
Marine
Others
PNG Export
Receipts 2009
Source: Bank of
62% PNG
Figure 15 PNG Export Receipts for 2009
Figure 16 Current and Potential Mines in PNG
DSTP has been used as a waste option in a number of Since the first offshore exploration licence was granted
countries worldwide and lately there has been a drive in 1997, there are currently 70 offshore exploration
to gather more relevant scientific information of the licences granted with an additional 54 under applica-
impact of DSTP on the marine environment of PNG. tion (Figure 17).
This information has led to the development of new
regulations incorporating draft guidelines in Papua The mining lease granted to Nautilus Minerals is for
New Guinea for the use of DSTP. The increase in under- Solwara-1, an area in the Bismarck Sea, within the ter-
standing of the effects of anthropogenic disturbance ritorial waters of PNG (Figure 18). The project aims to
on the Deep Ocean and developing regulation which extract gold and copper deposits associated with deep
have been obtained from the study of DSTP and the sea hydrothermal vents and will be the first large scale
advancement of smart observation technology is also mining of minerals in the deep ocean in the world.
applicable to seabed mining.
Figure 17 Current Offshore Exploration Licences, PNG
Figure 18 Location of SOLWARA 1 mining lease. EL: exploration lease.

MLA: mining lease applied. Source: Nautilus Minerals Inc
The government is currently developing an offshore policy to administer the deep-sea mining prospects.
mining legislation that will determine the regulation and
As this will be the first large scale deep-sea mining Lihir, where DSTP has been in operation since 1996
project, there is no precedent for EIS or operational with the outfall at 115 m depth. Mine tailings settled
environmental monitoring. However, the draft PNG over a wide area, to > 2000 m depth.
guidelines and legislation pertaining to DSTP will be
pertinent to deep-seabed mining and the operation and The second mine was Misima. This mine had ceased
environmental monitoring plans must be developed to discharging tailings three years before the sediments
ensure that there is sufficient and timely monitoring of surrounding the mine were sampled (Figure 19). DSTP
the near and far field areas affected by this operation. was in operation for 15 years until 2004, with outfall
at 112 m depth. Tailings have accumulated in a semi-
The impact of the mine tailings discharge to the deep enclosed basin.
ocean of two mines has been investigated. The first,
Figure 19 Location of sediment sampling stations, Lihir
4.2 Major and minor element The concentrations of the minor and trace elements
also vary between the impacted and control stations.
concentrations in sediment from Lihir Figure 21 illustrates the differences between a number
The sediments and pore-waters from Lihir were of elemental concentrations in sediments from the
analysed for major, minor and trace elements and impacted station L2, 1,750 m depth and L5, control sta-
the combined data were used to evaluate sediment tion, 1,715 m water depth. There are significant differ-
composition and provenance, identify biogeochemical ences in concentrations of beryllium (Be), vanadium (V),
controls and assess any post-depositional mobility of copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo) and Lead (Pb) between
elements within the marine environment surrounding stations L2 and L5, with concentrations of all elements
Lihir Island, (Figure 19). being higher at the impacted station, L2. However, the
concentrations of cobalt (Co) and nickel (Ni) are similar
The concentrations of aluminium (Al), potassium (K), at both the impacted and control stations.
iron (Fe) and barium (Ba) are all higher within the
top 5-10 cm of the impacted stations (L1-L3) when
compared to the control stations (L4-L6). In contrast,
calcium (Ca) concentrations are much lower in the
impacted stations compared to those of the control
stations, (Figure 20).
Concentrations of the elements are all similar at depth

indicating that the mine tailings slurry has at least twice
the concentration of Al, four times the concentration
of K, twice the concentration of Fe, three to five times
the concentration of Ba and twelve to fifteen times
lower concentration of Ca than the natural sediments
of the area.
wt % wt % wt %
Aluminium Calcium Potassium
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 0
10 10 10
Depth, cm
20 20 20
30 30 30
40 40 40
mg/kg
wt % Barium
Iron 0 1000 2000 3000
0 2 4 6 8 10 0
0
10
10
Depth, cm
L1
20
20 L3
L2 30
30 L4
L5 40
40
Figure 20 Major and Minor elemental concentrations, Lihir
Beryllium (ppm) Vanadium (ppm) Copper (ppm) Arsenic (ppm)

0 1 2 3 0 200 400 0 150 300 0 350 700
0 0 0 0
10 10 10 10
Depth (cm)
20 20 20 20
30 30 30 30
40 40 40 40
Molybdenum (ppm) Lead (ppm) Nickel (ppm) Cobalt (ppm)
0 50 100 150 0 100 200 0 20 40 60 0 10 20 30
0 0 0 0
10 10 10 10
Depth (cm)
Depth (cm)
20 20 20 20
30 30 L2 30
L5 30
40 40 40
40
Figure 21 Minor and trace elemental concentrations within sediment, L2 (impacted, 1,750 m)
and L5 (control, 1,715 m), Lihir
The geochemical results for the sediment samples Summary of findings for operational mine: Lihir
around Lihir indicate that the discharge of mine tailings
is impacting on the sediment regime of the marine envi- • First replicated study of the benthic and sea-
ronment east of Lihir. The stations L1-L3 have all been bed geochemical impacts of an operational
impacted by the discharge of the tailings. DSTP system;
The chemical analyses of the sediment cores show • Very large and profound differences in the
elemental depth profiles which penetrated below the biological assemblages present in impacted
mine tailings at the impacted stations. These profiles vs reference stations;
indicate that the mine tailings composition is signifi- • There are still measurable numbers of meio-
cantly different from the naturally occurring sediments fauna in the surface layers of the impacted
and can be identified by their geochemical signature. sediment; and
The mine tailings are contributing to the metal content • The sediments contain much higher concen-
of the sediments at the impacted stations yielding sig- trations of metals in both solid and aqueous
nificantly higher inventories of K, Rb, Ba, Cu, Zn, V, As, phases, including ecotoxic elements such as
Pb, Tl, and U. Cu, Cd and As.
4.3 Major and minor element eastward away from the mine; station M4 is located
concentrations in sediment from Misima south westward of M2. Station M5 is located south
eastward from the transect with M6 located south
The major element composition is shown in Figure 22. westward from Misima Island. M5 and M6 are assumed
Stations M1-M3 are the stations on a transect moving to be control stations.
Figure 22 Location sampling station positions at Misima
The concentrations of Al, K, Fe and Ba are all higher The concentrations of the minor and trace elements
within the complete length of the core for the impacted also vary between the impacted and control stations.
stations (M1-M3) when compared to the control sta- Figure 24 illustrates the differences between a number
tions (M5-M6) indicating that only sediment impacted of elemental concentrations in sediments from the
by mine tailings was sampled at these stations. M4 impacted station M1, 1,380 m depth and M6, control
has high concentrations in the top 5 cm of the core station, 1,250 m water depth. There are significant dif-
after which the concentrations decrease to similar ferences in concentrations of Be, V, Cu, As, Ni and Co
values observed in the control stations M5 and M6. between stations M1 and M6, with concentrations of
In contrast, Ca concentrations are much lower in the all elements being higher at the impacted station, M1.
impacted stations compared to that of the control sta-
tions. Ca concentrations are three to five times lower at The geochemical results for the sediment samples
M1-M3 than the sediments of the control stations (M5 around Misima indicate that the past discharge of
and M6) with maximum concentrations of 5%. The Ca mine tailings has impacted on the sediment regime
concentrations of M4 are similar to those of M5 and of the marine environment surrounding Misima. The
M6 having a maximum concentration of Ca of 28% geochemical signature and elemental inventories of
compared to 34 and 35% for M5 and M6 respectively. stations M1-M3 indicate that these stations have been
The range of concentrations within the sediment of the impacted by tailings and continue to have high con-
six stations suggests that the impacted stations (M1- centrations of metals within the sediments. The two
M3) have a different chemical signature to the control control stations M5 and M6 have lower concentrations of
stations (M5 and M6) and that M4 has a signature that metals and in addition M6 differs in composition
varies between that of the impacted and control sta- from M5, possibly being influenced by a high Ca
tions, (Figure 23). supply from surrounding coral reef areas. Station M4
has a similar chemical signature in the top 2.5 cm of the
core to sediments at stations M1-M3.
Aluminium wt % Calcium wt % Potassium wt %
0 2 4 6 8 0 10 20 30 40 0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8
0 0 0
Depth, cm 10 10 10
20 20 20
30 30 30
40 40
40
50 50
50
Iron wt % Barium mg/kg
0 2 4 6 0 1000 2000 3000
0 0
10 M1 M4 10
Depth, cm
M2 M5
20 M3 M6 20
30 30
40 40
50 50
Figure 23 Major and Minor elemental concentrations Misima
Beryllium (ppm) Vanadium (ppm) Copper (ppm) Arsenic (ppm)

0 1 2 3 0 100 200 0 100 200 0 10 20
0 0 0 0
10 10 10 10
Depth (cm)
20 20 20 20
30 30 30 30
40 40 40 40
Molybdenum (ppm) Lead (ppm) Nickel (ppm) Cobalt (ppm)
0 2 4 6 0 500 1000 0 20 40 60 0 10 20 30
0 0 0 0
10 10 10 10
Depth (cm)
20 20 20 20
30 30 30
30
M1
40 40 M6 40
40
Figure 24 Minor and trace elemental concentrations within sediment, M1 (impacted)

and M6 (control), Misima
Summary of findings for post-operational mine: • In addition to geochemical analyses, it was

