PART – I

FLUID MECHANICS
 1

Hydraulics:
Hydraulics (this word has been derived from a
Greek work ‘Hudour’ which means water) may be
defined as follows :
“It is that branch of Engineering-science, which
deals with water (at rest or in motion).”
or
“It is that branch of Engineering-science which
.”
Fluid Mechanics:
that branch of
Engineering-science which deals with the behaviour of
.

parts: Statics, and .

Statics. hydrostatics and

that dealing with the compressible static gases is termed as aerostatics.
Kinematics.
energy causing velocity and acceleration are not dealt under this heading.
Dynamics. with the forces
.
Properties of Fluids–General Aspects:
of the matter as
follows:
1. Solid state, and
2. Fluid state,
(i) Liquid state, and (ii) Gaseous state.

1
 2 Fluid Mechanics
In solids, the molecules are very closely spaced whereas in liquids the spacing between the
different molecules is relatively large and in gases the spacing between the molecules is still large. It
means that inter-molecular cohesive forces are large in solids, in liquids and
in gases, and on account of this fact, solids possess compact and rigid form, liquid molecules can
move freely within the liquid mass and the molecules of gases have greater freedom of movement
so that the gases fill the container completely in which they are placed.
A solid
no tensile strength or very little of it and it can resist the compressive forces only when it is kept in a

Liquids and gases exhibit different characteristics. The liquids under ordinary conditions are

whereas gases can be compressed much readily under the action of external pressure (and when the

A fluid may be defined as follows:

“ .”
or
“
force.”
A fluid has the following characteristics:
1. It has no definite shape of its own, but conforms to the shape of the containing vessel.
2. Even a small amount of shear force exerted on a liquid/fluid will cause it to undergo a de-
formation which continues as long as the force continues to be applied.
as follows:
A. (i) Liquid, (ii) Gas, (iii) Vapour.
B. (i) (ii) .
Liquid
A liquid is a fluid which possesses a (which varies only slightly with tem-
perature and pressure).
Liquids have bulk elastic modulus when under compression and will store up energy in the
same manner as a solid. As the contraction of volume of a liquid under compression is extremely
small, it is usually ignored and the . A liquid will withstand
a slight amount of tension due to molecular attraction between the particles which will cause an
viscosity.
All known liquids vaporise at narrow pressures above zero, depending on the temperature.
Gas. It possesses and is .
Vapour. It is a gas whose temperature and pressure are such that it is very near the liquid state
(e.g., steam).
no viscosity and surface tension and is .

in simplifying the mathematical analysis.

 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 3

in addition to the density

Continuum. . From the

Liquid can be easily distinguished from a solid or a gas.

Solid has a definite shape.
A liquid takes the shape of vessel into which it is poured.
A gas completely fills the vessel which contains it.

concerned with it. Some important properties of water which will be considered are:
(i) Density, (ii iii) Viscosity,
(iv) Vapour pressure, (v) Cohesion, (vi) Adhesion,
(vii) Surface tension, (viii) Capillarity, and (ix) Compressibility.

The density (also known as ) of a liquid may be defined as the

. It is usually denoted by (rho).
V
Its units are kg/m3, ...(1.1)
V

The weight density (also known as specific weight) is defined as the

the . It is usually denoted by w.
w = g ...(1.2)
For the purposes of all calculations, relating to Hydraulics and hydraulic machines, the specific
weight of water is taken as follows:
In S.I. Units: w = 9.81 kN/m3 (or 9.81× 10–6 N/mm3)
In M.K.S. Units: w = 1000 kgf /m3

It is defined as . It is denoted by v.

V 1
Mathematically, v = ...(1.3)

Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight of the liquid to the specific weight of a standard
fluid. It is dimensionless and has no units. It is represented by S.
 4 Fluid Mechanics
For liquids, the standard fluid is pure water at 4°C.
Specific weight of liquid wliquid
Specific gravity =
Specific weight of pure water wwater
Example 1.1.
3
and weight of 44 kN.
Solution: Volume of the liquid = 6 m3
Weight of the liquid = 44 kN
w:
Weight of liquid 44
w = = 7.333 kN/m3 (Ans.)
Volume of liquid 6

w 7.333 1000 3
= = (Ans.)
g 9.81
1 1
v = = 0.00134 m3 (Ans.)
747.5
S:
wliquid 7.333
S = = 0.747 (Ans.)
wwater 9.81

Viscosity may be defined as the

stresses. It is a measure of the internal fluid friction which causes resistance to flow. It is primarily
, and as flow occurs, these
effects appear as shearing stresses between the moving layers of fluid.
An

cohesion and
interaction between particles.