Misima observed that the impacted stations showed
some degree of post impact recolonization,
• First ever multidisciplinary study of marine and that results indicate very clear differences
environment after the closure of the DSTP between the benthic community of impacted
system; and non-impacted stations.
• Stations adjacent to the DSTP are very clearly The geochemical analysis of the sediment has allowed
impacted by mine tailings; us to construct a picture of the impact of the mine
• Stations further away from the mine have been tailings deposited in the marine environment of Lihir
impacted either directly through mine tailings and Misima. The tailings are contributing a sub-
deposition or indirectly through post-depo- stantial amount of material to the immediate marine
sitional resuspension and re-deposition; and environment of the mine sites and further afield. The
material being discharged contains a significant amount 4.4 Numerical modelling of particle
of heavy metals with the finer particulate material hav- spreading from mine tailing deposits in
ing higher specific concentrations of metals. The mine
tailings have a very different geochemical signature to Norwegian fjords18
that of natural sediment resulting in an elemental “fin- Recently, marine mine tailing placement has become
gerprint” which allows tailings to be traced within the a topic of much public debate in Norway, as new min-
marine environment and therefore enable the identifica- ing operations are being proposed. These operations
tion of sites of deposition of tailings. result in deposition of mine tailings onto the seabed
in certain Norwegian fjords (see Ramirez-Llodra et
Conclusions: Impacts of large-scale disposal of al. (2015) for a recent review (1)). Concerns have been
mining waste in the deep sea raised over spreading of particulate fines and their
potential impact on vulnerable fjord ecosystems and
The increase in understanding of the effects of anthro- nearby fish farms. Numerical models can be useful in
pogenic disturbance on the deep ocean and the this context by exploring outcomes of different sce-
advancement of smart observation technology is narios, which in turn can be used to inform debates
important in managing and minimizing the impacts and support decision-making. For instance, placement
of DSTP. An objective of any programme monitoring of discharge pipes can be optimized by considering
DSTP will be to determine the passage of any plumes the predicted spreading patterns of different scenarios,
of suspended material in the water column and to pro- choosing a location that produces the smallest impact,
vide a rapid (real time) alert to any failure in the opera- as shown in Figure 25.
tional management of the discharge of unconsolidated
sediment and waste rock to deeper water. In the context of marine mine tailing placements,
numerical models can be used to study spreading of
The data presented here are a small part of a much particulates, the concentration levels one may expect
larger multidisciplinary investigation (Shimmield et in the water column, and the area and amount of sedi-
al., 2010). The data obtained from the study have been mentation. These can then be related to environmental
used to develop a set of General Guidelines for the impacts, and are thus useful for environmental risk
use of DSTP in PNG and Site Specific Guidelines for assessment. It is crucial for accurate model predictions
operating mines using DSTP. These are presently being that the relevant processes are sufficiently accounted
incorporated into the Mineral Policy of PNG by the for; in the context of marine mine tailings; these include
Department of Mineral Policy and Geohazards. current-driven transport, flocculation, sedimentation,
and resuspension from the sea bed. Flocculation is a
PNG is the first country to develop guidelines for the particularly relevant process as the suspended sedi-
use of Deep Sea Tailings Placement as a waste man- ment concentrations typically associated with a mine
agement method for mine tailings. Areas requiring tailing discharge have the potential to significantly alter
more information: the fate of the discharge. While much is known about
• Understanding behaviour of sediment plumes, the flocculation process, this knowledge is largely
physical and chemical; derived from studies of natural sediment dynamics
in estuaries. For marine mine tailing discharges, the
• Transport of pollutants through the marine situation is somewhat different, and there may be
ecosystem, e.g. pelagic species; other processes operating, which could present novel
• Modelling of the tailings footprint; phenomena that should be investigated through obser-
vational studies.
• Timescale of recovery of impacted area, recol-
onization by deep sea benthos; and The DREAM model (2-4), developed for the oil and
• Sampling and analysis techniques, correct gas industry (Figure 26), has been used to study par-
sampling equipment and quality assurance ticle spreading and sediment build-up for a planned
of analysis. Use of technology in assessment marine tailing deposit in Norway (5). The predictions
and monitoring, remote technology with novel for these endpoints were then used for environmental
sensors. risk assessment, by comparing with threshold values.
Additionally, different release arrangement scenarios
were compared, which showed some clearly preferable
alternatives, illustrating how to make practical use of
models to minimize environmental impact. Presently,
DREAM is under active development to better describe
mine tailing transport, through the NYKOS project.
18
Raymond Nepstad, Emlyn Davies, and Henrik Rye, SINTEF,
Norway.
Figure 25 Modelling of the discharge identified the location of discharge that would limit
the spreading of particulates
Figure 26 The Dream Model for predicting distribution discharges of particles
A tighter integration of model use and development combining data from a LISST-100, LISST-HOLO, and
with new and improved in situ measurement technol- a bespoke Silhouette-based particle imaging system.
ogy for suspended mine tailings is important to achieve Together, these instruments produced size distribu-
improved predictions and more robust models in gen- tions ranging from 2.5-10000 microns. In situ imaging
eral. In advance of a recent field campaign, initial model proved essential in providing a realistic picture of the
predictions of particle transport were used to highlight nature of the flocculated material, with many long,
target areas, where model uncertainty was high- string-like flocs of several centimetres in length being
est. Regular discharges of flocculating material were observed several hundred metres from the discharge
released into the fjord, requiring particle observations location.
to span several orders of magnitude in size and con-
centration. The approach to tackling these monitoring Recent development in real-time data transfer tech-
challenges exploits the capabilities of both commer- nology for submarine environments opens up the
cially available instruments and research prototypes by possibility for improved monitoring of an active tailing
placement site, allowing suspended sediment concen-
trations, particle types, and sedimentation rates to be tries currently consume around 20% of the world pro-
continuously monitored. By integrating this with real- duction of metals, yet at the same time only produce 3%
time models, a more complete picture of the discharge of the world´s supply. Countries in Europe are therefore
can be obtained, and short-term predictions used to partially dependent on imports of mineral resources
optimize discharge times or positions, when this option from non-European countries. Tailings, fine-grained
is available. A prototype of a real-time modelling and waste-rock produced during mineral processing, ar-e
monitoring system for offshore drilling operations was the main waste product from the extraction of valuable
recently demonstrated (4). If such systems could be minerals and metals from mineral ores. The proximity
adapted for the mining industry, it could be a signifi- of mineral resources to vulnerable water bodies cre-
cant step towards reducing environmental impacts of ates a real environmental challenge. One of the main
marine tailings deposit sites. tools used to overcome the sheer volume of tailings
produced during mining is to dispose of them at the
seafloor as submarine mine tailings placements (STPs).
4.5 How fast do mine tailings deposits By submerging reactive tailings permanently under
colonize, can we boost colonization, water, acid mine drainage (AMD) or the production of
sulphuric acid and metal leaching (e.g. Cu, Ni, Zn, Pb,
and does colonization imply recovery Hg) from sulphide minerals can be reduced or, at least
of ecosystem functioning? Faunal restricted, to the top centimetre of an often 50 m thick
Colonization of Submarine Mine Tailings: deposit. STPs are also very cheap compared to land-
An Intertidal Experiment to Investigate based impoundments. STPs’ advantages mean they
are practiced in many areas around the world, includ-
the Influence of Sediment Organic ing Norway (Kvassnes et al., 2009, 2012, Kvassnes &
Carbon Content19 Iversen, 2013). Currently 33 fjord- or near-coastal STP
sites exist in Norway and six of these are still in opera-
Mineral resources are used in all walks of life. EU indus-
tion (Kvassnes and Iversen, 2013). Norwegian STPs’
19
Andrew K. Sweetman, International Research Institute of discharge permits range from 4x104 tons yr-1 (Skaland
Stavanger, Norway; Barbro T. Haugland, Institute for Marine Graphite AS, Troms) to 4x106 tons yr-1-(Sydvaranger
Research, Norway; Stefan G. Bolam, Centre for Environment, Gruver A/S in Finnmark) – refer to Figure 27.
Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, United Kingdom.
Figure 27 Changes in mean macrofaunal abundance (± 95% confidence intervals) over time in the different
tailings treatments and the sampling controls. Procedural control data (PC) is included for T=368d.
Source: Haugland MSc thesis (2014)
STPs cover and decimate the seafloor environment (Corg) content. Bolam (2004) showed that faunal recolo-
close to the outflow pipe and leave the benthos organi- nization in organically enriched sediments hindered
cally sterile, and will therefore significantly modify faunal recovery following dredge spoil placements in
marine ecosystems where STPs exist. One of the most an intertidal habitat compared to unamended controls.
important prerequisites for STPs is that fauna can However, the “organically enriched” sediment treat-
rapidly colonize the deposit after cessation of mining. ments used were over 3% Corg, which is known to nega-
See also Figure 27. However, very little is currently tively impact faunal community structure (Hylland et al.,
known about the factors controlling colonization of 2005) due to the build-up of toxic metabolic byproducts
STP deposits – in particular the role of organic carbon from organic matter decomposition.
In this study, the effect of adding organic C to tailings of one another. The trays were laid out on the sediment
was quantified as a means to speed-up faunal recolo- so they were flush with surrounding sediments, which
nization and facilitate rapid rehabilitation of STPs. reduced turbulent flow around each treatment plot,
To do this, an inter-tidal experiment was conducted which could modify larval colonization processes.
in the Crouch Estuary, Essex (United Kingdom) from
April 2012 to April 2013. Tailings from Rana Gruber A/S The plots were sampled 45d, 115d, 180d and 368d after
were used as starting material for the experiments, placement for sediment chemistry, sediment grain size,
using a randomized complete-block experimental and faunal abundance and diversity. Faunal biomass
design at a semi-protected field site which ensured was measured in all samples and used to calculate
access to a large larval pool, and protection from high secondary productivity (i.e. an ecosystem function).
hydrodynamic activity. Thirty large (0.25 m2 x 10 cm The data revealed that a concentration of 0.5% organic
deep) freezer trays of inert mine tailings were set up. carbon was the optimum concentration to enhance
Seven trays were unamended (ensuring a Corg content macrofaunal colonization, and after one year, the
of 0%). The rest were mixed with ground up fish farm majority of the univariate indices indicated recovery in
feed, which increased the organic C content of the tail- the mine tailings with a low concentration of organic
ings incrementally from 0% to 0.1% Corg, 1% Corg, 2.5% carbon (Figure 28). However, the macrofaunal com-
Corg, and 5% Corg. Plots were divided into six blocks munities functioned differently and had a far less total
running parallel to the shoreline ensuring that all plots production than the ambient sediments. This indicates
were at the same depth, subjected to the same amount that factors other than organic carbon are also impor-
of hydrodynamic activity, and of a sufficient distance tant (e.g. sediment angularity, Figure 28) when it comes
apart so that experimental treatments are independent to colonization of mine tailings.
Figure 28 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) images of background sediment (top panel)
and tailings (bottom panel) from the experiment
4.6 Impacts of discharge into the sea 1.5 for nickel. Zirconium, uranium and lead are depleted
of mine tailings from phosphorite mines in Togo phosphorites with factors of 0.9, 0.8 and 0.2
respectively. A grain size dependence study of heavy
in Africa. The environmental impact of metal distribution in phosphorite shows that contents
the dumping of mine tailings in the West of Cd, Zr, V, REE, U decrease by decreasing grain size
African sea: the case of the disposal of whereas the contents of Cr, Cu, Ni, Ba, Zn increase by
decreasing grain size. Cd, Zr, V, REE, U show signifi-
phosphorite tailings in Togo20 cant positive correlation with P2O5 whereas contents
The marine sedimentary phosphorite deposits of of Cr, Cu, Ni, Ba, Zn show significant correlations to Al
Hahotoé-Kpogamé (southern Togo), like those else- and Fe. This grain size dependence has a significant
where in the world, are highly enriched with numer- influence on trace metal distribution in the sea environ-
ous trace metals such as Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, V, Zn, Pb, ment by currents.
U, Th, Mo, Ag, F, Y, and Rare Earths (Altschuler, Trace element bioavailability: Extraction with weak
1980). The main phosphorite mineral in Togo’s phos- acid shows that, compared to their total contents in
phorite is a carbonate fluorapatite also called fran- analysed phosphorite samples, average extracted val-
colite (Kunkel, 1990; Johnson, 1987). The chemical ues reach up to 72% for Pb, 66% for Sr, 42% for Mn,
composition of francolite is very variable because 38% for Cd, 34% for Cr, 32% for Cu and Zn, 31% for V,
its crystal structure allows numerous ionic substitu- 27% for Ni, 18% for Fe, 15% for Al and 1% for Ti. The
tions (McConnell and Lehr, 1969; McArthur, 1990; results for some selected trace metals for extraction
McClellan,1980; McClellan and Van Kauwenbergh, with saline water indicate that when salinity increases
1990). Phosphorites have been exploited since 1959 in (from 10 to 17 and to 33 g/l), the solubility of phospho-
the areas of Hahotoé and Kpogamé (southern Togo). rus and trace metals increases also. The high trace
The processing of the phosphorite ore to commercial metal bioavailability in phosphorites and the high
grade is done mechanically by wet sieving, using sieves salinity of seawater are factors that enhance the metal
and hydrocyclones. Seawater is pumped to a factory contamination of the marine environment
at Kpémé close to the beach situated 25 km from the
Seawater pollution: Once dumped into the sea, the
mining sites. Two types of mine wastes are principally
muddy tailings are transported by littoral currents (litto-
produced during this processing: a fine-grained clayey
ral drift stronger eastwards and seawards rip currents)
muddy tailing and a coarse-grained waste. About 40%
and contribute to a transboundary optical and chemical
of the raw ore is rejected as tailings during the pro-
contamination (from Togo to Bénin and Nigeria). Closer
cessing. The muddy tailings are dumped directly into
to outfall, the pH of seawater becomes acid, turbidity
the coastal waters of Togo without any pre-treatment
and the electrical conductivity increases. The seawater
(Figures 29-31). About 2.5 million tons of phosphorite
content of heavy metals Cd, Pb, Al, Fe and Zn decreases
tailings are thus dumped annually into the coastal
when moving far away from tailing outfall.
waters of Togo (since 1959). The aim of this work is to
study the environmental impacts of the coastal dis- Sea sediment pollution: Trace element concentrations
posal of mine tailings on sediments, water, and biota in in bottom sediment ranged from 2-44 ppm for Cd,
the area. Phosphorite mining and the dumping into the 22-184 ppm for Cu, 1 15-753 mg/kg for Cr, 19-281 ppm
sea of phosphogypsum tailings also occurs in Morocco for Ni, 22-176 ppm for Pb, 179- 643 ppm for Sr, 38-329
(Figure 32). ppm for V, 60-632 ppm for Zn and 18-8928 ppm for
Zr. Spatial distribution of trace elements in the marine
Material and methods: To reach the objectives, phos- environment indicates that from the outfall the con-
phorite samples, coastal sediments, coastal waters centrations of Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, V, Sr and Zn increase
and biota (fish, shrimps) have been sampled, dried, seawards and along the coastal line outwards of the
ground and digested using acids (HNO3 and HCl). tailing outfall, whereas Cd and Zr showed reversed
Heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Cu, Ni, Zn, Sr, Ba, U, Rare Earth, spatial patterns. Generally trace metal associated to
and major elements P, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, Mn, Ti, Si, apatite structure such as Cd, REE, U shows decreas-
have been analysed by ICP-AES. The bioavailability of ing concentrations when moving far away from the
heavy metals has been assessed using weak acid and pollution source (since apatite is denser and settles
saline water extraction. down earlier during transport by currents), whereas
trace metals associated to the clay fraction (Cr, Cu, Ni,
Results and discussion Zn, V, Sr) show the opposite (clay minerals are lighter).
Thus, transport and sorting of phosphorite particles by
Chemical composition of phosphorites: The results coastal currents are the main factors controlling heavy
of chemical analysis indicate that the phosphorites metal distribution in coastal marine environment.
of Togo contain high amounts of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, Bioaccumulation in biota: Generally there was a high
V, Zn, Sr, Ba, U and Rare Earths. Compared to shale level of trace metals in the tissues of the studied spe-
values the enrichment factors are, 237 for nickel, 236 cies, especially for Cr, Ni, Pb, Fe and Se. Compared to
for cadmium, 25 for uranium, 9 for zirconium, 6 for WHO norms, the average relative health factors (RHF),
chromium, 4 for strontium, 2 for vanadium, 1.5 for zinc i.e. the ratios of the measured to the WHO threshold
and copper. Compared to similar phosphorite deposits concentrations for metals, in fish are 97 for Ag, 250 for
in the world (Altschuler, 1980), studies for phospho- As, 10 for Cd, 7 for Cr, 53 for Fe, 63 for Mn, 78 for Ni,
rite show an enrichment factor of 4 for cadmium and 36 for Pb, and 470 for Se, while Al, Cu and Zn are
chromium, 3 for copper, 2 for vanadium and zinc, less bioconcentrated. In mussels, the relative health
factors are 70 for Ag, 295 for As, 14 for Cd, 4 for Cu,
9108 for Fe, 186 for Mn, 71 for Ni, 276 for Pb, 273 for
20
Kissao Gnandi, University of Lome, Department of Geology,
Togo. Se. Generally the bioconcentration is higher in mus-
sels, which is the reason why mussels are often used centrated with toxic trace metals such as Cd, Cr, Cu,
as bioindicators of marine pollution. The filter-feeding Ni, V, U, Zn, and Rare Earth Elements (Figures 33-35).
behaviour of mussels results in the accumulation of Their processing using wet sieving techniques with
both trace metals adsorbed onto the sediments and seawater and the dumping of mine tailings into the
dissolved in water. sea represent a major source of trace metals pollution
of coastal waters, sediments, and biota in Togo. Even
though the marine pollution is anthropogenic in source,
Conclusion and recommendation natural factors such as heavy metal bioavailability,
seawater salinity, and coastal currents are playing an
The phosphorite deposits of Hahotoé-Kpogamé, south- important role in metal distribution and bioaccumula-
ern Togo, (see Figure 29) are naturally more highly con- tion.
Figure 29 The phosphorite deposits of Southern Togo and the dumping of heavy metal spread
mine tailings into the coastal waters of Togo
Specifically, the high bioaccumulation rate in fish and mentation basins to treat mine tailings by decantation
mussels represents a serious threat to the marine eco- and flocculation, and to conduct research for the reuse
system and human health through the food chain. We of phosphorite tailing, e.g. in agriculture, since those
recommend the governmental and mining authorities to tailings contain up to 18% P2O5 compared to raw phos-
stop dumping mine tailings into the sea, to build sedi- phorites which have an average P2O5 content of 32%.
Figures 30 and 31 Mine Tailings discharge into West African Sea.

Credit: K. Ghandi, University of Lome, Togo
Figure 32 Phosphorite mining and the dumping of phosphogypsum tailings in Morocco.
This is known to be piped to the seashore.
Phosphogypsum is a by-product in the manufacture of phosphoric acid in the fertilizer industry
Cell Bar Chart

Grouping Variable(s): Metaux
Split By: Nature
Error Bars: ± 1 Standard Error(s)
Row exclusion: Kissao #4
100000
10000
1000
Cell Mean for Conc Finale mg/kg
100
10
Purif ied ore
1
Raw Phosph
.1 Tailings
.01
1E-3
1E-4
1E-5
1E-6
Ag Al As Cd Cr Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Se Sr Ti V Zn
Figure 33 Distribution patterns of some selected major and trace elements in bottom sediments
of the coastal area of Togo
Cell Bar Chart

Split By: Nature, Zone
10000
1000
100
10
Fish, Agbodra
1
Fish, Aneho
.1 Fish, Gomou
Fish, Lome
.01 Fish, Ref .Mat.
1E-3
1E-4
1E-5
1E-6
Figure 34 Metal content of fish in contaminated coastal area
Cell Bar Chart
Split By: Nature, Zone
10000
1000
100
10
Mussel, Aneho
1
Mussel, Gomou
.1 Mussel, Kpeme
Mussel, Lome
.01
1E-3
1E-4
1E-5
1E-6
Figure 35 Metal content (mg/kg) of mussels of the contaminated coastal area
4.7 Studies of metal release during 4.8 Copper pollution effects on benthic
deep-sea mining activities21 faunal communities: lessons from shallow
To understand the impacts of metal release from
water studies for submarine and deep-sea
mine tailings, multidisciplinary research is needed, tailings disposal22
addressing geochemistry, marine biology and sedi-
Copper (Cu) pollution has become a global environ-
mentology studies. There is real synergy between dif-
mental problem due to increasing demand for Cu for
ferent aspects of studying the problem of introducing
multiple uses. Cu enters the marine environment from
sediments into the oceans that are chemically reactive.
anthropogenic activities, such as mining and smelt-
The relationships between the different processes
ing, fish farm activities, disposal of waste and sewage
are important to assess, i.e. what is the chemical and
sludge, and leaching of antifouling paints and wood
biological response, the sedimentology, and the effect
preservatives. While trace amounts of Cu are fun-
of physical oceanography in all processes? These rela-
damental for the growth and metabolism of all living
tionships and potential impacts are being addressed by
organisms due to its central role in a range of enzymes,
the MIDAS project.
Cu is toxic to marine organisms at slightly higher levels.
The National Oceanography Centre, Southampton is
There is increasing pressure for use of the deep sea
part of the European Union funded MIDAS project.
as a reservoir for Cu mine tailings disposal. Increasing
This project seeks to address some of the fundamen-
input of Cu through mine tailings disposal to coastal
tal environmental issues relating to the exploitation of
and deep waters, in concert with ocean warming,
deep-sea mineral and energy resources, specifically
deoxygenation and acidification may increase the bio-
polymetallic sulphides, manganese nodules, cobalt-
availability and hence toxicity of Cu, with unpredictable
rich ferromanganese crusts, methane hydrates and the
consequences not only for the benthic ecosystem but
potential mining of Rare Earth Elements. Many aspects
also for pelagic-benthic coupling. Thus, among the
of these issues are also directly relevant to the pro-
most probable effects of massive Cu tailings disposal
cesses that may occur during seafloor tailings disposal.
are: (a) habitat destruction – smothering benthos, (b)
The in situ mining of seafloor massive sulphides and in
acidic slurry increases bioavailability and toxicity, (c)
particular the pulverization of massive sulphides on the
reduction of metal complexation capacity, (d) shift in
ocean floor will produce highly reactive sulphide min-
benthic faunal composition, (e) reduction of biomass
eral surface areas, with the potential for seafloor acid
and biodiversity, (f) disruption of faunal colonization,
generation and the release of potentially harmful major
and (g) disruption of pelagic-benthic coupling.
and trace metals into the local environment, (Figure 36).
Knowledge of Cu effects on marine ecosystems is lim-
For example, the MIDAS project will assess the nature
ited, and information about Cu effects on community
and scale of the potential impacts including 1) physi-
dynamics in particular is very hard to obtain in deep
cal destruction of the seabed by mining, the creation
water. The same basic taxa are present and the same
of mine tailings and the potential for catastrophic
principles govern sediment assemblages in shallow
slope failures, 2) the potential effects of particle-laden
and deep waters. Thus, it is instructive to draw informa-
plumes in the water column, and 3) the possible toxic
tion about deep-water impacts from studies in shallow
chemicals that might be released by the mining pro-
marinas where Cu contamination can be severe.
cess.
22
Carlos Neira, Scripps, United States; Collaborators:
Martin Palmer, National Oceanography Centre Southampton,
21
L.A. Levin, G. Mendoza, M. Porrachia, D. Deheyn, C. Stransky,
United Kingdom. F. Delgadillo-Hinojosa, A. Zirino.
Figure 36 Sea mining will pulverize sulphides on the ocean floor
Through experimental studies, the extent and mag- carbon as well as favourable hydrodynamic regime
nitude of Cu pollution were examined in San Diego seem to yield a more diverse benthic community.
Bay (SDB) shallow waters marinas together with the
The ecosystems targeted both for deep-sea min-
impact of Cu on benthic faunal community structure
ing and deep-sea tailing disposal (placement) largely
and biodiversity as well as its effect on initial stages of
remain poorly studied in terms of their impact on and
recolonization. Cu is the most common contaminant
recovery of biological communities. There is much to
due to its extensive use in antifouling paints, especially
be gained from combining information and expertise
for recreational boats. Boat paint passively leaches
from mechanistic studies in shallow and deep water, as
Cu into the water and it ultimately accumulates in
fundamental ecological patterns in faunal communities
sediment through binding and adsorption processes
such as lifestyles or feeding modes or benthic faunal
(Zirino et al., 2013). Cu contamination, when evaluated
colonization processes are similar for shallow and
at high spatial resolution, exhibits clear gradients and
deep waters. Cu effects on infaunal abundance, dis-
concentration hotspots linked to boat moorings (Neira
tributions, biodiversity, species tolerances, and body
et al., 2009), revealing major effects on benthic faunal
burden information are potentially relevant for the deep
communities (Neira et al., 2011). Sites with elevated
sea where mine tailing can affect larger areas and a
sediment Cu concentrations not only have less diverse
wider range of habitats and ecosystems.
macrofauna in sediments (Neira et al., 2014), but also
their total macrofaunal biomass and body size were
reduced compared to sites with lower Cu (Neira et
4.9 Deep-sea tailings placement:
al., 2011).
unknowns, secrets, and differing
Further manipulative experiments using defaunated,
Cu-spiked, translocated sediments showed that Cu
perceptions: a non-industry perspective23
can influence early stages of recolonization, with Much of the mining industry and scientific commu-
reduced biodiversity and lower structural complexity nity agree that we lack adequate technical informa-
that may last several months (Neira et al., 2015). Cu tion to understand the long-term impacts and risks
concentration in animal tissues varies between and to marine and terrestrial ecosystems that will result
within macrofaunal species (from one location) reflect- from disposal of metal-mine tailings in deep marine
ing their distinct sensitivities and tolerances to Cu waters. Nevertheless, such tailings disposal is already
contamination (Neira et al., 2011; 2014). Results sug- occurring in several countries, i.e. Papua New Guinea,
gest that sediment Cu is the main driver influencing Indonesia, and Norway. Most of the relevant experience
marina benthic faunal communities and also affects has been gained in only the last 15 years. Decades of
metal body burden. However, the picture is complex, experience from tailings disposal in both terrestrial and
as the benthic communities in different adjacent mari- shallow marine environments show that these wastes
nas experience varying levels of Cu stress. Defence are not inert.
mechanisms (Zirino et al., 2013) conferred by a stronger
complexation capacity, with higher dissolved organic
23
Robert E. Moran, Ph.D., Michael-Moran Assoc., LLC;
Hydrogeology/Geochemistry, Golden, Colorado, U.S.A.
Gaps in long-term knowledge for deep marine settings independent of the mining industry, and who are
are daunting, but the governance weaknesses are more allowed to disclose all major, long-term impacts and
significant. Many governments in developing countries public costs, many of which are presently hidden.
lack adequate technical staff, budgets and political
support to effectively oversee land-based tailings dis-
posal operations; oversight of DSTP operations will be 4.10 The ecosystem diagnostic analyses
much more complex and costly. These countries may of the various impacts on the Humboldt
have reasonable, relevant regulations, but often lack
the political will to enforce them. Mine corporations
Current Large Marine Ecosystem24
control the collection and dissemination of most data, The Humboldt Current Large Marine Ecosystem
and filter what information is made public to society at (HCLME) covers an area on the southeastern Pacific
large, their consultants and regulators. Much is secret seaboard from the Ecuador-Peru border in the north to
and not released to the public, i.e. detailed tailings the Chile-Argentina frontier in the south, stretching out to
chemical compositions; other data are inadequately the full extent of the Exclusive Economic Zone (370 km)
detailed, such as water (especially unfiltered samples) for both countries – an area of approximately 2.5 mil-
and sediment quality, true baseline data, and water lion km2 (Figure 37). The Humboldt Current System
balances. Thus, society often mistrusts the opera- (HCS), the area influenced by the Humboldt Current,
tors, their consultants, regulators, and their reports, is usually referred to as being the area related to the
as is evidenced by demonstrations and opposition to seasonal or permanent upwelling areas from approx-
numerous projects in such locations as Peru, Mexico, imately 4 to 40º south which bring nutrients to the
Guatemala, and Mongolia. surface generating high levels of primary productiv-
ity 142.8 mg C m-2 d-1 and approximately 11% of the
Industry arguments for investigating and promoting
world’s capture fisheries including the single largest
DSTP include: increasing populations and limited avail-
fishery, that of the anchovy at an average of 7.2 mil-
able land have increased competition with other users
lion mt/year for the last 11 years but currently very
(e.g. cities, agriculture) for disposal sites, and tailings
much in decline. Due to its rich anchovy stocks, Peru
stability concerns due to storms and seismic events.
is the world’s largest fishmeal producer and exporter
Additional drivers for industry interest in DSTP are likely
which, along with fish oil, provide essential inputs to
to include: significant contamination of ground and
much of the global finfish aquaculture industry. A study
surface waters; increased competition for scarce fresh
completed by the GEF-UNDP Humboldt project in 2015
water; financial liabilities from perpetual operation of
has valued the annual delivery of goods and services
water treatment facilities, collapsed dams, and reme-
from the HCLME area at US $19.5 billion and that of the
diation and maintenance of tailings facilities.
HCS to be US $15.0 billion. However the system’s resil-
Public trust for DSTP proposals will not develop if ience is at risk from a range of anthropogenic factors.
relevant studies and reports are not conducted and 24
Michael J. Akester, Regional Project Coordinator, GEF-
prepared by experts who are financially and politically UNDP Humboldt Project.
Figure 37 Humboldt Current Large Marine Ecosystem
The GEF-UNDP Humboldt Project (2011-2016) car- see www.humboldt.iwlearn.org. The latter were then
ried out a series of modular assessments as shown combined into a Transboundary Diagnostic Ecosystem
in Figure 38 (Productivity; Fish & Fisheries; Pollution Analysis (TDEA), a description of all the negative
& Ecosystem Health; Socioeconomic Aspects; and impacts on the HCS incorporating causal chain analy-
Governance) in both Chile and Peru as the starting ses to identify the immediate, underlying, and root
point for country level Diagnostic Ecosystem Analyses: causes of the main problems.
Figure 38 Assessments for sustainable development
The Diagnostic Ecosystem Analyses in both Chile 2. Improve the environmental quality of the coastal
and Peru acknowledged anthropogenic alterations marine ecosystem through an integrated management
of the marine habitat as a significant problem to be approach while considering the various sources of pol-
addressed at the transboundary level, the main cause lutant;
being pollution from several sources both domestic
and agro-industrial including the mining industry. Both 3. Restore and maintain the habitat and biodiversity
Chile and Peru are mineral rich countries, hence the of marine and coastal systems to sustainable levels;
HCS natural background levels of metals in sediment
4. Diversification of fisheries activities and the cre-
and solution is often high. Coupled with the fact that
ation of new productive opportunities for fisherfolk
the countries are in the world top ten as producers of
organized in integrated civil society organizations; and
important heavy metals, there is an increased pollution
risk from watersheds discharging to the Pacific. This 5. Contribute to the general population’s food secu-
pollution, combined with pesticides from intensive agri- rity and food safety.
culture and domestic sewage discharges from coastal
population concentrations (> 60% of the population Clearly, pollution from mine tailings has a negative
live in the coastal zone), has a significant impact on impact on the marine environment and fisheries, bio-
habitat destruction and associated biodiversity loss diversity, employment, food safety and food security
with potential reductions in the delivery of goods and within the HCLME. This impact also extends globally as
services from the Large Marine Ecosystem. Peru, at the northern end of the HCLME, is the world’s
main fishmeal and fish oil producer for the aquaculture
Actions to mitigate the root causes of these negative industry.
impacts have been assembled in a binational Strategic
Action Programme. The Strategic Action Programme It is equally evident that the prevention of mine tail-
vision is: “A healthy, productive and resilient HCLME by ing contamination in the marine environment is a
means of ecosystem-based management that ensures more cost-effective way of solving the problem than a
the conservation and sustainable use of its goods and massive clean-up exercise. The HCLME’s goods and
services for the benefit of the people”. services total economic value is in excess of US $20
billion per annum and this is currently under threat due,
The Strategic Action Programme has five main objec- in part, to pollution from mine tailings and associated
tives as follows: coastal human settlement.
1. Recover and maintain optimal population levels The fulfilment of the Strategic Action Programme’s
of the main fishery resources considering the environ- second objective, to improve the environmental qual-
mental variability while maintaining the health and ity of the coastal marine ecosystem, will contribute to
productivity of the ecosystem;
the delivery of other objectives in terms of habitat and were first reported in the late 19th century, and are
fisheries’ recovery, along with improved food safety, commonly found in lakes and the ocean (Mulder et al.,
by reducing heavy metals in seawater and marine 2003). A special class, and comparatively less studied
sediments. To do this, the following will be carried related flow, are lofting gravity flows (also referred to
out under the implementation of the Strategic Action herein as lofting flows). They are particle-laden gravity
Programme: currents, where a density inversion by interstitial fluid
lower in density than the ambient occurs, enabling the
1. The establishment of a binational coastal–marine possibility of a flow separation via plume detachment.
pollution monitoring programme, focusing on the main They were first identified in the literature as effects of
Humboldt Current System pollution sources; volcanic eruptions, and their distinctive mechanism
is the decrease of the bulk density of the discharged
2. The development of pollution control National
particle-laden mixture, until the equivalent mixture
Action Plans to ensure the maintenance of targeted
becomes buoyant. Then, a buoyancy-induced plume,
environmental quality aspects;
either of saline concentration or thermal nature, emerg-
3. Improvements in the treatment and disposal of es with the capacity to transport sediment and heat
liquid and solid wastes in the coastal zone; and through the water column (Turner, 1973).
4. Strengthening of the environmental inspection This plume detachment has already been identified in
agencies at local and central levels to allow improved the literature as a source of contamination in submarine
environmental quality objectives to be adhered to. tailing discharges (e.g. Lottermoser, 2010). Unlike the
aforementioned natural processes, these man-made
discharges feature comminution products, fine mineral
4.11 Open questions on the flow and and chemical species which are not naturally liberated
in natural sediments. In ore sulphide processing espe-
mixing of hyperconcentrated, cohesive cially, they include chemical additives from the flota-
gravity currents25 tion and the thickening stages, which give particular
characteristics to the lofting mechanism. From a purely
Hyperpycnal flows are defined as subaqueous sedi-
hydrodynamic standpoint, to assess the potential for
ment-transporting density flows where the solid-liquid
mixing – and thus contamination – of these discharges,
ensemble is heavier than the ambient where the dis-
the complex dynamics of tailing settling, plume detach-
charge takes place (Mulder & Alexander, 2001). They
ment and subsequent settling needs to be understood
in light of the interplay between the tailings physico-
25
Christian Ihle, Universidad De Chile, Mining Engineering
Department & Civil Engineering Department; Yarko Niño, chemistry and rheological characteristics and the
Universidad De Chile, Civil Engineering Department & Advanced ambient water conditions, including their chemistry and
Mining Technology Center. flow (Figure 39).
Figure 39 Flow dynamics of transport and disposal phases
Figure 40 The impact of seawater on settling of magnetite tailings
The effect of the presence of additives such as frothers particle settling and minimal plume detachment with
and flocculants may have a number of adverse effects, prohibitive amounts of fresh water. To the knowledge of
ranging from toxicological issues to their potential to the author, this is also an unexplored topic.
hinder the settling process. They may also interact
with seawater and their effect on discharged solids These elements may be summarized in the following
may be significantly affected, besides shear and local questions:
concentration, by the ambient pressure at discharge • How are tailings rheology, floc formation and
points, which might be significantly high. The interplay subsequent settling affected by seawater?
between chemistry and hydrodynamics on the effect of
discharges on the spatiotemporal distribution of con- • Is it possible to anticipate the features of
taminants extends not only to settling but also to resus- aggregate distribution after (potentially long)
pension. Ambient currents and seismicity, which are pipeline transport?
strongly local, may induce resuspension processes, • What are the short-term and long-term
whose characteristics depend on the consolidation of mechanical and physico-chemical responses
tailings which, again, depends on the short- and long- of deposited tailings (consolidation, floc integ-
term chemical stability of the settled flocs (Figure 40). rity, etc.)?
In particular, there is a significant knowledge gap per- • What is the effect of pressure on the afore-
taining to flocculant ageing at moderate to high pres- mentioned elements?
sures and their impact on the flow stability. • Is it possible to eliminate plume formation
Submarine tailings discharges, and especially those considering other constraints? How?
at the deep sea, inherit a several-hour trajectory in • (If not) what is the relation between aggregate
pipelines, exerting particular conditions on the tur- formation and plume features?
bulence and, in particular, the shearing of these slur-
ries. Industry-standard hydraulic transport systems • What would be the fate of plumes and sus-
are designed to optimize the hydraulic transport of pended sediment in light of background cur-
solids (e.g. to minimize the risk of plug formation). To rents? What are the local spatiotemporal
the knowledge of the author, there is no established effects (basin/upper ocean temporal forcing,
knowledge to identify transport conditions suited to seismicity)?
minimize the impact of discharges. For a given solids Added to these elements is the technological gap,
throughput, such transport conditions include solids including the ability to monitor operations reliably at
concentration, additive dosing and pH control accord- such salinity and depth conditions and respond to
ing to the mineralogical characteristics of the tailings. contingencies including plugs and leaks at significant
As there is a known relation between surface chemis- depths.
try, concentration and the rheology of clays present in
the tailings (e.g. Zhou et al., 2001), the consequences of
suitable transport conditions on the final disposal and
plume detachment at the sea bottom are yet unknown.
The process conditions of massive tailings discharge
facilities in some countries may relate to maximal
5 EXISTING REGULATORY (BEST) PRACTICES
5.1 International framework: disposal of

wastes at sea26
The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution
by Dumping of Waste and Other Matter, 1972 (London
Convention) and its updated version, the 1996 Protocol
to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution
by Dumping of Waste and Other Matter, 1972 (London
Protocol) are the primary international instruments
to protect the world’s oceans from pollution. See
Figures 41 and 42, below.
Dumping at sea is “any deliberate disposal into the sea

of wastes or other matter from vessels, aircraft, plat-
forms or other man-made structures.” It includes stor-
age of wastes in the seabed, abandonment or toppling
at a site of platforms, industrial waste, and incineration
at sea. Wastes from exploitation/processing of seabed
resources are excluded, and that includes deep-sea
mining.
Figure 42 Publication available at www.imo.org
on The London Protocol,
What it is and How to Implement it
Parties to the London Convention and Protocol are