at a distance ‘dy’ apart, move one over the other

at different velocities, say u and u + du, the
viscosity together with relative velocity causes a

lower layer while the lower layer causes a shear

is proportional to the rate of change of velocity

with respect to y. It is denoted by (called Tau).

du
Mathematically
dy

du
or = µ. ...(1.4)
dy
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 5
where, = Constant of proportionality and is known as of or only
viscosity.
du
= Rate of shear stress or rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient.
dy

From Fig. 1.1, we have µ = ...(1.5)

du
dy
Thus viscosity may also be defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear
strain.
Units of Viscosity:
In S.I. Units: N.s/m2
In M.K.S. Units: kgf.sec/m2
force/area force/length 2 force × time
1 1 (length) 2
(length/time) ×
length length

dyne sec 1
The unit of viscosity in C.G.S. is also called poise = 2
. One poise = N.s/m2
cm 10
1
Note. The viscosity of water at 20°C is poise or one centipoise.
100
Kinematic Viscosity :
.
It is denoted by (called nu).

Viscosity
Mathematically, v = ...(1.6)
Density
Units of kinematic viscosity:
In SI units: m2/s
In M.K.S. units: m2/sec.
In C.G.S. units the kinematic viscosity is also known as stoke ( = cm2/sec.)
One stoke = 10–4 m2/s
1
Note: Centistoke means stoke.
100

This law states that the shear stress

rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co-efficient of viscosity.
du
Mathematically, = ...(1.7)
dy
.

Refer to Fig.1.2.
 6 Fluid Mechanics
These
fluids follow Newton’s viscosity
equation (i.e. eqn. 1.7). For such
fluids does not change with rate
.
Examples. Water, kerosene, air
etc.

Fluids which do not follow the

linear relationship between shear
stress and rate of deformation (given
by eqn. 1.7) are termed as Non-
Newtonian fluids. Such fluids are
relatively uncommon.
Examples. Solutions or
suspensions (slurries), ,
, blood etc.
These fluids are generally complex
mixtures and are studied under
rheology, a science of deformation
and flow.
3. Plastic fluids. In the case of
a plastic substance which is non-Newtonian fluid an initial yield stress is to be exceeded to cause a
continuous deformation. These substances are represented by straight line intersecting the vertical
axis at the “yield stress” (Refer to Fig. 1.2).
An ideal plastic (or Binigham plastic) has a definite yield stress and a constant linear relation
between shear stress and the rate of angular deformation. Examples: Sewage sludge,
etc.
A thyxotropic substance, which is non-Newtonian fluid, has a non-linear relationship between
the shear stress and the rate of angular deformation, beyond an initial yield stress. The printer’s ink
is an example of thyxotropic substance.
4. Ideal fluid. An ideal fluid is one which is incompressible and has zero viscosity (or in
other words shear stress is always zero regardless of the motion of the fluid). Thus an ideal fluid is
represented by the horizontal axis ( = 0).
A true elastic solid may be represented by the vertical axis of the diagram.
( )
:
du
(i) Ideal fluids: = 0, (ii) Newtonian fluids: . ,
dy
n
du du
(iii) Ideal plastics: = const. . , (iv) Thyxotropic fluids: const. . , and
dy dy
n
du
(v) Non-Newtonian fluids: .
dy
In case of non-Newtonian fluids, if n is less than unity then are called pseudo-plastics
( ) while fluids in which n is greater than unity are known
as dilatents. ( ).
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 7
It is an empirical solution to express steaty-state shear stress as
a function of velocity gradient, and is given as
n 1
du du
yx =
dy dy
If n = 1, this reduces to Newton’s law of viscosity, with
Example 1.2. (a) ?
(b)
n
du
=
dy
where A, and n
:
(i) an ideal fluid,
(ii) a Newtonian fluid and
(iii) A non-Newtonian fluid.
(c) Indicate whether the fluid with the following characteristics is a Newtonian or
non-Newtonian.
(i) = Ay + and u = C1 + C2y + C3y2
(ii) = Ayn( n – 1) and u = Cyn
Solution. (a) An ideal fluid has the following characteristics:
No viscosity ( = 0)
No surface tension.
Incompressible ( constant)
An ideal fluid can slip near a solid boundary and cannot sustain any shear force however small
it may be.
n
du
(b) =
dy
(i) An ideal fluid:
i.e., shear stress is always zero regardless of the