to take effective measures, according to their scien-
tific, technical, and economic capabilities, to prevent,
reduce and where practicable eliminate marine pol-
lution caused by dumping of wastes into the sea.
Applications to dump wastes into marine waters are to
demonstrate appropriate consideration of a hierarchy
of waste management options:
• Reuse;
• Off-site recycling;
• Destruction of hazardous constituents;
• Treatment to reduce or remove hazardous
constituents;
• Disposal on land, into air and into water;
Figures 41 Publication available at www.imo.org
on the specific provisions • Can the waste or other matter be made
of the London Convention and Protocol acceptable for disposal at sea? and
• The practical availability of other means of
Dumping does not include operational discharges from disposal (land, air) should be considered in the
vessels or offshore installations, pipeline discharges light of a comparative risk assessment involv-
from coasts or cities, wastes discharged into rivers and ing both dumping and the alternatives.
out to sea, or placement of matter for a purpose other
than disposal. Discharges of mine tailings into marine Concern has been expressed by Parties to the London
waters are not “dumping” and therefore not under Convention and Protocol and by UNEP-GPA regarding
the direct jurisdiction of the London Convention or the adverse impacts upon marine waters from marine
Protocol, except for the overall objective of protecting and riverine discharge of mine tailings. The objective
the marine environment from all sources of pollution. of the two conventions is control of wastes and other
matter that is dumped from vessels into marine waters;
the overall objective of the London Convention and the
London Protocol is to protect and preserve the marine
environment from all sources of pollution. The objective
of UNEP Global Programme of Action is the protection
of the marine environment from land-based activities.
26
Edward Kleverlaan, Head, Office for the London Convention/
Protocol and Ocean Affairs (OLCP&OA), IMO.
Parties to the London Convention and Protocol and this workshop is the first step by GESAMP to
(Figure 43) are in agreement that there is a need for a undertake a global assessment to produce a UN-wide
comprehensive, global understanding of the issue, and view of marine disposal of mine-tailings. The initial
that international guidance and/or codes of conduct effort would be assessment of the impacts of mine
could be developed on environmental management tailings discharges into marine waters and an identi-
of marine disposal of mine wastes in order to pro- fication of the gaps in scientific understanding. That
tect the marine environment. Other interested entities effort would inform the policy discussion regarding the
include UNEP, IAEA, UNDP, UNIDO, and UNESCO- development of international guidance or best manage-
IOC. GESAMP concluded that it warrants attention, ment practices.
Figure 43 Parties to the London Convention and Protocol in plenary session

at IMO Headquarters in London, England
5.2 Current approaches, limitations and The Ramu Nickel Story

future needs in DSTP risk assessment:
Since 1999, the proposal for DSTP had been contro-
experiences from the Ramu Nickel versial with reports highlighting concerns particularly
challenge in Papua New Guinea27 with El Niño/La Niña induced upwelling that occurs on
decadal cycles and potential risks from upwelling hard
Introduction
to determine through current risk assessment prac-
tices. Indeed, the original Department of Conservation
Mining makes an important contribution to the econ-
approval in 2000 was contingent upon:
omy of many developing tropical regions. Many mines
in these regions have island geographies and tend to “…the results of further oceanographic studies
look at the marine environment as a depository for mine to determine, with great accuracy, the base of
waste. The risk of pollution from Deep-sea Tailings oceanic upwelling in the vicinity of the DSTP
Placement (DSTP) in the Coral Triangle region (a global outfall at Basamuk and a recommendation on
hotspot of biodiversity) is unprecedented. Experience whether the proposed depth of the DSTP out-
shows that this method of tailings disposal can have fall should be varied.”
unexpected consequences for the environment and for
local communities near discharge sites. Furthermore, Later in 2000, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of PNG
in the case of Ramu Nickel in Papua New Guinea commissioned the Minerals Policy Institute to under-
(PNG), the DSTP discharge site is far removed from the take an independent review of aspects of the Ramu
mine site where positive benefits to the economies of Nickel Environmental Plan 1999. The fundamental find-
communities are most prevalent. Local coastal coming was:
munities have the potential to be burdened with much “there can be no doubt that disturbance on the
of the risk but few benefits of such mining and waste scale of a Submarine Tailings Disposal opera-
disposal operations. Figure 44 shows the Ramu Nickel tion will have significant biological impact.”
processing facility.
27
Amanda Reichelt-Brushett, Marine Ecology Research Centre,
Southern Cross University, Lismore NSW, Australia 2480.
Figure 44 Ramu Nickel in Papua New Guinea. Credit: www.ramunico.com
Despite further oceanographic studies never being In 2010, legal action was taken by 1,085 landowners
completed, and the mine operation being sold to (Figure 45) to grant a permanent injunction to prevent a
a Chinese consortium in 2007, the Director of the deep-sea tailing programme in the Bismark Sea.
Environment issued an Environmental Permit which
allowed the construction of infrastructure and disposal
of waste to the ocean. This resulted in a massive com-
munity outcry and in 2008 the Papua New Guinea
Government commissioned a review of DSTP in PNG
from the Scottish Association of Marine Science with
financial support from the 8th European Development
Funding Initiative. Furthermore, the ecotoxicological
test methods used to assess the risk of contamination
and toxicity associated with DSTP were limited and
lacked relevance to the ecosystems at risk. Ecotoxicity
testing is a tool used in the multiple lines of evidence
approach to assessing risk. Over the approval cycle for
the Ramu Nickel DSTP, several sets of toxicity test were
completed (1998, 2007, 2008). None were on deep-sea
species because these test methods had not yet been
developed and few were on species found in the trop-
ics. Furthermore, test temperatures were not relevant
to tropical deep water or tropical shallow waters. The
extent of the limitation is summarized below.
• All tests either 0.45µm or 0.22µm filtered slur-
ries.
Figure 45 Protests over the proposed
• All tests < 72-hour exposure time.
DSTP in Madang
• All test temperatures 14-21˚C.
The case was lost in 2011 although it was noted by
• All static (no static renewal or flow through). the presiding judge, His Honour Mr. Justice David
• Sample integrity compromised in some stud- Cannings, that:
ies (transport of filtrates) resulted in loss of dis- “likely serious environmental harm to the
solved contaminated load probably through Astrolabe Bay and the plaintiffs are coastal
adsorption to the wall of storage containers. people who depend on the sea for mainte-
• No sediment or pore water toxicity tests were nance of their livelihood and way of life.
ever completed even though these were rec- I therefore feel obliged to state that my consid-
ommended in sub-consultant reports. ered opinion as a Judge, having heard exten-
• No tests were completed on elutriates or fines sive evidence on the likely environmental effect
associated with plumes and plume sheering. of the DSTP and made findings of fact on that
subject, is that the approval of the DSTP and
its operation has been and will be contrary to
National Goal No 4.
It amounts to an abuse and depletion of Papua Clearly legal challenges or frameworks, such as the
New Guinea’s natural resources and environ- UNEP or the London Convention and Protocol, are lim-
ment – not their conservation – for the collec- ited in their ability to manage or applicability to DSTP.
tive benefit of the People of Papua New Guinea
Current Status Ramu NiCo
and for the benefit of future generations, to
discharge into a near-pristine sea (a widely rec- In 2011, tailing disposal into the ocean commenced.
ognized hotspot of biodiversity), mine tailings The 135 km slurry pipeline crosses many unstable
at a rate of 5 million tonnes of solids and 58.9 slopes travelling from the mine site to the shore of
million cubic metres of tailings liquor per year. Astrolabe Bay (Wang and Shou, n.d.). The DSTP waste
It constitutes unwise use of our natural resour- pipe extends 450 m from shore to the 150 m isobath
ces and environment, particularly in and on the where the slopes are fairly gentle: about 12˚ or less
(Figure 46). The tailings current is expected to con-
seabed and in the sea.
tinuously flow to the bottom of the Basumuk Canyon
It amounts to a breach of our duty of trust for at 1500 m depth (Wang and Shou, n.d.). Basamuk
future generations for this to happen. It is a Canyon is located 40 km due SE of Madang, PNG,
course of action that shows deafness to the call at the eastern side of Astrolabe Bay. Environmental
of the People through Directive Principle 4(2) to assessment is conducted annually. Recent studies by
conserve and replenish our sacred and scenic Dr. Mana at the University of Papua New Guinea as part
marine environment in Astrolabe Bay. of the MADEEP 2014 deep-sea cruise in Basamuk Bay
showed that red tailings were found in four canyons far
It puts other coastal waters of Madang Province exceeding the predicted deposition area. The highest
at risk. Inadequate protection has been given to density of red tailings in the water column was found at
our valued fish and other marine organisms.” 560 m and in suspension.
Figure 46 Ramu Nickel DSTP and impacted submarine canyons
The joint venture (Ramu NiCo) in 2014, reported its first Risk assessment limitations for DSTP
operating cash surplus of US $44 million, after capital
expenditure of US $23 million. In 2015, throughput is Much of the following text refers to Reichelt-
expected to increase to 83%, and reach full capacity Brushett (2012) and further context can be gained from
in 2016. reading this publication.
Below ordinary SCUBA diver depths (~40 m), under- Conclusions and Recommendations
standing of the impacts of pollution and sedimentation
Risk assessment of DSTP proposals is limited by cur-
is minimal (e.g. Madin et al, 2004). Understanding of
rent methodologies that do not always translate to a
even shallow water systems is limited by logistics,
realistic assessment of risk specific to deep-sea envi-
accessibility and funding. While some efforts are
ronments. Nor do they account for the lack of ability
being made to develop standard ecotoxicological test
to manage the risk of failure. The physicality of large
species for tropical marine environments (e.g. Lee et
volumes of solid materials being uncontrollably redis-
al., 2007; Codi King et al., 2008; Stauber et al., 2008;
tributed in the marine environment is of concern, and
Howe et al., 2012, 2014a, 2014b, 2014c) few studies
evidence from the Ramu Nickel experience suggests
have considered deep-sea organisms as test species
that the extent of dispersal is hard to predict.
for ecotoxicology (e.g. Black et al., 2015) noting how-
ever that questions of effects of temperature and pres- Assessment practices are often limited by budgets
sure have been explored to some degree (e.g. Cottin et and timeframes, and the development of relevant
al., 2012; Morris et al., 2015). risk assessment methods can be limited. Alternative
approaches to tailings disposal, such as paste pro-
The ecosystems at risk during DSTP can be misrepre-
duction, should be seriously considered but are often
sented as much focus is placed on the expected final
presented as uneconomical, yet reported mine profits
resting place of the tailing rather than the continuum
suggest otherwise. As part of the current framework for
of impact down the continental slope and potential
risk assessment, there is no allowance for considering
impact of tailings transport from upwelling into naturally
impacts from multiple mines or impacts from multiple
very clear waters. There is a lack of recognition of the
stressors from a single mine. Such a challenge can be
biodiversity and uniqueness of the continental slope;
noted for all manner of waste disposal activities and
notably there are abundant invertebrates, for every
has resulted in major environmental damage (e.g. deg-
hour of sampling effort, seven new species of fish are
radation of river systems through inputs from catch-
found, and new behaviours and new ecology have
ment activities).
been discovered in the Rebreather Zone (50-250 m)
(Pyle, 2000-2001). Future ecotoxological considerations require (see also
Reichelt-Brushett, 2012):
The suggestion that active earthquake areas around
PNG create a high risk of dam failure for tailings storage • Development of standard sediment and aquat-
on land is often used as a reason to support DSTP but ic toxicity tests using species from deeper
this argument is also relevant to the risk of underwater water;
earthquakes and tailings redistribution throughout the
• Use of the established methods to compare
marine environment. This highlights the importance of
with new and relevant ones;
understanding the interactions between deeper waters
and shallow water environments. Enhanced turbidity is • Use of suitable test temperatures;
of particular concern in coral reef environments where • Tests on different exposure pathways need to
even small changes in turbidity can reduce coral health be understood;
and the complexity of coral communities.
• Development of tests on how to assess the
When the toxicity of contaminants on organisms is impacts of fines (particularly in clear oligotro-
investigated, consideration should not only be made phic waters);
of the concentrations that have lethal consequences
but also concentrations of pollutants that can cause • Challenges of dealing with pressure in toxicity
the dysfunction of important developmental stages of tests to be resolved;
organisms including fertilization, larval development, • Expansion of taxonomic range of test species;
metamorphosis, settlement, reproduction, symbiosis, and
growth and behaviour. If these developmental stages
• Inclusion of chronic studies with variable
are interrupted in a particular species, then the species
exposure regimes/scenarios.
itself will have a limited future.
On a final note, managing the lifecycle of resources
Very little is known about trace metal concentra-
is now a relatively common practice for extractive
tions in deep-sea organisms and their responses
industries, and in this scheme reuse can become part
to changes in environmental conditions (Koschinsky
of the economic viability of an industry (e.g. Schiels
et al., 2003). Bioaccumulation studies on deep-sea
and Ellis, 2008). The lifecycle management of wastes,
organisms are hampered by the limited taxonomic infor-
including tailings, should also be considered a prior-
mation, limited understanding of the relevance of vari-
ity. In the past, tailings have been reworked when new
ous uptake pathways, costs, logistics and resources.
extractive technologies become available. If DSTP is
Bioaccumulation in marine biota is of serious concern
used, then there is very limited capacity to re-mine the
and has been found to occur with terrestrially derived
tailings.
organic compounds in deep-sea cephalopods (Unger
et al., 2008) and deep-sea fish species (Mormede and
Davies, 2003; and Storelli et al., 2007).
5.3 Environmental impact assessment, operates at ~450 m above sea level, and ~10 km from
permitting and monitoring process for the South Coast. The ores mined contain an average
of 0.53% copper and 0.4 per ton (g/t) gold. The mine
DSTP in Indonesia: the Batu Hijau Project28 processes approximately 130,000 tons of ore per day
The Batu Hijau copper/gold mine, operated by PT and became fully operational by the year 2000. Tailings
Newmont Nusa Tenggara, is located in the south- management at the mine includes a deep-sea tailings
western part of Sumbawa Island, Indonesia. The mine placement (DSTP) system that discharges tailings
through a pipeline via an outfall located at a depth
28
Stuart Simpson (CSIRO) and Jorina Waworuntu (PT Newmont of 125 m at the head of the submarine Senunu Canyon
Nusa Tenggara). (Figure 47).
Southwest
Sumbawa
Senunu canyon
Figure 47 Batu Hijau Project, Sumbawa, Indonesia: Deep Sea Tailings Placement (DSTP) at the head of
Senunu Canyon at 125 m depth, which leads into the Lombok Basin at 3,000-4,000 m depth
The environmental impact assessment undertaken burial of benthic organisms, and (iii) a reduced habitat
prior to approval of DSTP evaluated both on-land tail- for demersal fish. Recovery of the pelagic and benthic
ing storage facility (TSF) and DSTP options for tailings ecosystem to pre-operating conditions was predicted
management. On-land impacts were predicted to 2,300 in the plan to occur during the first two years after
ha of forest and agricultural land, and potentially operations cease.
require relocation of > 2,000 people from their com-
Since before DSTP and over the past 15 years of opera-
munities. A high average annual rainfall (> 2,500 mm)
tion, a range of monitoring programmes has been in
and likelihood of earthquakes would make water man-
effect, with the intention of verifying that the DTSP does
agement for TSFs challenging, creating a long-term
not affect inter-tidal ecology and sub-tidal coral reefs
risk of failure. Management of acid-rock drainage
of the coastal areas and the productive shallow waters.
would be important, both ongoing and post-closure.
The monitoring has included tailings volume and physi-
Together with the negative attributes associated with
cal and chemical characteristics of the solid and liquid
TSF options, the final choice of DSTP was influenced
fractions (all daily), and other aspects that may affect
by the close proximity of the deep submarine canyon
tailings quality (weekly and monthly).
near the mine. The Batu Hijau mine is one of the larger
examples of DSTP in the world and deposits tailings Monitoring of the coastal environment in the area of
at the greatest depth. The depth of the main canyon tailings placement and the affected areas includes
increases by approximately 1,000 m within 10 km of the CTD profiles of the seawater column (monthly), seawa-
coast, to > 2,000 m within 20 km of the coast, and to > ter and sediment quality (three-monthly), and various
3,000 m approximately 50 km of the coast. components of the marine ecosystem (plankton com-
munity and benthos, inter-tidal ecosystems, coral reef
The DTSP at Batu Hijau must comply with an
fish community, sub-tidal corals, and fish, including
Environment Management Plan and Environment
metal accumulation in some of these organisms) (six-
Monitoring Plan of Permit Stipulation that approved
or 12-monthly). Figure 48 shows leachate testing on
its commencement in 2000, and was updated in 2010
tailings and liquid toxicity testing on tailings. Numerous
and 2015. The environmental management objectives
technical supporting and validation studies have been
were to avoid impacts to highly productive components
conducted to assess and continuously improve the
of the ecosystem, such as coral reefs, mangroves, sur-
performance of the system, including deep-sea stud-
face waters and fisheries, and confinement of impacts
ies (tracking the tailings footprint and refining models,
to areas of low biological productivity. In the vicinity
water column suspended solids), Due diligence studies
of the DSTP outfall and within the Senunu Canyon,
(to independently verify compliance with permits and
the management plan predicted significant adverse
evaluate new monitoring objectives), and various highly
impacts from the DSTP on the marine ecosystem in the
specialized studies (e.g. tailings recolonization and
form of: (i) reduction in seawater quality due to elevated
managing variability associated with tailings properties
turbidity and dissolved copper concentrations, (ii)
that influence dissolved copper release).
Figure 48 Toxicity testing on mine tailings at Batu Hijau
Monitoring and supporting studies confirm that the layers remaining high, chlorophyll concentrations in the
environmental management objectives are being met, range consistent with typical phytoplankton popula-
and the majority of the tailings deposition is observed tions, and metal concentrations in tissues of demersal
to occur at depths greater than 3,000 m and at 50 fish and filter-feeding organisms with the coastal zone
to 100 km from the coast. The tailings sedimentation being similar to reference sites. To some extent, the
area is larger than that predicted at the time of com- tailings deposition has impacts on the macrobenthic
mencement, with the main tailings footprint being and meiobenthic populations, and this was predicted
observed further to the east than predicted, but not in the management plan.
above 1,000 m depth. Tailings plumes are regularly
observed, particularly near the bottom of Senunu Overall, the monitoring and supporting studies are
Canyon, and remain below 120 m depth and disperse providing excellent information on the DSTP opera-
within the deeper waters (Figure 49). There are no indi- tion and risks posed, and continued improvements are
cations of significant impacts on the pelagic ecosys- being made to the scope of the monitoring programme
tems, with light transmission within the surface water and methods for assessing the broader DSTP footprint
within the environment.
Figure 49 The density flow current of mine tailings is in dark grey, and the areas
of accumulated deposits are shown in red
The Batu Hijau DSTP continues to be evaluated against zone and no impact to coral reefs, beaches or other
objectives that are intended: (i) to ensure that the tail- coastal attributes; (iii) to avoid impacts on commer-
ings flow down the canyon and away from the coast cial and subsistence fisheries; and (iv) to confine the
and that the tailings are confined below both the sur- impacts to areas of very low biological activity. With
face mixed layer and photic zone; (ii) to ensure there active mining due to be completed within 15 to 20
will be no impact to the biologically active near-surface years, environmental studies are increasingly being
directed towards optimizing the closure criteria and
final site management plans. This includes processing
and/or remediation of stockpiles of lower-grade ores,
closure of the DSTP, management of the mine pit and
site waters, and various forms of in situ rehabilitation.
Government and stakeholders (community and sci-
entific experts) participate in inspections and review
routine monitoring data and supporting studies.
5.4 Deep sea tailings placement in

Papua New Guinea, environmental impact
assessment, monitoring and regulation29
Papua New Guinea (PNG) is a mineral dependent
economy. In 2009, PNG mines produced 63 tonnes of
gold, 154,000 tonnes of copper and 75 tonnes of silver
to contribute K7.5 billion to the PNG economy which
represented 62% of PNG’s total export receipts in that
year.
PNG’s aim is to promote a healthy and sustainable min-

eral industry and provide a regulatory environment that
maximizes mining opportunities and minimizes impact
on the environment to ensure optimum benefits for the Figure 50 Following country policies, the general
people of PNG. guidelines should be used to determine whether DSTP
is a feasible option. If so, then site specific guidelines
Deep Sea Tailings Placement (DTSP) has been used as should be used as the basis of development, and once
a waste option in a number of countries worldwide and the EIA is completed, then permit conditions
lately there has been a drive to gather more relevant can be established
scientific information of the impact of DSTP on the
marine environment of PNG. This information has led to In the context of international best practice, the gen-
the development of new guidelines in PNG (Figure 50) eral guidelines for the use of DSTP should consider an
for the use of DSTP. The increase in understanding of examination of:
the effects of anthropogenic disturbance on the deep
1. Initial mine planning/development;
ocean and developing regulations which have been
obtained from the study of DSTP and the advancement 2. Mining operations, including monitoring;
of smart observation technology is also applicable to
sea-bed mining. 3. Future mine closure plans; and
4. Post-mining monitoring.
The main aim of the guidelines should be to minimize

Tracy Shimmield, Managing Director, SAMS Research
29 the impact on the marine environment while achieving
Services Ltd (SAMS—Scottish Association for Marine Science). sustainable resource development.
Specific guidelines for each mine site should consider:

• The ore being mined;
• The processes and chemicals used;

• The physical and chemical constituents of the tailings;
• The amount of tailings being discharged;
• The physical oceanography of the marine environment into which the tailings will be discharged;
• The bathymetry of the marine environment into which the tailings will be discharged;
• The biodiversity of the marine environment into which the tailings will be discharged;
• The land to ocean transfer that takes place, i.e. is there a large fresh water and sediment input to the area;
• The fishing activity that takes place in the sea surrounding the mine;
• The social, economic and cultural activities that may be affected by the discharge; and
• The integrity of the discharge pipe and mixing tank including the consideration of the engineering required
together with emergency contingency plans.
In addition the guidelines and legislation pertaining to of 100,000 tons of rutile concentrate and 100,000 tons
DSTP will be pertinent to deep-sea bed mining and the of garnet for a period of approximately 50 years. The
operation and environmental monitoring plans must be production will lead to a total of 35 million tons of waste
developed to ensure that there is sufficient and timely rock and 250 million tons of tailings. They will place the
monitoring of the near and far field areas affected by waste rock in a land deposit and the tailings in a fjord at
such operations. a depth of approximately 300 metres. The fjord deposit
will cover an area of 3 km2 and reach an elevation of a
maximum 150 metres from the seabed.
5.5 Granting the permit for a rutile mine
The EIA was finalized in 2009. In 2010, the Directorate
with tailings placed in a fjord30
of Fisheries raised a formal objection to the zoning
A permit pursuant to the Pollution Control Act for a new plan, based on possible effects on the ecosystem from
rutile mine (TiO2) on the west coast of Norway was the planned tailings disposal in the fjord.
issued by the Ministry of Climate and Environment on
5 June 2015. The permitting process started in 2008.
Key elements in the application process
Before the permit could be granted, the company
Nordic Mining needed approval from the municipalities In addition to the effects from planned land-based
involved for a zoning plan, including both the land- activities, effects on the fjord system were crucial. To
based activities and the placement of tailings in the be able to assess these effects, properties of the tail-
Førdefjord. An environmental impact assessment (EIA) ings and the process chemicals were examined. Due
pursuant to the Planning and Building Act was pre- to the objection from the Directorate of Fisheries, the
pared and the company applied for a permit pursuant company undertook further surveys on the marine
to the Pollution Control Act. biodiversity.
Before activities can start, the company also needs To be able to predict possible drift of particles from the
an approval from The Directorate of Mining based on tailings disposal, the company engaged contractors to
the Minerals Act, and a permit from the Norwegian conduct extensive studies of currents in the fjord. The
Water Resources and Energy Directorate for the use of contractors also carried out modelling of the currents
fresh water. and expected spreading of particles.
The project plan and EIA/applications process Furthermore, alternatives to the planned marine
disposal were considered. These alternatives were
The company has estimated an annual production respectively a large dam deposit or placement in a
freshwater lake. Alternative use of tailings for other
30
Harald Sørby, Norwegian Environment Agency; Glenn purposes and the use of backfilling has also been dis-
Storbråten, Norwegian Environment Agency. cussed (Figure 51).
Figure 51 The hashed area is the selected STP site. The circles show the other
alternatives considered for placement
Marine biodiversity being a flat bottom with a relatively steep wall as a
result of glacial erosion, this part of the fjord will have a
Tailings will smother 3 km2 of the seabed and the slope of 5°. At the highest point, the deposit will elevate
bottom-dwelling organisms in this area (Figure 52). The the bottom of the fjord by approximately 150 metres.
bottom habitat will become physically altered. From
Figure 52 Placement of tailings in the Førdefjord by rutile mine
The fact that there is a lack of knowledge about marine Conclusion

biodiversity is challenging. When assessing the impact
of sea disposal of the tailings, particular attention was Issuing a permit pursuant to the Pollution Control Act
paid to four endangered species found in the area. Blue is based on an integrated approach. Hence, the permit
ling (Molva dypterygia), spurdog (Squalus acanthias), is based on an evaluation of environmental disadvan-
European eel (Anguilla anguilla) and rose fish (Sebastes tages held up against the positive effect for society.
norvegicus) are all found in the vicinity of the planned The knowledge base is fundamental. In this case, we
deposit. We have considered the effect of the STD for have concluded that with the given permit conditions,
these species in light of the preservation of the species the positive effect for society balances the negative
and the risk of extinction. Our conclusions are that the environmental impacts.
effect on the local population is negative, but the effect
on the population in a national and global context will
be marginal. In addition to focusing on these species, 5.6 Mining and mine tailings in Peru:
we have assessed the potential impact on Atlantic past and present31
salmon (Salmo salar) and the local population of cod
(Gadus morhua). In our view, it is not very likely that Mining in Peru is ancestral, having influenced the liveli-
these species will be directly affected, but uninten- hood of most pre-Columbian cultures as well as the
tional spreading of fine particles in the fjord may cause Inca Empire. Several archaeological sites throughout
problems. time and territory have produced metal artefacts, jewel-
lery, and tools that attest to the mining and metallurgi-
Permit conditions cal skills developed by these peoples.
Thus, Peru is considered to be a mining country, with

The permit conditions include concentration limits for reserves in copper, gold, silver, zinc, lead, tin, and
particles in the fjord. These limits apply at the border iron, to name the most common (see Table 2). Mining
of the deposit area and shall ensure that spreading has become a pillar of the Peruvian economy and
outside the deposit area is minimized so that negative has attracted the presence of several international
effects of the tailings deposition are kept at a minimum. mining corporations that operate world-class mines
The concentration of particles shall not exceed 2 mg/l (Figure 53).
40 metres above the point of discharge and 3 mg/l at
the edge of the planned disposal area. Deposition of
particles (sedimentation rate) is limited to 3 mm per
year at the edge of the disposal area. To provide infor-
mation on the effects of deposition, the permit also
includes a requirement to monitor before, during, and 31
Carlos Aranda, Sociedad Nacional de Minería, Petróleo y
after tailings deposition. Energía del Perú National.
Figure 53 Open pit mine and processing facilities in Peru. Credit: Carlos Aranda
Table 2 Peru metal reserves. Source: USGS (estimated data to 2014)
World % world Latin America

Ranking Reserves Ranking
Copper 3 9.7% 2
Gold 7 3.8% 1
Silver 3 18.6% 2
Zinc 3 12.6% 1
Lead 4 8.0% 1
Tin 3 1.6% 1
However, its mining potential has hardly been tapped Recent technical and environmental regulations for
with about 3.7% of the total available area to develop tailings impoundments reflect the concern of both the
mining activities being used for extraction or explora- government and industry to prevent the occurrence
tion. of tailings impoundment failures, which may result in
damage affecting not only rural populations, agricul-
In Peru, mining is carried out in underground or open tural lands, cattle or human fatalities, but generate
pit operations, the former dedicated to mining veins long-term conflict with rural communities. Thus, the
or deep deposits, and the latter for disseminated industry has introduced technology to enhance physi-
or superficial deposits. Most mining operations are cal and chemical stability of such impoundments and
located in the Andes Mountains, more than 3,000 government has highly trained officials performing
metres above sea level. Some operations – and in some frequent supervision to ensure proper tailings manage-
cases facilities – date back to the beginning of the 20th ment.
century, rendering low efficiency compared to today's
technology. Since the 1990s, most old operations Historically, there have only been two mining opera-
have been modernized, striving to improve efficiency tions (copper and iron) in Peru that disposed of their
in water and energy use, as well as reduction in waste tailings in coastal waters (Figure 55). In approximately
generation. 1996, the Peruvian Government enacted environmen-
tal regulations for mining that required tailings to be
Because of geographical and climate constraints, disposed of on land and with strict criteria. Coastal or
facilities such as tailings impoundments (Figure 54), underwater disposal (including ocean) of tailings could
have to be well thought out. Impoundment stability is only be carried out as a last resort and only if clear
paramount given those constraints, so construction justification was presented. As a result, during the early
details, as well as dewatering management and risk 2000s, both mining operations complied and modified
assessment, follow strict regulations and standards. their tailings disposal systems to on-land facilities.
However, accidents are not unknown and Peru has had
its share throughout decades of mining.
Figure 54 Tailings storage facility in Peru
Figure 55 Past practice: discharge of mine tailings on the coastline in Peru
In addition, mining companies are required to submit is made as compatible as possible to its surround-
a Mining Closure Plan for their operations and facilities ings. The coastal areas where tailings were disposed
and secure an appropriate financial bond. This Plan is of by the two operations mentioned above have been
updated every five years. It includes closure of tailings reclaimed and, at least in one case (Ite Bay), it has
facilities, whether on land or underwater. The bond is become a large wetland and bird biodiversity hotspot.
released only after the company is able to demonstrate As a matter of fact, it is the largest coastal wetland in
human and animal safety, prevent future environmental Pacific South America.
concerns (physical and chemical stability), and the area
Underwater tailings disposal is still practiced in Peru, Marine consents are decided upon under the legal
but only in continental lentic waterbodies. No permits requirements of New Zealand's Exclusive Economic
have been issued for ocean underwater tailings dis- Zone and Continental Shelf (Environmental Effects)
posal systems. Act, by the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA).
Marine Consent applicants must provide the EPA with
This progress, notwithstanding, does not include an information on how their proposed activities relate to
environmental situation that has become a national a set of criteria, including ones concerning potential
curse: illegal mining. The areas affected – to the point environmental effects. Applicants for a consent must
of becoming environmental disasters – show a high include in their Environmental Assessment a descrip-
degree of deforestation, encroachment of barren lands tion of the current state of the area, identify any envi-
and disappearance of biodiversity, as well as severe, ronmental effects of the activity, and specify measures
health-risk levels of mercury, hydrocarbons and lime intended to avoid, remedy or mitigate adverse effects.
in water and soil. There is no doubt that the nega-
tive environmental effect of illegal mining reaches the CRP and TTR proposed to mine the seabed using dif-
Pacific and Atlantic coasts through rivers draining into ferent methods and mining strategies, each deemed
these areas. suitable to the particular environment and resource,
and designed to minimize impact to the environment.
Although the Peruvian Government has taken strong Both companies also developed adaptive management
and decisive steps to close down these areas and plans that included measures to mitigate the environ-
minimize negative environmental effects, the damage mental effects of mining.
to natural areas is extensive and amounts of chemicals
dumped into waterways in only the Madre de Dios The reasons that the EPA did not grant either company
region results in more than 25% of rivers having high a consent to mine are listed below.
levels of pollution. In some instances, the government
• Uncertainty about the receiving environment
of Brazil requested the Peruvian Government to try to
and the adverse effects of mining on the envi-
prevent mercury from being used in this type of mining
ronment and existing interests (e.g. fishing).
(alluvial), as fish in Brazilian waters showed high levels
of this element. • The Decision-Making Committee (DMC)
appointed by the EPA was required to favour
As a known mining country and having attracted most caution and environmental protection.
of the international mining corporations, Peru is set to
continue growing as a world mineral producer. Its min- • Mining would cause significant and perma-
ing industry environmental practices are held account- nent adverse effects on the existing benthic
able through strict regulation as well as continuous environment.
supervision by increasingly well-trained government • Environmental effects could not be mitigated
officials. Through the modernization of old facilities, it by any set of conditions or adaptive man-
is at the forefront of mining technology applications. agement regime that might be reasonably
This includes tailings disposal systems that use less imposed.
water and are disposed of on land. Underwater tailings
disposal systems are permitted by the government only • A lack of clarity about the extent of economic
as a last resort. benefit to New Zealand outside of royalties
and taxes and the economic impact of the
As with any technological advancement and regula- adverse effects. The economic benefit to New
tory evolution, science needs to be at the centre of Zealand of the proposal would be modest at
discussions, not allowing unharnessed application of best.
precautions that limit the possibility of a solution for • Uncertainties in the scope and significance
environmental mining issues. This view has helped of the potential adverse environmental effects
Peru to best manage and dispose of mining tailings. and those on existing interests (such as fishing
and the iwi (Maori) population).
5.7 Proposed seabed mining off New • The conditions proposed by the applicant
Zealand: what would it entail, and why did (including the adaptive management approach)
were not sufficiently certain or robust for the
the first applications for mining consents application to be approved given the uncer-
fail?32 tainty and inadequacy of the information pre-
sented about the potential adverse effects.
New Zealand's marine environment is rich in mineral
resources with economic potential. Exploratory and • The application did not meet the sustainable
prospecting permits have been issued for most of management purpose of EEZ Act, including
these minerals (except cobalt-rich crusts and manga- that the DMC was not satisfied that the life-
nese nodules). Mining permits have been issued for supporting capacity of the environment would
phosphorite nodules and ironsands to Chatham Rock be safeguarded.
Phosphate (CRP) and Trans-Tasman Resources (TTR),
respectively. However, before commercial-scale mining
can begin, a marine consent is required.
32
Ashley A. Rowden and Alison MacDiarmid, National insti-
tute of Water & Atmospheric Research, Private Bag 14-901,
Wellington, New Zealand.
6 WORKSHOP FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Findings, conclusions, and recommendations provided Marine organisms normally used for toxicity testing are
in this section were derived from the individual sum- from the upper stratified layers of marine water, not the
mary papers, the speakers' PowerPoint presentations, deep sea. While no standardized whole-sediment tox-
and extensive discussions during the workshop. An icity tests exist that utilize deep-sea organisms, tests
immense amount of information and data were pre- that use surrogate organisms are generally considered
sented, and readers are referred to the summary of appropriate for assessing contaminant bioavailability
each speaker's presentation in this document and and risks or toxicity. Specific gaps in toxicity testing
to each speaker's PowerPoint presentation on the were identified:
GESAMP website at www.gesamp.org, for additional
• Standard sediment and aquatic toxicity tests
details.
developed that use species from deeper water
would be useful. Use established tests to
compare with new ones;
6.1 Evaluation of potential impacts of
marine disposal of mine tailings • Suitable test temperatures need to be used,
and the challenges for dealing with pressure
The most recognized impacts of DSTP on benthic in toxicity tests should be addressed;
organisms involve direct smothering, changes in the
• Different exposure pathways need to be
benthic habitat, increases in suspended sediment, and
understood, including exposure to metals in
exposure to contaminants. The first two of these are
the fine particulate material in mine tailings;
predictable impacts that remain for the entire DSTP
operation. The occurrence (location or intensity) of • Expand taxonomic range to include marine
suspended sediments and associated metals and species relevant to tailing distribution poten-
metalloids is less predictable, and significant chal- tial, and include chronic studies with variable
lenges remain regarding the assessment of the fate exposure regimes/scenarios; and
and impacts of sub-surface tailings plumes at all water • Total metal concentrations in sediments
depths. impacted by mine tailings can often appear
Evaluation of the potential environmental risks of mine alarmingly high; however, a large portion of the
tailings discharges to deep marine waters should metals within tailings exist in highly mineral-
include assessment of: ized forms that are less bioavailable to organ-
isms when compared to metals introduced to
• Toxicity of the tailings; the environment from other common anthro-
• Impact on seabed; pogenic sources.
• Impact on the pelagic zone during the produc- Water column guidelines do not exist for all con-
tion period; and taminants, are limited to continuous dissolved chronic
exposure, and mostly based on single-species data.
• Impact on biodiversity and ecosystem func-
Methods are not well developed for the deep sea, as
tion in the receiving environment.
they rely on surrogate species. Other aspects include:
The evaluation should also consider the influence upon: • Unknown influence of deep-water environ-
• Marine resources, e.g. fisheries; mental conditions on bioavailability;
• Vulnerable ecosystems; • Plumes of fine particulates affecting diet of