0
(ii) A Newtonian fluid:

du
= , therefore:
dy
n = 1 and 0
The constant A takes the value of dynamic viscosity for the fluid.
Air, water, kerosene etc. behave as Newtonian fluids under normal working conditions.
(iii) A non-Newtonian fluid:
Depending on the value of power index n, the non-Newtonian fluids are classified as:
If n > 1 and 0 ... Dilatant fluids.
Examples: and printing ink.
If n < 1 and 0 ..
 8 Fluid Mechanics
Examples :
If n = 1 and = 0 .... lastic.
An ideal plastic fluid has a definite yield stress and a constant-linear relation between shear
stress developed and rate of deformation:
du
i.e. = 0
dy
Examples: Sewage sludge, .
2
(c) (i) = Ay + and u = C1 + C2 y + C3 y
du d
Now, = (C1 + C2y + C3y2) = C2 +2C3y
dy dy
du
=
dy
= µ(C2 + 2C3y) = 2µC3y + µC2
which can be rewritten as
= where A = 2µC3 and = µC2

correspond to that of an .
(ii) = Ayn(n – 1) and u = Cyn
du d
Now, = (Cyn) = Cn(y)n – 1
dy dy
du
= Cn ( y) n 1
dy
non-
Newtonian in character.

Viscosity is effected by temperature. The viscosity of liquids decreases but that of gases
increases with . This is due to the reason that in liquids the shear stress
is due to the inter-molecular cohesion which decreases with increase of temperature. In gases the
inter-molecular cohesion is negligible and the shear stress is due to exchange of momentum of
the molecules, normal to the direction of motion. The molecular activity increases with rise in
temperature and so does the viscosity of gas.
/T
For liquids: µT = Ae ...(1.8)
1/2
bT
For gases: µT = ...(1.9)
1 a /T
where, T = Dynamic viscosity at absolute temperature T,
A, = Constants (for a given liquid), and
a, b = Constants (for a given gas).

The viscosity under ordinary conditions is not appreciably affected by the changes in pressure.
However, the viscosity of some oils has been found to increase with increase in pressure.
Example 1.3. and requires a force
2
of 2.2
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 9
Solution: Velocity of the moving plate, u = 1.2 m/s
Distance between the plates, dy = 0.05 mm = 0.05 × 10–3 m
Force on the moving plate, F = 2.2 N/m2

du
We know, .
dy
where = shear stress or force per
unit area = 2.2 N/m2,
du = change of velocity
= u – 0 = 1.2 m/s and
dy = change of distance
= 0.05 × 10–3m.
1.2
2.2 =
0.05 10 –3

2.2 0.05 10 –3 1 N.s

or, = 9.16 10 –5 N.s/m 2 1 poise =
1.2 10 m 2
= 9.16 × 10–4 poise (Ans.)
2
Example 1.4. A plate having an area of is sliding down the inclined plane at 30° to the
horizontal with a velocity of 1.8
and the plate. Find the viscosity of the fluid if the weight of the plate is 280 N.
Solution: Area of plate, A = 0.6 m2
Weight of plate, W = 280 N
Velocity of plate, u = 0.36 m/s
t = dy = 1.8 mm = 1.8 × 10–3 m

Component of W along the plate = W sin = 280 sin 30° = 140 N

Shear force on the bottom surface of the plate, F = 140 N and shear stress,
F 140
= = 233.33N/m2
A 0.6
du
We know, = .
dy
Where, du = change of velocity = u – 0 = 0.36 m/s
 10 Fluid Mechanics
dy = t = 1.8 × 10–3 m
0.36
233.33 =
1.8 10 –3
233.33 1.8 10 –3
or, µ = 1.166 N.s/m 2 = 11.66 poise (Ans.)
0.36
Example 1.5.

:
(i)
(ii) 0.95.
Solution. Each side of a square plate = 720 mm = 0.72 m
The thickness of the oil, dy = 15 mm = 0.015 m
Velocity of the upper plate = 3 m/s
Change of velocity between plates, du = 3 – 0 = 3 m/s
Force required on upper plate, F = 120 N
force 120
Shear stress, = 231.5 N/m 2
area 0.72 0.72
(i
We know that,
du
= .
dy
3
231.5 = .
0.015
231.5 0.015
= 1.16 N.s/m2 (Ans.)
3
(ii) Kinematic viscosity, v:
Weight density of oil, w = 0.95 × 9.81 kN/m2 = 9.32 kN/m2 = or 9320 N/m3
w 9320
Mass density of oil, = 950
g 9.81
1.16
Using the relation: = 0.00122 m 2 /s
950
Hence = 0.00122 m2/s ( Ans.)
Example 1.6. The velocity distribution for flow over a plate is gives by u = 2y – y2 where u is
the velocity in
.
2
0.9 .
du
Soluton. u = 2y – y2 ...(given) 2 – 2y
dy
(i) :
du
At the boundary : At y = 0, 2 s –1 (Ans.)
dy y 0
At 0.15 m from the boundary:
du 1
At y = 0.15 m, 2 2 0.15 1.7 s (Ans.)
dy y 0.15
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 11
(ii)
du
( )y = 0 = . = 0.9 × 2 = 1.8 N/m2 (Ans.)
dy y 0

du
and, ( )y = 0.15 = = 0.9 × 1.7 = 1.53 N/m2 (Ans.)
dy y 0.15

[Where = 0.9 N.s/m2 ... (given)]