filter feeders;
• Potential redistribution of tailings; and
• Uncertainty in guidelines application and fluc-
• Impact of technical failure, e.g. pipeline frac- tuating exposure; and
tures.
• Development of guidelines based on ecologi-
There is a need to characterize ecosystem functions, cal change (DNA-based techniques).
e.g. what are they and what is their relationship with
biodiversity, and the importance of habitat-providing For all assessments, there is a need to consider mul-
species (e.g. cold-water corals, sponge fields). Key tiple lines of evidence (LOE) in order to inform com-
information needed to be developed during in situ or munities, governments, and industries of risks posed
laboratory studies includes: to the environment. For many deep-sea assessments,
there will be a need to develop new and specialized
• Toxicity of deposited tailings to local fauna; tools to provide new LOE for assessments (e.g. eco-
• Sensitivity of fauna to suspended sediment genomics-based tools to provide new LOEs for ecol-
loading; ogy - community structure, function and connectivity).
There will also remain a need to utilize existing tools
• Impact of sedimentation on benthic fauna; and that are well developed for near-shore coastal environ-
• Recovery dynamics of benthic fauna. ments, as these can also provide useful information on
environmental risks.
The ecosystems targeted both for deep-sea min- The impact of these phenomena on a smaller spatial
ing33 and deep-sea tailing disposal (placement) largely scale (e.g. submarine canyons) or on a shorter time
remain poorly studied in terms of the impact on and scale (e.g. inertial oscillations, internal waves) remains
recovery of biological communities. There is much to unknown.
be gained from combining information and expertise
from mechanistic studies in shallow and deep water, as To understand the possible impact of DSTP in the Peru-
fundamental ecological patterns in faunal communities Chile Current System, from the physical oceanography
such as lifestyles or feeding modes or benthic faunal viewpoint, understanding is needed of the physical
colonization processes are similar for shallow and dynamics of smaller areas (e.g. submarine canyons)
deep waters. The effects of copper on infaunal abun- and how smaller regions are affected by processes on
dance, distributions, biodiversity, species tolerances, a larger scale including:
and body burden information are potentially relevant for
The spatial and temporal variability of the dominant
the deep sea where mine tailing can affect larger areas
physical process;
and a wider range of habitats and ecosystems.
• The temporal variability of horizontal and ver-
Risk assessments of DSTP proposals are generally tical gradients of currents and physical and
limited by current methodologies that do not always chemical properties of the water column (e.g.
translate to a realistic assessment of risk specific to gradients of temperature, salinity, density,
deep-sea environments. For example: and oxygen);
• Limited knowledge about the abiotic and • The characteristics of the intra-seasonal, sea-
biological/ecological characteristics of most sonal and interannual fluctuations of currents
deep-sea systems where DSTPs are pro- and physical and chemical properties in the
posed, before baseline surveys are conduct- smaller area;
ed, limits the ability to estimate risks; • The effect of local forcings (e.g. coastal wind)
• They do not account for the lack of ability to and remote (e.g. coastal trapped waves, and
manage the risk of failure; Rossby waves) on currents and physical and
chemical properties of the water column;
• The physicality of large volumes of solid mate-
rials being uncontrollably redistributed in the • The dynamics of internal waves and their role
marine environment and the extent of disper- in the mixing processes in the study region;
sal is hard to predict; and and
• They need to assess impacts to the deep-sea • The impact of internal waves on currents
ecosystem and its relationship to the produc- and physical and chemical properties of the
tive upper coastal waters, i.e. is there a serious water column.
impact on the commercial or sports fishery or
From the point of view of physical oceanography and
ecosystem services of those coastal waters?
use of DSTP, research activities are needed to obtain
In addition, as part of the current framework for risk in situ and modelling data to fill the knowledge gaps in
assessment, there is generally no allowance for con- the study area, especially the gaps associated with the
sidering impacts from multiple mines or impacts from dynamics of submarine canyons.
multiple stressors from a single mine.
Other influences upon plume modelling and predic-
tions of behaviour of mine tailings include the charac-
teristics of the mine tailings as they are discharged into
6.2 Physical oceanography and tracking
marine waters. Submarine tailings discharges inherit a
plumes several-hour trajectory in pipelines, exerting particular
conditions on the turbulence and, especially, the shear-
Plume models are useful for exploring potential out-
ing of these slurries. Knowledge is needed to iden-
comes, integrating knowledge of multiple disciplines,
tify transport conditions (e.g. pH, solids concentration,
providing a crucial method to link with observations,
additives) suited to minimize the impact of discharges.
biological mechanisms, and ecosystem understanding
Gaps include:
(impacts). Each tailing disposal site is unique, but the
same fundamental processes operate. The building • How are tailings rheology, floc formation and
blocks are in place for an integrated predictive model- subsequent settling affected by seawater?
ling and environmental monitoring system, as practiced • What are the features of aggregate distribution
in the oil and gas extractive industry. after (potentially long) pipeline transport?
Observations and model results have revealed that the • What are the short-term and long-term
Peru-Chile Currents System exhibited a strong variabil- mechanical and physico-chemical responses
ity associated to ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation), of deposited tailings (consolidation, floc integ-
coastal wind, and the interaction between them. This rity)?
variability is related to coastal trapped waves, Rossby • What is the effect of pressure on the above
waves, mesoscale eddies, and upwelling. elements?
• Is it possible to eliminate plume formation
See also the MIDAS Project under the European Commission’s
33 considering other constraints? How?
Framework 7 programme which is evaluating environmental • (If not) what is the relation between aggregate
impacts of deep sea resource exploitation (http://eu-midas.
net). formation and plume features?
• What would be the fate of plumes and sus- trations of metals in both solid and aqueous
pended sediment in light of background cur- phases, including ecotoxic elements such as
rents? What are the local spatiotemporal Cu, Cd, and As.
effects (basin/upper ocean temporal forcing,
seismicity)? Environmental impact studies at the site of DSTP for
the closed mine at Misima, PNG show:
• What are the risks of transboundary (between
neighbouring nations) effects of tailing • Results indicate very clear differences
plumes? between the benthic community of impacted
and non-impacted stations;
• Stations adjacent to the DSTP are very clearly
6.3 Recovery and recolonization impacted by mine tailings;
The deposition process will completely smother • Stations further away from the mine have been
the resident benthic community locally and leave impacted either directly through mine tailings
the benthos devoid of labile organic material. deposition or indirectly through post-depo-
Therefore, an important requirement is to develop strat- sitional resuspension and re-deposition; and
egies that will facilitate maximal faunal recolonization
• Impacted stations show some degree of post-
following mine closure.
impact recolonization.
There are important knowledge gaps in several aspects
At the currently operating mine, Ramu Nickel, PNG,
relevant to recolonization: 1) regional distribution of
SAMS and MPI reviews34 found that:
species; 2) availability of source populations that would
provide the necessary propagules (i.e. eggs, larvae, • Likely upwelling from the prevailing onshore
juveniles and/or dispersing adults) for recolonization; 3) current at depth will inevitably cause some
population connectivity processes (e.g. reproductive fraction of STD material to enter the ocean
patterns and fecundity, larval ecology, larval trans- over a range of depths. This will be trans-
port); 4) the rate of recovery of benthic community ported as patches of turbid water well out of
structure and important ecosystem processes (e.g. the source area; and
sediment mixing) and how these are affected by sedi- • Ecological damage over the wider Astrolabe
ment properties (organic matter, grain size and shape). Bay region will greatly be increased towards
The current data limitations on these issues strongly the North West up to Madang and as far as
limit the predictability of how the benthos will recover, Kar Kar Island. This will clearly have significant
and thus, the development of suitable sediment rehab- biological impact, including adverse impact on
ilitation practices. both shallow and deep water fish.
Another question would be: What is the optimum range The MADEEP 2014 deep-sea oceanographic cruise
of organic material in mine tailings to allow improved in Basamuk Bay (Dr. Ralf Mana UPNG) confirmed the
invertebrate colonization at the end of the life of an earlier predictions:
STP? Tailings likely form a different physical environ-
ment to natural background conditions, which seem • Red tailings were found in the four canyons;
to exert an effect on the colonization process; other and
influences on recolonization may include different grain • The highest density red tailings were at a
sizes and angularities of mine tailings relative to back- depth of 560 m and in suspension.
ground sediment.
At the currently operating mine at Batu Hijau, Indonesia,
the depth of discharge is 125 m at the head of an
6.4 Lessons learned in case studies underwater canyon leading to Lombok Basin at 3,000
Marine disposal of mine tailings to 4,000 m in depth. Comprehensive baselines studies
were conducted from 1994-1996 and the mine was fully
Deep-sea tailings placement has been used as a waste operational in 2000. Since that time, a series of studies
management option in PNG for over 20 years (as well have been conducted:
as in many other parts of the world), with the key aim of • Deep sea studies (tracking tailings footprint
the PNG government to mitigate and manage the envi- and refining models, water column TSS);
ronmental impacts of mining. Exploitation of mineral
• Copper in the water column (spikes due
resources and disposal of mine tailings in the deep-sea
to processing oxidized ore, refinement of
bed will inevitably increase throughout the 21st century.
controlled process sulphidization (CPS) and
At the currently operating mine, Lihir, PNG, which uses blending);
DSTP, environmental impact studies show: • Tailings recolonization (meiofuana more sensi-
• Very large and profound differences in the tive than macrofauna); and
biological assemblages present in impacted • Due diligence studies (2004, 2009, 2015 – to
versus reference stations; independently verify compliance with the per-
• There are still measurable numbers of meio- mit and evaluate new monitoring objectives).
fauna in the surface layers of the impacted
sediment; and 34
Scottish Association of Marine Science, and Minerals Policy
Institute. Pages 22, 43, 46, and 75 MPI Report and page 131
• The sediments contain much higher concen- Final SAMS report.
The general findings of these studies are: • Sustainable management such that the life-
• There are no indications of significant impacts supporting capacity of the environment would
on the pelagic ecosystems, with light trans- be safeguarded.
mission within the surface water layers
remaining high, chlorophyll concentrations in Land disposal of mine tailings
the range consistent with typical phytoplank-
ton populations, and metal concentrations Worldwide, it is estimated that two to five major acci-
in tissues of demersal fish and filter-feeding dents associated with tailing dam failures occur per
organisms with the coastal zone being similar year, and that about 25% of these accidents are related
to reference sites. To some extent, the tailings to extreme meteorological events. However, many
deposition has impacts on the macrobenthic failures go unpublished due to sensitivity and legal
and meiobenthic populations, and this was implications.
predicted in the management plan; and
The frequent tailing spills recently observed in Sinaloa,
• The Batu Hijau DSTP continues to be evalu- Mexico, have shown the need to improve management
ated against objectives that are intended: (i) to practices in the mining industry, as well as the envi-
ensure that the tailings flow down the canyon ronmental regulations, taking into account the role of
and away from the coast and that the tailings sediment management either to retain or to redistribute
are confined below both the surface mixed the metals released by the mine tailings to the aquatic
layer and photic zone; (ii) to ensure there will environment. In Sinaloa it was found that:
be no impact on the biologically active near-
surface zone and no impact on coral reefs, • The public were concerned about the fre-
beaches or other coastal attributes; (iii) to quency of mine tailing failures in the region
avoid impacts on commercial and subsistence (three cases in one year);
fisheries; and (iv) to confine the impacts to • Poor management practices, inadequate reg-
areas of very low biological activity. ulation, and no environmental assessments
In 2015, Norway approved a permit for disposal in are evident; and
Førdefjord (marine waters) for a rutile mine. Key ele- • With climate change and considering that
ments of the permit application process included: most common mine tailing dam accidents are
• Extensive studies of the currents in the fjord – related to meteorological events, mine tailing
modelling and measurements; storage dam failures incidents might increase.
• Alternatives to marine disposal – alternative
use of tailings and alternative sites for dis- 6.5 Discussion regarding best practices
posal;
and guidelines
• Survey of the marine biodiversity in the
fjord; and Development of guidance on best practices for mine
wastes should go beyond traditionally considered con-
• Characteristics of the tailings (heavy metals)
cepts, that is, beyond the strictly engineering aspects
and processing chemicals.
of marine discharge, generally thought of as address-
The conclusion by the Norwegian Environment Agency ing such items as piping materials, depth and angle of
is that issuing a permit pursuant to the Pollution Control discharge, pretreatment (e.g. de-aeration), and den-
Act is based on an integrated approach. Hence, the sity of discharge slurry. Best practices should include
permit is based on an evaluation of environmental appraisal of all practical waste management options
disadvantages held up against the positive effects for and evaluation of opportunities for waste reduction and
society. The knowledge base is fundamental. In this also address the comprehensive list of what data and
case, the conclusion was that with the given permit information need to be generated to prepare environ-
conditions, the positive effects for society outweigh the mental risk assessments for use by decision-makers.
negative environmental impacts.
The workshop identified a general outline of best man-
Lessons from New Zealand's Evaluation of Deep-sea agement practices:
Mining Permit Application were that permits were
Appraisal of all practical waste management options:
denied in the face of multiple uncertainties:
• Uncertainty about the receiving environment • Marine discharge, i.e. in deep waters;
and the significance of adverse effects on • On land storage, i.e. tailings storage
the environment and existing interests (e.g. ponds; and
fishing);
• No mine tailings, i.e. no mine;
• Significant and permanent adverse effects on
the existing benthic environment; • Evaluation of waste reduction, such as
treatment before discharge;
• Whether environmental effects could be miti-
gated; • Evaluation of recycling or reusing wastes;
• Lack of clarity about the extent of economic • Comprehensive baseline survey of proposed
benefit to New Zealand; disposal site and surrounding areas;
• Significance of the potential adverse environ- • Characterization of mine tailings, physical,
mental effects; and chemical, and toxicity;
• Suitable disposal site location (bathymetry, • Transparency and acknowledging what we
physical oceanography, and ecology); know and what we don't know.
• Suitable discharge depth and conditions No global35 regulations or guidelines specifically apply
(no upwelling, subsurface tailings plumes to marine discharge of mine tailings. The only national
and resuspension of deposited tailings); guidelines developed specifically for DSTP have been
• Low productivity environment (i.e. not prepared in PNG. PNG's aim is to promote a healthy
impacting a precious ecosystem); and sustainable mineral industry and provide a regula-
tory environment that maximizes mining opportunities
• Robust ecological risk assessment to and minimizes impact on the environment to ensure
demonstrate low risk of adverse effects optimum benefits for the people of PNG. To meet
to aquatic organisms, i.e. water quality these objectives, PNG has developed guidelines for
and sediment quality; and use of DSTP. The main objectives of the guidelines are
• Advanced monitoring and ongoing to: (1) minimize the impact on the marine environment
improvements to management of waters while achieving sustainable resource development; (2)
at surface and at depth, including plumes; inform and guide the developer/operator; and (3) assist
government agencies to inform policy and regulation.
• Engineering elements of the discharge, the
discharge pipe (e.g. physical safety of the The European Directive 2006/21/EC of the European
35
pipeline from wave action and seismic activ- Parliament and the Council of 15 March 2006 on the
ity), and location; Management of Waste from Extractive Industries and amend-
ing Directive 2004/35/EC. Additionally MTWR BREF, is cur-
• Adaptive management and mitigation proce- rently under review by the EU: Reference Document on Best
dures; and Available Techniques for Management of Tailings and Waste-
Rock in Mining Activities.
The PNG Guidelines require that each mine site consider:

• The ore being mined;
• The processes and chemicals used;
• The physical and chemical constituents of the tailings;
• The amount of tailings being discharged;
• The physical oceanography of the marine environment into which the tailings will be discharged;
• The bathymetry of the marine environment into which the tailings will be discharged;
• The biodiversity of the marine environment into which the tailings will be discharged;
• The land to ocean transfer that takes place, i.e. is there a large fresh water and sediment input to the area;
• The fishing activity that takes place in the sea surrounding the mine;
• The social, economic and cultural activities that may be affected by the discharge; and
• The integrity of the discharge pipe and mixing tank including the consideration of the engineering required
together with emergency contingency plans.
6.6 Other observations The workshop recognized the reality that "this train has
left the station”, coupled with the certainty that min-
Gaps in long-term knowledge about deep marine set- ing will continue, mine tailings will be generated, and
tings are daunting, but the governance weaknesses in a number of locations mine tailings will continue to
are more significant. Many governments in develop- be placed in the sea. Management of these actions to
ing countries lack adequate technical staffs, budgets, minimize effects upon the marine environment is criti-
and political support to effectively oversee land-based cal; this means working toward closing the gaps in sci-
tailings disposal operations; oversight of DSTP opera- entific assessment techniques, and developing advice
tions will be much more complex and costly. DSTP is on best management practices. The other reality is
ongoing around the world and, increasingly, new and that addressing the scientific gaps will take time, effort
existing mining companies will look to marine disposal and huge resources, and that in the interim, decision-
to dispose of their mine tailings. making will necessarily be based upon imperfect sets
No global agency has direct jurisdiction over mine of information and data requiring a precautionary
tailings discharges to marine waters. The workshop approach.
concluded that the London Convention and Protocol
The outcome of the mining process is that mine tailings
should take ownership of the issue working with
need to be managed to the least environmental and
regional bodies and other international entities to pro-
social costs, and therefore all alternatives should be
vide guidance and advice. They recognized that the
considered. Those management options tend to be site
London Convention and Protocol members are obli-
specific including new options for upstream measures,
gated to protect and preserve the marine environment,
especially in terms of changing processes and eventu-
having the expertise and experience in addressing
ally minimizing and treating tailings before disposal.
dumping of wastes into the marine environment.
A proper risk analysis needs to consider costs and Overall, the workshop felt that DSTP could be a viable
benefits. This issue cannot be considered solely on tail- option, but further scientific research is required before
ings placement in the oceans. The costs and benefits it can be judged sustainable. Thus, it is increasingly
analysis needs to include the alternative of land dispos- urgent to understand the processes that drive and
al. To conduct comprehensive assessments on how to maintain deep-sea ecosystems to better assess their
make sustainable decisions, an appropriate institution- resilience and recovery potential, providing sound
al framework is critical. This comprehensive framework scientific knowledge from which to develop robust
that will allow a risk assessment of the cost to land and ecosystem-based management options.
ocean does not exist today. There is an information gap
on how to competently compare risks to land versus It is necessary to understand that scientific knowl-
sea disposal, integrating all the disciplines to make a edge should be transparent and validated socially and
judgment. The ecosystem services issue (i.e. the cost therefore interaction with governments, NGOs, and civil
to ecosystem services versus the benefits of deep sea society is a priority.
disposal or land disposal) is far from being accepted
To accomplish these objectives, international collabo-
by ministries around the world; despite a significant
ration and sharing of information should be promoted
amount of research, it has not been included in regula-
at all levels (i.e. institutional, scientific, industrial, eco-
tory frameworks, with some exceptions.
nomical, and societal) to enhance the effective use of
information and data and thus facilitate the develop-
ment of robust risk assessment tools, and best avail-
able practices and management measures.
ANNEX I – LIST OF REFERENCES
GESAMP-related publications
GESAMP (1975, IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/WHO/WMO/IAEA/UN/UNEP, Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects
of Environmental Protection). Scientific criteria for the selection of sites for dumping of wastes into the sea. (1975). Rep.
Stud. GESAMP, (3):21 pp. Available also in French, Spanish and Russian.

of Environmental Protection). Scientific aspects of pollution arising from the exploration and exploitation of the sea-bed.
(1977). Rep. Stud. GESAMP, (7):37 pp.

of Environmental Protection). Scientific criteria for the selection of waste disposal sites at sea. (1982). Rep. Stud.
GESAMP, (16):60 pp.
GESAMP (1983, Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Environmental Protection). An oceanographic
model for the dispersion of wastes disposed of in the deep sea. (1983). Rep. Stud. GESAMP, (19):182 pp.
GESAMP (1987, Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Environmental Protection). Land-sea boundary flux
of contaminants: contributions from rivers. (1987). Rep. Stud. GESAMP, (32):172 pp.
GESAMP (1989, Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Environmental Protection). Long-term consequenc-
es of low-level marine contamination: An analytical approach. (1989). Rep. Stud. GESAMP, (40):14 pp.
GESAMP (1994, Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Environmental Protection). Guidelines for Marine
Environmental Assessments. (1994). Rep. Stud. GESAMP, (54):28 pp.
GESAMP (2001, Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Environmental Protection). Protecting the oceans
from land-based activities: land-based sources and activities affecting the quality and uses of the marine, coastal and
associated freshwater environment, Rep. Stud. No. 71, 162 pp.
GESAMP (2009, Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Environmental Protection). Pollution in the open
oceans: a review of assessments and related studies, Rep. Stud. No. 79, 64 pp.
GESAMP (2014, Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Environmental Protection). Report of the 40th
Session of GESAMP, held at the Headquarters of UNIDO in Vienna, 9 - 13 September, 2013, Rep. Stud. (88); 86 pp.
GESAMP (2015, Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Environmental Protection). Report of the 41st
Session of GESAMP, held at the WMU, Malmo, Sweden, 1-4 September 2014. Rep. Stud. (89); 90 pp.
Gnandi,K., University Of Lome, Togo; The Environmental Impact of the Dumping of Mine Tailings in West African
Sea: The Case of the Disposal of Phosphorite Tailings in Togo; PowerPoint presentation during the June 10-13, 2015,
GESAMP Workshop in Lima, Peru; International Workshop on the Impacts of Mine Tailings in the Marine Environment.
Vogt, C., 2013. International Assessment of Marine and Riverine disposal of Mine Tailings. Study commissioned by
the Office for the London Convention and Protocol and Ocean Affairs, IMO, in collaboration with the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) Global Programme of Action. International Maritime Organisation, London, 2013,
138 pp.
References from speaker summaries

Unique characteristics of deep-sea ecosystems
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The application of water and sediment guidelines to DSTP management

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chemicals and drill cuttings. Environ. Model. Softw. 1998, 13, 431–441.
How fast do mine tailings deposits colonize, can we boost colonization, and does
colonization imply recovery of ecosystem functioning?36
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Andrew K. Sweetman, International Research Institute of Stavanger, Norway; Barbro T. Haugland, Institute for Marine Research,
Norway; Stefan G. Bolam, Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, United Kingdom.
Current approaches, limitations and future needs in DSTP risk assessment: experiences from
the Ramu Nickel challenge in Papua New Guinea37
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37
Amanda Reichelt-Brushett, Marine Ecology Research Centre, Southern Cross University, Lismore NSW, Australia 2480.
ANNEX II – WORKSHOP PROGRAMME
GESAMP International Workshop on the Impacts of Mine Tailings in the Marine Environment
10-12 June, 2015
Meliá Hotel, Lima, Peru
Final Programme
DAY 1: Wednesday 10 June

08.30-09.00 Arrival and registration of participants
Time Session Speaker
09.15-10.30 Plenary Session Vice Admiral Victor POMAR Calderon (National Maritime
– Official opening Authority, Peru), Edward Kleverlaan (Head, Office for the London
Convention/ Protocol and Ocean Affairs, IMO/GESAMP)
• Welcome address by
hosts and IMO and
GESAMP
Keynote presentation Dr. Mike Huber (GESAMP)
• Scene setting: nature
and scale of the issue
and overview of STD and
possible environmental
impacts
Panel discussion (30 mins) Representatives from government, mining industry, maritime
users (fisheries, tourism) and NGOs
• Perspectives from key
stakeholders (Captain Renzo Rebisso (Peru); Dr. Carlos Aranda (SNMPE -
Peru); Mr. Harald Sørby (Norway))
10.30-11.00 Refreshments
11.00-13.30 Thematic Sessions Moderators: Dr. Mike Huber and Capt. Walter Vera Tudela
(Peru)
1) Mining practices,
waste generation and Mr. Ricardo Katz (Gestion Ambiental Consultores SA, Chile)
1
disposal (tailings) - Title: TBC
2) Understanding the 2 Dr. Bio. Carlos ARANDA (Peru) - Mining Practices in Peru
marine environment
Dr. Ana-Carolina Ruiz (GESAMP): Assessment of land-
3
based mining pollution: a case study in Sinaloa, Mexico.
Moderator: Dr. Patricio Bernal (Pontificia Universidad

Catolica de Chile) and and Capt. Carlos Lema (Peru)
Dr. Eva Ramirez-Llodra (NIVA, Norway): Unique attributes of

1
deep-sea ecosystems
2
Dr. Samuel Hormazabal (Pontificia Universidad Católica de
Valparaíso (PUCV), Chile): Physical oceanography and its
relation with DSTP
13.30-14.30 Lunch
14.30-16.30 2) Understanding the Dr. Stuart Simpson (CSIRO, Australia): The application of
3
marine environment water and sediments guidelines to DSTP management
– continued
Dr. Ashley Rowden (NIWA, New Zealand): Proposed NZ
4
mining: what had to be learnt before mining could begin
17.00-17.30 2) Understanding the Moderator: Dr. Patricio Bernal
marine environment
– continued Rapporteur: Dr. Eva Ramirez-Llodra
Wrap-up session and

conclusions
End of day one
DAY 2: Thursday 12 June

08.30-10.30 Thematic Session – What Moderator: Dr. David Johnson (Seascape, United Kingdom)
we know and what we do
not know about the effects 1
Dr. Tracy Shimmield (SAMS, United Kingdom): Impacts of
of mine tailings in the large-scale disposal of mining waste in the deep sea
marine environment
2
Dr. Raymond Nepstad (SINTEF, Norway): Numerical mod-
elling of particle spreading from mine tailing deposits in
Norwegian fjords
3
Dr. Andrew Sweetman (IRIS, Norway): How fast do mine tail-
ings deposits colonize, can we boost colonization and does
colonization imply recovery of ecosystem functioning?
4
Dr. Kissao Gnandi (Uni. Lomé, Togo): Impacts of submarine
mine tailings from phosphorite mines in Africa
5
Dr. Martin Palmer (NOCS, United Kingdom): Studies of
metal release from seafloor mining of sulphide deposits
10.00-11.30 Continued session on Dr. Carlos Neira (Scripps, United States): Copper pollution
6
knowns and unknowns effects on benthic faunal communities: lessons from shallow
water studies
Dr. Robert Moran (Michael-Moran Assoc., LLC, United

7
States): Mine tailings: some unknowns, uncertainties and
secrets.
Mr. Michael Akester (UNDP-GEF) - Ecosystem Diagnostic

8
Analyses of the various impacts on the Humboldt Current
Large Marine Ecosystem
Mr. Christian Ihle (ISUM SpA, Chile): Open questions on the

9
flow and mixing of hyperconcentrated, cohesive gravity cur-
rents
11.30-13.30 Thematic Sessions – Moderator: Mr. Craig Vogt (C Vogt Inc)
Existing regulatory
(best) practices Mr. Edward Kleverlaan (IMO): International Framework:
1
Disposal of wastes at sea
Dr. Amanda Reichelt-Brushett: Current approaches, limita-

2
tions and future needs in DSTP risk assessment –experienc-
es from the Ramu Nickel challenge in Papua New Guinea
Dr. Stuart Simpson (CSIRO, Australia): Environmental Impact

3
assessment, permitting and monitoring process for DSTP in
Indonesia
4
Dr. Tracy Shimmield (SAMS, UK): Deep Sea Tailings
Placement in Papua New Guinea, Environmental Impact
Assessment, Monitoring and Regulation
Mr. Harald Sørby (Norway): Granting the permit for a new

5
rutile mine with placing of tailings in a fjord (Norway)
Eng. David Vela (Peru) - Mining Process and Components/

6
Methodology for Mine Tailings disposal
7
Dr. Ashley Rowden (NIWA, NZ): Proposed seabed mining
off New Zealand – what would it entail, and why did the first
applications for environmental permits fail
13.30-14.30 Lunch
14.30-16.30 Plenary Session – Moderators: Dr. Mike Huber and Mr. Craig Vogt
Discussion - Gaps in
regulatory frameworks and
science, Path forward and
next steps
17.00-17.30 Closing session Rapporteurs and hosts
Workshop wrap up GESAMP/IMO/Peru

End of Workshop
ANNEX III – WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS
A. PARTICIPANTS Mr. Leonel Sierralta