Example 1.7. A lubricating oil of viscosity undergoes steady shear between a fixed lower

velocity profile results if the fluid does not slip at either plate.
Solution. For the given geometry
and motion, the shear stress is constant
throughout. From Newton’s law of
viscosity, we have
du
constant
dy
or u =
The constantS l and are evaluated
from the no slip conditions at the upper
and lower plates.
At y = 0, = 0 0
At y= u=V
V
V = lt + 0 or l
t

Vy
u and is linear as indicated in Fig 1.5 (Ans.)
t
Example 1.8
2
find the velocity

Solution. Distance of the vertex from the

plate = 30 cm.
Velocity at vertex, u = 180 cm/s
2

parabolic, is given by
u = ly2 + +n ...(1)
where l, and n are constants. The
values of these constants are found from the
following boundary conditions:
(i) At y = 0, u = 0,
(ii) At y = 30 cm,
u = 180 cm/s and
 12 Fluid Mechanics

du
(iii) At y = 30 cm, 0.
dy
Substituting boundary conditions (i) in eqn. (1), we get
0 = 0+0+n n=0
Substituting boundary conditions (ii) in eqn. (1), we get
180 = l × (30)2 + × 30 or 180 = 900 l + 30 ...(2)
Substituting boundary conditions (iii) in eqn. (1), we get
du
= 2ly + 0 = 2l × 30 + or 0 = 60 (3)
dy
Solving eqns. (2) and (3), we have l = – 0.2 and = 12.
Substituting the values of and n in eqn. (1), we get u = – 0.2 y2 + 12y
:
du
= – 0.2 × 2y + 12 = – 0.4y + 12
dy
du
At y = 0, = 12/s (Ans.)
dy y 0

du
At y = 15 cm, = –0.4 × 15 + 12 = 6/s (Ans.)
dy y 15

du
At y = 30 cm, = –0.4 × 30 + 12 = 0 (Ans.)
dy y 30

du
We know, =
dy
du
At y = 0, ( )y = 0 = . = 0.9 × 12 = 10.8 N/m2 (Ans.)
dy y 0

du
At y = 15, ( )y = 15 = . = 0.9 × 6 = 5.4 N/m2 (Ans.)
dy y 15

du
At y = 30, ( )y = 30 = . = 0.9 × 0 = 0 (Ans.)
dy y 30

Example 1.9. A fluid has an absolute viscosity of 0.048 Pa-s and a specific gravity of 0.913.

and 75
is (i) (ii)
(UPTU)
Solution. (i) Linear velocity distribution:
du
If velocity distribution is linear,
dy
du 1.125
equal to per s.
dy 0.075
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 13
Shear stress for all the locations,
du 1.125
= 0.048 = 0.72 N/m (Ans.)
dy 0.075
(ii) Parabolic velocity distribution:
u = ly2 +
where the constants, l, , and n are found from the boundary conditions.
At y = 0, u = 0, giving n = 0
At y = 0.075 m, u = 1.125 m/s, giving
1.125 = (0.075)2l + 0.075 m ...(i)
or 1.125 = 5.625 × 10–3 l + 0.075 m
du
At y = 0.075 m, 0 2ly m
dy
or 0 = 2l × 0.075 + m or m = – 0.15 l ...(ii)
Substituting (ii) in (i), we get
1.125 = 5.625 × 10–3l – 0.075 × 0.15 l
= l (5.625 × 10–3 – 0.075 × 0.15) = – 0.005625 l
1.125
l= – – 200
0.005625
and from (ii), we have = 30.
du
Hence the velocity distribution becomes u = – 200y2 + 30 and 30 – 400 y
dy
Hence the shear stresses at the required locations, y, are determined in the table below:
y( ) 0 0.025 0.05 0.075
du
(per second) 30 20 10 0
dy
du
Shere stress = N/m2 1.44 0.96 0.48 0
dy

(Ans.)
Example 1.10. A 400 120
2
, :
(i)
(ii)
.
Solution. Diameter of the shaft, d = 400 mm = 0.4 m
Speed of the shaft, N = 200 r.p.m.
Thickness of the oil film, t = 1.5 mm = 1.5 × 10–3 m
Length of the bearing, l = 120 mm = 0.12 m
Viscosity, = 0.7 N.s/m2

dN 0.4 200
Tangential velocity of the shaft, u = 4.19 m/s
60 60
14 Fluid Mechanics
(i T:
du
We know, = .
dy
where du = change of velocity = u – 0 = 4.19 m/s

dy = t = 1.5 × 10–3 m
4.19
= 0.7
1.5 10 –3
= 1955.3 N/m2.
Shear force, F = shear stress × area
= dl
= 1955.3 × × 0.4 × 0.12
= 294.85 N

0.4
Hence, viscous torque = 2 = 294.85 ×
2
= 58.97 Nm (Ans.)
(ii) P:

2 N
P = T× watts, where T is in Nm
60
2 200
P = 58.97 × 1235 W or (Ans.)
60
Example 1.11.

(Anna University)
Solution. Given: dshaft = dbearing = l = 200 mm = 0.2 m
N= = 0.8 poise = 0.8 × 0.1 = 0.08 Ns/m2

(150.5 – 150) / 2
Radial thickness of the oil, dy = m = 0.00025 m
1000
dN (150 10 –3 ) 1500
Tangential velocity of the shaft, u = = 11.78 m/s
60 60
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 15
Change of velocity, du = u – 0 = 11.78 m/s

du
= .
dy
11.78
= 0.08 3769.6 N/m 2
0.00025
Power dissipated as heat = shear force × tangential velocity of this shaft
= [ × ( dl)] × u
= 769.6 × × (150 × 10–3) × 0.2 × 11.78
= 4185 W or (Ans.)
Example 1.12.

Solution. Given: Diameter of inner cylinder, d = 180 mm = 0.18 m

Diameter of outer cylinder, 181.2 mm = 0.1812 m
Length of each cylinder, l = 300 mm = 0.3 m
Speed of the inner cylinder, N = 120 r.p.m.
Torque, T = 20 Nm.

Tangential velocity of the inner cylinder

dN 0.18 120
u = 1.13 m/s
60 60
Surface area of the inner cylinder,
A = dl = × 0.18 × 0.3
= 0.1696 m2
Using the relation:
du
= .
dy
 16 Fluid Mechanics
where, du = u – 0 = 1.13 – 0
= 1.13 m/s
0.1812 – 0.180
and dy = = 0.0006 m
2
1.13
= = 1883.33
0.0006
Shear force, F = × A = 1883.33 × 0.1696 N
d
Torque, T = F × F
2
0.18
= 1883.33 × 0.1696 ×
2
or 20 = 1883.33 × 0.1696 × 0.09
20
or µ = 0.696 Ns/m 2
1883.33 0.1696 0.09
i.e., = 6.96 poise (Ans.)
Example 1.13. ( )
(h) (T)
an angular velocity ( ). (M.U.)
Solution. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.9.

Consider an elementary ring of disc at radius r and having a width dr. Linear velocity at this
radius is r.
du
Shear stress, =
dy
Torque = shear stress × area × r
= × 2 r dr × r
du
= × 2 r2 × dr
dy
Assuming the gap h to be
du r
=
dy h
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 17
Torque on the element
r 2
dT = 2 r2 dr r3 dr
h h
/2 2
Total torque, T = r3 dr
0 h
4 /2 4
2 2 1
or T = .
h 4 0 h 4 2
4
or T = , which is the required expression. (Ans.)
32 h
Example 1.14. A 120
–4
Find the viscosity of oil if the torque required to rotate the disc at 60 .
.
Solution. Given: Diameter of the disc, = 120 mm = 0.12 m
t = 1.8 mm = 1.8 × 10–3 m
Torque, T = 3.6 × 10–4 Nm
Speed of the disc, N = 60 r.p.m.
N 2 60
Angular speed of the disc, = 2 rad/s
60 60

We know that when the velocity gradient is linear,

du u
=
dy t

u
Shearing stress, = . .
t
Shearing force = Shearing stress × Area
u
= . .2 r dr (considering an element at radius r and thickness dr)
t

r 2 r 2. dr
= . .2 r dr (where u = being the angular velocity)
t t
 18 Fluid Mechanics
Viscous torque = Shearing force × r
2 r 2 . dr 2 r 3 . dr
= .r
t t
Total viscous torque,
R R
2 r 3 dr 2 R4
T = r 3dr
t t 2t
0 0
R4
T
2t
Substituting the values, we get:
2 (0.12 / 2) 4
3.6 × 10–4 =
2 1.8 10 –3
3.6 10 –4 2 1.8 10 –3
or µ = = 0.00506 N.s/m2 = 0.0506 poise.
2 (0.06) 4
Hence, = 0.0506 poise (Ans.)
Example 1.15. is to rotate at angular
velocity . An oil of viscosity