Chile
Dr. Amanda Reichelt Brushett ISUM SPA
Australia 56-9-93099512
Southern Cross University lsj@isumchile.cl
61266203250
amanda.reichelt-brushett@scu.edu.au Dr. Maria Baker
United Kingdom
Dr. Andrew K. Sweetman University of Southampton, National Oceanography
Norway Centre, Southampton,
International Research Institute of Stavanger +44 2380596352
+4798215405 Mb11@noc.soton.ac.uk
Andrew.Sweetman@iris.no
Mr. Paul Holthus
Dr. Ashley Rowden United States
New Zealand World Ocean Council
National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research +1 808 277-9008
+64 4 386 0300 Paul.holthus@oceancouncil.org
a.rowden@niwa.co.nz
Mr. Per Helge Høgaas
Dr. Carlos Neira Norway
United States SINTEF Materials and Chemistry
Scripps Institution of Oceanography +47 95138540
858-534-3579 / 1864 per.helge.hogaas@sintef.no
cneira@ucsd.edu
Dr. Raymond Nepstad
Prof. David Johnson Norway
United Kingdom SINTEF
ACOPS/IUCN/Seascape Consultants Ltd +47 934 01 761
+44(0)1794 367797 raymond.nepstad@sinte
david.johnson@seascapeconsultants.co.uk
Dr. Lindsay Vare
Dr. Eulogio Soto United Kingdom
Chile SAMS Research Services Ltd (SRSL)
Universidad de Valparaiso +44(0)1631 559420
56-32-2507855
eulogio.soto@uv.cl Mr. Harald Sørby
Norway
Dr. Eva Ramirez-Llodra Norwegian Environment Agency
Norway +47-92852504
Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA) harald.sorby@miljodir.no
+47 98294145
eva.ramirez@niva.no Prof. Martin Palmer
United Kingdom
Dr. Gi Hoon Hong University of Southampton
Republic of Korea +44 (0)2380 596607
Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology pmrp@noc.soton.ac.uk
(KIOST)
82-10-7566-3188 Mr. Ricardo Katz
ghhong@kiost.ac.kr Chile
Mr. Glenn Storbråten Gestion Ambiental Consultores SA
+562-2719-5602/+56- 9-9828 3358
Norway rkatz@gac.cl
Norwegian Environment Agency
+47-99423110 Dr. Robert E. Moran
glenn.kristian.storbraten@miljodir.no United States
Michael-Moran Assoc. Llc
Associate Professor Kissao Gnandi +303.526.1405
Togo remwater@gmail.com
University oOf Lome
228-90366968/ 228- 99467775 Mr. Roy Young
kgnandi@yahoo.fr; kgnandi@tg.refer.org United States
Center for Biological Diversity
303 444 4020
roy@naturesown.com
Dr. Tracy Shimmield Biol. Martin Nizama Teixeira
United Kingdom Peru
SAMS Research Services Ltd (SRSL) SENACE
+44(0)1631 559255 5000710
tms@sams.ac.uk mnizama@senace.gob.pe
Mr. Edward Kleverlaan Eng. Jose Carlos Espino Cruz

United Kingdom Peru
IMO/GESAMP SENACE
+44 207 587 3122 5000710
ekleverlaan@imo.org jespino@senace.gob.pe
Mr. Fredrik Haag Mr. Rodrigo Moya

United Kingdom Chile
IMO/GESAMP Antofagasta Minerals S.A.
+44 207 463 4161 +56 2 27987145
fhaag@imo.org rmoya@aminerals.cl
Dr Michael Huber Dr. Christian Ihle

Australia Chile
GESAMP ISUM SPA
+61 7 3893 4511 +562 29784991
mhuber@bigpond.net.au cfihle@gmail.com
Dr. Ana Carolina Ruiz Fernández Dr. Jan Helge Fosså

Mexico Norway
GESAMP Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
+52 669 9852845 (IMR NO)
caro@ola.icmyl.unam.mx +47 92 42 55 13 (institute: +47 55 23 85 00)
jhf@imr.no
Mr. Michael J. Akester
Peru Mr. Mauricio Eugenio Galvez Larach
GEF-UNDP UNOPS Chile
+ 51 1 6259103 Undersecretariat for Fisheries and Aquaculture-Chile
MichaelA@unops.org; michaelakester@gmail.com 56-32-2502700
mgalvez@subpesca.cl
Mr. Juan Pablo Orrego
Chile Dr. Samuel Hormazabal
Corporación de Desarrollo Ecosistemas Chile
56 2 2980 8503 Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso (PUCV)
jp.orrego@ecosistemas.cl +56 32 2274257
samuel.hormazabal@ucv.cl
Mr. Craig Vogt
United States Dr. Michelle I. Graco
Craig Vogt Inc Ocean & Coastal Environmental Peru
Consulting Instituto del Mar del Peru (IMARPE)
571-643-8241 +51 985052929
Craig@CraigVogt.com mgraco@imarpe.gob.pe
Dr. Patricio A. Bernal M.Sc. Manuel Guzman Roca

Chile Peru
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Instituto del Mar del Peru (IMARPE)
+569 62329890 +51 999401622/ +511 4291858
pbernal@bio.puc.cl Extension 707
mguzman@imarpe.gob.pe
Dr. Praxedes Muñoz
Chile Eng. Angélica Magdalena Nicolás Maldonado
Universidad Católica del Norte Peru
56 51 2209802 Ministry of Production (PRODUCE)
praxedes@ucn.cl +51 972938434 / +511 6162222
anicolas@produce.gob.pe
Ms. Flavia Liberona
Chile Mr. Israel Chahua Jara
Fundación Terram Peru
22694499 MOB: 8- 8286118 Organismo de Evaluación y Fiscalización ambiental
fliberona@terram.cl (OEFA)
+511 7192584
ichahua@oefa.gob.pe
Biol. Sheila Zacarías Ríos Humberto Rainero Valcárcel
Peru Peru
+51 975460730 Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas
szacarias@oefa.gob.pe (DICAPI)
+51 998090275
ENG. José JUÁREZ Céspedes raine001@dicapi.mil.pe
PERU
Autoridad Portuaria Nacional (APN) Cdr. Harry Chiarella Horna
+51 992370359 Peru
jjuarez1121@gmail.com Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas
(DICAPI)
Lic. Llojan Chuquisengo Picón +51 998092513
Peru harry.chiarella@dicapi.mil.pe
Autoridad Nacional de Agua (ANA)
+51 984601725 Cdr. Nestor Urrutia Olivari
lchuquisengo@ana.gob.pe Peru
Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas
Eng. Carlos Sebastián Calvo (DICAPI)
Peru +51 985642979
Instituto Peruano de Energía Nuclear (IPEN) urrut001@dicapi.mil.pe
+51 973869312
csebastian@ipen.gob.pe Cdr. Víctor Avalo Valiente
Eng. Gerardo Maghella Seminario Peru
Peru (DICAPI)
+51 997260158 +51 996177410
gmaghella@ipen.gob.pe avalo003@dicapi.mil.pe
Eng. Carlos Alva 1st Lt. Angelita Tejada Díaz
Peru Peru
Ministry of Environment (MINAM) Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas
+51 989179467 (DICAPI)
calva@minam.gob.pe +51 9526532003
tejad010@dicapi.mil.pe
Eng. Natalia Soto
Peru 1st Lt. Casandra Silva Gurrionero
+511 6110000 Extension 1286 Peru
nsoto@minam.gob.pe Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas
(DICAPI)
Biol. Rosemarie Gamboa Salinas
+51 959094605
Peru
silva011@dicapi.mil.pe
Servicio Nacional de Área Naturales Protegidas por el
Estado (SERNANP) 1st Lt. Anthony Gutierrez Tong
+51 954475274 Peru
rgamboa@sernanp.gob.pe; rgamboasalinas.gmail.com Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas
(DICAPI)
Eng. Ana Cecilia Guevara Baca
+51 995958226
Peru
gutie040@dicapi.mil.pe
Dirección General de Salud (DIGESA)
+51 986660553 1st Lt. Miguel Navarro Heckathon
aguevara@digesa.gob.pe Peru
Capt. Ricardo Rebisso Oblitas
(DICAPI), +51 956982002
Peru
navar002@hotmail.com
(DICAPI) 2nd Lt. Heylin Gutierrez Tong
ricardo.rebisso@dicapi.mil.pe Peru
Cdr. Ruben Alejo
(DICAPI)
Peru
+51 998844978
gutie045@dicapi.mil.pe
(DICAPI)
+51 990809131 2nd Lt. Renato Miranda Ramírez
ruben.alejo@dicapi.mil.pe Peru
(DICAPI)
+51 956506517
miran005@dicapi.mil.pe;
renato_miranda88@hotmail.com
Ens. Diego Velarde Morillas Ms. Giovanna Torre
Peru Peru
Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas
(DICAPI) (DICAPI)
+51 988988778 +51 980864702
diego.velarde.morillas@gmail.com gmadellytorre.1@gmail.com
Cpo1 Flaviano Loza Dulanto Mr. José Manuel Pacheco Castillo

Peru Peru
Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas Ministry of Foreign Affairs
(DICAPI) +51 996599210
flaviano.loza@dicapi.mil.pe jpachecoc@rree.gob.pe
Cpo2 Alberto Del Carpio Vargas Ms. Maria De Fatima Gianella Zapata
Peru Peru
Dirección General De Capitanías Y Guardacostas +51 945223979
(Dicapi) fatima_gianella@hotmail.com
+51 985631190
alberto.delcarpio@gmail.com Mr. Stuart Simpson
Australia
Cpo2 Sixto Rios Díaz CSIRO
Peru stuart.simpson@csiro.au; sim227@csiro.au
(DICAPI) Mr. Luis Pariona
+51 971379236 Peru
rios004@dicapi.mil.pe Autoridad Portuaria Nacional (APN)
+51 997604088
Cpo3 José Masias Vidal lpariona@apn.gob.pe
Peru
Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas Ms. Javiera Calisto, Chile
(DICAPI) Oceana
+51 988031630 jcalisto@oceana.org
jose.masias@dicapi.mi.pe 97312533
Po1 Yessica Perez Gonzales Mr. Eduardo Choque

Peru Peru
Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas DIHIDRONAV
(DICAPI) +51 992179626
+51 990203675 echoque@dhn.mil.pe
perez008@dicapi.mil.pe
Ms. Maria De La Luz Vasquez
Capt. (R) Walter Vera Tudela De La Gala Chile
Peru Ministry of Mining
Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas 98268596
(DICAPI) mvasquez@minmineria.cl
+51 981318052
Ms. Ana C. Guevara Baca
wveratudela@hotmail.com
Peru
Ms. Adriana Carbajal DIGESA
Peru +51 986660553
Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas aguevara@digesa.minsa.gob.pe
(DICAPI)
Ms. Rosana Brantes A.
Ms. Milena Vasquez Figueroa Chile
Peru COCHILCO
Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas 78065934
(DICAPI) rbrantes@cochilco.cl
+51 971286333
Mr. Gonzalo Layseca
vasq003@dicapi.mil.pe
Chile
Eng. Adolfo Martinez Embassy of Chile in Peru
Peru +51 993560448
Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas glayseca@minrel.gov.cl
(DICAPI)
Mr. David Hurtado Fudinaga
+51 956247998
Peru
adolfo.martinez@dicapi.mil.pe
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
+51 997372878
dhurtado@rree.gob.pe
Mr. Roger Salazar Rojas C. SECRETARIAT
Peru
DIHIDRONAV Edward Kleverlaan
+51 947149763 IMO Technical Secretary of GESAMP
rsalazar@dhn.mil.pe Head, Office for the London Convention/Protocol and
Ocean Affairs
Ms. Elienete Melgar Marine Environment Division, IMO
Peru 4 Albert Embankment
Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas London SE1 7SR
(DICAPI) +51 980693509 United Kingdom
elienete.melgar@dicapi.mil.pe Tel. +442075873122
ekleverlaan@imo.org
Ms. Luzangela Sanchez Aquije
Peru Fredrik Haag
Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas Technical Officer
(DICAPI) Office for the London Convention/Protocol and Ocean
+51 941453572 Affairs
luzangela@sanchez@dicapi.mil.pe Marine Environment Division, IMO
4 Albert Embankment
Ms. Maria Alejandra Chavez London SE1 7SR
Peru United Kingdom
Dirección General de Capitanías y Guardacostas Tel. +442074634161
(DICAPI) fhaag@imo.org
+51 979719590
chave002@dicapi.mil.pe
Mr. José Tenorio Calderón

Peru
Walsh Peru
+51 975539908
jtenorio@walshp.com.pe
Mr. Angel Murillo

Peru
amurillo@snmpe.gob.pe
SNMPE
+511 2159150
B. GESAMP Members
Dr. Mike Huber
Global Coastal Strategies
32 Beneteau Place
Lota, Brisbane, QLD 4179
Australia
Tel: +61-7-38 93 45 11 (+61 431 787 864)
mhuber@bigpond.net.au
mhuber@skm.com.au
Dr. Ana Carolina Ruiz

Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
Unidad Académica Mazatlán
Calz. J. Montes Camarena s/n
Col. Playa Sur, 82000 Mazatlán, Sin
México
Tel. +52 669 9852845
caro@ola.icmyl.unam.mx
ANNEX IV – GLOSSARY
Organizations
GESAMP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection
IAEA-EL International Atomic Energy Agency – Environment Laboratory, Monaco
IMO International Maritime Organization, London, United Kingdom
IOC-UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational Scientific

and Cultural Organization, Paris, France
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya
UNDP United Nations Development Programme, New York, United States
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization, Vienna, Austria
WMO World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
UN United Nations, New York, United States
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
WHO World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

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94

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GESAMP

Printed by Micropress Printers Ltd.

Credit: Stuart Simpson, CSIRO, Australia.

ISSN 1020-4873 (GESAMP Reports & Studies Series)

For bibliographic purposes this document should be cited as:

Report editors: Edward Kleverlaan, Fredrik Haag and Craig Vogt1

2 MINING PRACTICES, WASTE GENERATION AND DISPOSAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 UNDERSTANDING THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

6 WORKSHOP FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

A snapshot of the workshop participants

Finally, in recognition that no international agency

The rationale for use of deep-sea disposal of mine tail-

3.1 Unique attributes of marine 3.2 Unique characteristics of deep-sea

Figure 10 Deep sea research technology

Figure 11 Sources of variability: Rossby and Kelvin Waves

4.1 Impacts of large-scale disposal increasingly being explored as a source of valuable

Figure 15 PNG Export Receipts for 2009

Figure 16 Current and Potential Mines in PNG

Figure 18 Location of SOLWARA 1 mining lease. EL: exploration lease.

Figure 19 Location of sediment sampling stations, Lihir

Concentrations of the elements are all similar at depth

Figure 20 Major and Minor elemental concentrations, Lihir

Beryllium (ppm) Vanadium (ppm) Copper (ppm) Arsenic (ppm)

Figure 22 Location sampling station positions at Misima

Beryllium (ppm) Vanadium (ppm) Copper (ppm) Arsenic (ppm)

Figure 24 Minor and trace elemental concentrations within sediment, M1 (impacted)

Summary of findings for post-operational mine: • In addition to geochemical analyses, it was

Figure 26 The Dream Model for predicting distribution discharges of particles

Figures 30 and 31 Mine Tailings discharge into West African Sea.

Cell Bar Chart

Cell Bar Chart

Figure 34 Metal content of fish in contaminated coastal area

Figure 35 Metal content (mg/kg) of mussels of the contaminated coastal area

Figure 37 Humboldt Current Large Marine Ecosystem

Figure 38 Assessments for sustainable development

Figure 39 Flow dynamics of transport and disposal phases

5.1 International framework: disposal of

Dumping at sea is “any deliberate disposal into the sea

Parties to the London Convention and Protocol are

Figure 43 Parties to the London Convention and Protocol in plenary session

5.2 Current approaches, limitations and The Ramu Nickel Story

Figure 46 Ramu Nickel DSTP and impacted submarine canyons

5.4 Deep sea tailings placement in

PNG’s aim is to promote a healthy and sustainable min-

The main aim of the guidelines should be to minimize

Specific guidelines for each mine site should consider:

• The processes and chemicals used;

Figure 52 Placement of tailings in the Førdefjord by rutile mine

The fact that there is a lack of knowledge about marine Conclusion

Thus, Peru is considered to be a mining country, with

World % world Latin America

Figure 55 Past practice: discharge of mine tailings on the coastline in Peru

• Vulnerable ecosystems; • Plumes of fine particulates affecting diet of

The PNG Guidelines require that each mine site consider:

GESAMP (1977, IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/WHO/WMO/IAEA/UN/UNEP, Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects

GESAMP (1982, IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/WHO/WMO/IAEA/UN/UNEP, Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects

References from speaker summaries

The application of water and sediment guidelines to DSTP management

Meliá Hotel, Lima, Peru

IOC-UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational Scientific