Solution. Given: Maximum radius of the cone = R

Vertex angle = 2
Viscosity the oil =
Thickness of oil = t
Refer Fig. to 1.11.
Consider an elementary area dA at radius r of the cone.
dr
dA = 2 r ds ×
sin

du u
Shear stress =
dy t
Shear force = shear stress × area of the element
u dr
= 2 r
t sin
u dr
Viscous torque on the element, dT = 2 r r
t sin
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 19
Since the cone rotates with angular velocity rad/sec., the tangential velocity, u = r
r dr 2
or, dT = 2 r r r 3 dr
t sin t sin
2 R
Total torque, T = r 3 dr
t sin 0

2 R4
T = R 4 (Ans.)
t sin 4 2t sin
(or rate of heat dissipation in the bearing)
2
P = T = R4 (Ans.)
2t sin
Example 1.16. The space between the surfaces
2 2
.
velocity of 0.3 . Calculate the drag force:
(i)
(ii) When the thin plate is at a distance of 4
Solution. Given: Distance between the fixed parallel planes = 12 mm = 0.012 m
Area of thin plate, A = 0.25 m2
Velocity of plate, u = 0.3 m/s
Viscosity of oil = 0.972 N.s/m2
F:
(i)
Let, F1 = Shear force on the upper side of the
thin plate,
F2 = Shear force on the lower side of the
thin plate,
F = Total force required to drag the plate
( = F1 + F2).
The shear 1, on the upper side of the thin plate is given by:
du
t1 = .
dy 1
where, du = 0.3 m/s (relative velocity between upper fixed plane and the plate), and dy =
6 mm = 0.006 m (distance between the upper fixed plane and the plate)
(Thickness of the plate neglected).
0.3
1 = 0.972 48.6 N/m 2
0.006
Shear force, F1 = 1. A = 48.6 × 0.25 = 12.15 N
Similarly shear stress ( 2) on the lower side of the thin plate is given by
du 0.3
2 = u. 0.972 48.6 N/m 2
dy 2 0.06
and F2 = 2 . A = 48.6 × 0.25 = 12.15 N
F = F1 + F2 = 12.15 + 12.15 = 24.30 N (Ans.)
(ii) When the thin plate is at a distance of 40 : Refer to Fig. 1.13.
 20 Fluid Mechanics
The shear force on the upper side of the thin
plate,

du
F1 = 1 .A . A
dy 1

0.3
= 0.972 0.25 9.11N
0.008
The shear force on the lower side of the thin plate,

du
F2 = 2 A . A
dy 2

0.3
= 0.972 0.25 18.22 N
0.004
Total force F = F1 + F2 = 9.11 + 18.22 = 27.33 N (Ans.)
2
Example 1.17. In the Fig. 1.14 being pulled with a force
N.
2
is 0.12
Solution: Area of the plate, A = 6 m2
Force applied to the plate, F = 160 N
Viscosity of top oil, = 0.12 N.s/m2
:
Let F1 = Shear force in the
upper side of thin
(assumed) plate,
F2 = Shear force on the
lower side of the thin
plate, and
F = Total force required to drag the plate
(= F1 + F2)
Then, F = F1 + F2 = 1 × A + 2 × A

u du
= A 3 A
y 1
dy 2

( where 1 and 2 are the shear stresses on the two sides of the plate)
u u
160 = 0.12 × –3
6 3 0.12 6
6 10 6 10 –3
160
or 160 = 120u + 360u = 480u or u = 0.333 m/s (Ans.)
480
Example 1.18. ×
. The
2
gap is filled with an oil of specific gravity 0.85 .
force required to lift the plate with a constant velocity of 0.15
Solution. Given: Dimensions of the plate = 1.25 m × 1.25 m × 6 mm
Area of the plate, A = 1.25 × 1.25 = 1.5625 m2
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 21
Thickness of the plate = 6 mm
24 – 6
t1 = t2 = 9 mm
2
(Since the plate is situated midway in the gap)

Dynamic viscosity of oil = 3 N.s/m2

Velocity of the plate = 0.15 m/s
Weight of the plate = 90 N
Force required to lift the plate:
Drag force (or viscous resistance) against the motion of
the plate,
F = 1 . A + 2. A
(where 1 and 2 are the shear stresses on two sides of the
plate)
du du
= . A A
dy 1 dy 2
u u
= . A . A
t1 t2
1 1
= Au .
t1 t2
1 1
or F = 3 × 1.5625 × 0.15
9 10 –3 9 10 –3
2
= 3 × 1.5625 × 0.15 × 156.25 N
9 10 –3
Upward thrust or buoyant force on the plate = specific weight × volume of oil displaced
= 0.85 × 9810 × ( 1.25 × 1.25 × 0.006 ) = 78.17 N
Effective weight of the plate = 90 – 78.17 = 11.83 N
Total force required to lift the plate at velocity of 0.15 m/s = F + effective weight of the plate
= 156.25 + 11.83 = 168.08 N (Ans.)
Example 1.19. side and 1.8 N is to be lifted
through a vertical gap of 30
2
and viscosity of 3 . ,
force and power required.
Solution. Area of metal plate, A = 1.8 × 1.8 = 3.24 m2
30 – 1.8
t = dy = 0.0141
2 1000
Speed of the metal plate, u = 0.12 m/s.
Change of speed,
du = 0.12 – 0 = 0.12 m/s
 22 Fluid Mechanics
Viscosity, = 3 N.s/m2
We know, shear stress,
du
= .
dy
0.12
= 3 25.53 N/m 2
0.0141
F:
F = W + 2 ( . A)
[ where W = weight of the plate
= 60 N (given)]
= 60 + 2 × 25.53 × 3.24 = 225.4 N
Hence F = 225.4 N (Ans.)
P:
P = F × u = 225.4 × 0.12 = 27.05 W
Hence P = 27.05 (Ans.)
Example 1.20. A thin plate of very large area is placed in a gap of height h with oils of
viscosities and on the two sides of the plate. The plate is pulled at a constant velocity V.
Calculate the position of plate so that :
(i) The shear force on the two sides of the plate is equal
(ii)

Solution. Given : Height of the gap = h

Viscosities of oils = u and u
Velocity of the plate = V
:

Let y = The distance of the thin plate from one of the surfaces of the gap.
Force on the upper side of the plate,
du V
Fupper = A
dy ( h – y)
V
Force on the lower side of the plate, Flower A
y
(i) Since the forces on the two sides of the plate are equal (given) we have,
upper = Flower
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 23

V V
A = A
( h – y) y

or, = or y= h– y
h– y y
h
y= (Ans.)

(ii) Total drag force = sum of the forces on the upper and lower surfaces of the plate.
= Fupper + Flower
V V
or, F= A A
h– y y
dF
For the drag force to be 0
dy
d V V
A A 0
dy h– y y
VA VA
or, – = 0
( h – y )2 y2
( h – y )2 h2 y 2 2hy h2 2h
or, = 1–
y2 y2 y2 y

h2 2h
– 1
y2 y

h 2 4 – 4(1 – / )
or, = 1 ( / )
y 2
h
Since, cannot be less than unity, therefore
y
h h
=1 / or = (Ans.)
y 1+ /

The thermodynamic properties need to be considered when a fluid is influenced by change of

temperature. The following equation, known as the characteristic equation of a state of a perfect
is used for this purpose.
(1.10)
where, p = Absolute pressure, = Mass of gas,
V = Volume of kg of gas, R = Characteristic gas constant, and
T = Absolute temperature.
The characteristic equation in can be derived by using
The is defined as a quantity of a gas equivalent to M kg of the gas, where M is the
molecular weight of the gas ( since the molecular weight of oxygen is 32, then 1 kg mole of
oxygen is equivalent to 32 kg of oxygen).
kg of a gas, we have:
= nM ...(1.11)
where, n = No. of moles.
 24 Fluid Mechanics

Note. Since the standard of mass is the kg, kilogram-mole will be written simply as mole.
Substituting for from eqn. 1.11 in Eqn. 1.10 gives:
pV
pV = nMRT or MR =
nT
According to Avogadro’s hypothesis the volume of 1 mole of any gas is the same as the volume
V
of 1 mole of any other gas, when the gases are at same temperature and pressure. Therefore, is
n
pV
the same for all gases at the same value of p and T. That is the quantity is a constant for all
nT
gases. This constant is called ‘universal gas constant’, and is given the symbol, R0,
pV
R0 or pV = nR0T ...(1.12)
nT
R0
Since, MR = R0, then R ...(1.13)
M
It has been found experimentally that the volume of 1 mole of any perfect gas at 1 bar and 0°C
is approximately 22.71 m3. Therefore from eqn. 1.12,
pV 1 10 5 22.71
R0 = 8314.3 Nm/mole K
nT 1 273.15
Using eqn. 1.13, the gas constant for any gas can be found when the molecular weight is known.
Example. , the gas constant
R 8314
R = 0 259.8 Nm/kg K.
M 32
If the value of R is known, the specific weight of any gas can be computed at any temperature.
The density can be changed by changing temperature or pressure.
(i) When the change in the state of the fluid system is affected at constant pressure the process
is known as isobaric or constant pressure process.
V v v 1
Here = constant or = constant ...(1.14)
T T T T
(ii) When the change in the state of the fluid system is affected at the
process is known as isothermal process.
p
Here pv = pv = constant ...(1.15)

(iii) When no heat is transferred to or from the fluid during the change in the state of fluid
system, the process is called adiabatic process.
p
Here, pv constant or pv = constant ...(1.16)

cp
where = ,
cv
cp
cv =
depends upon the molecular structure of the gas.
Note. For details regarding compression and expansion of gases please refer to chapter on “ .”
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 25
2
Example 1.21. abs.
and 30°C
Solution. Given: Pressure of CO2 = 600 kN/m2 abs.
Temperature of CO2 = 30 + 273 = 303 K
Molecular weight of CO2 = 12 + 2 × 16 = 44
Universal gas constant, R0 = 8314.3 Nm/mole K
R0 8314.3
Characteristic gas constant, R 189 Nm/kg K
M 44
(i
p
We know,
V RT
p 600 10 3
or, = = 10.14 kg/m3
RT 189 313
3
= (Ans.)
(ii) w:
w = g = 10.14 × 9.81 = 99.47 N/m3 (Ans.)
(iii) v:
1 1
v = = 0.0986 m3 (Ans.)
10.14

Cohesion. Cohesion means intermolecular attraction between It

enables a liquid to resist small amount of tensile stresses. Cohesion is a tendency of the liquid to
remain as one “Surface tension” is due to cohesion between particles at the
free surface.
Adhesion. Adhesion means
solid boundary surface in contact with the liquid. This property enables a liquid to stick to another
body.
Capillary action is due to both cohesion and adhesion.
Surface tension is caused by the force of cohesion at the free surface. A liquid molecule
in the interior of the liquid mass is
surrounded by other molecules all
around and is in equilibrium. At the
free surface of the liquid, there are no
liquid molecules above the surface
to balance the force of the molecules
below it. Consequently, as shown in
Fig. 1.18, there is a net inward force
on the molecule. The force is normal to
the liquid surface. At the free surface a
thin layer of molecules is formed. This
is because of this
(the
layer acts as a ).
Some are as follows:
 26 Fluid Mechanics
(i) Rain drops (A falling rain drop becomes spherical due to cohesion and surface tension).
(ii) Rise of sap in a tree.
(iii) Bird can drink water from ponds.
(iv) Capillary rise and capillary siphoning.
(v) Collection of dust particles on water surface.
(vi
Dimensional formula for surface tension:
The dimensional formula for surface tension is given by:
E M
or
L T2
It is usually expressed in N/m. The value of surface tension depends upon the following factors:
(i) Nature of the liquid,
(ii) Nature of the surrounding matter ( solid, liquid or gas), and
(iii) Kinetic energy (and hence the temperature of the liquid molecules).
Note. As compared to pressure and gravitational forces surface tension forces are generally negligible but

Surface tension of water and mercury when in contact with air:

Mercury-air ... 0.1 N/m length.

Case I.
Let, p = Pressure inside the droplet above outside pressure ( p = p – 0 = p above
atmospheric pressure)
d = Diameter of the droplet and
= Surface tension of the liquid.
From free body diagram (Fig. 1.19 d), we have:
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 27

(i) Pressure force = p d 2 , and

4
(ii) Surface tension force acting around the circumference = × d.
Under equilibrium conditions these two forces will be equal and opposite,

p d2 = d
4
d 4
p= ...(1.17)
d 2 d
4
Eqn. 1.17 shows that with an increase in size of the droplet the pressure intensity decreases.
Case II.
Soap bubbles have two surfaces on which
surface tension acts.
From the free body diagram (Fig. 1.20), we
have

p d2 2 ( d)
4
2 d 8
p ...(1.18)
d 2 d
4
Since the soap solution has a high value of surface tension , even with small pressure of
blowing a soap bubble will tend to grow larger in diameter (hence formation of large soap bubbles).
Case III. A Liquid jet:
d and length l
Pressure force = p × l × d
Surface tension force = × 2l
Equating the two forces, we have:
p × l × d = × 2l
2l 2
p = ...(1.19)
l d d
Example 1.22. If the surface tension at air-water interface

?
Solution. Given: d = 0.009 mm
An air bubble has only one surface. Hence,
4
p =
d
4 0.069
= = 30667 N/m2
0.009 10 –3
= 30.667 kN/m2 or kPa (Ans.)
Example 1.23.
.
Solution. Given: d = 28 mm.
 28 Fluid Mechanics
In a soap bubble there are two interfaces. Hence,
8 8 0.09
p =
d 28 10 –3
= 25.71 N/m2 (above atmospheric pressure) (Ans.)
Example 1.24.
tank of water at 20°C.
?
What would be the absolute pressure inside the bubble if the surrounding water is at
2
?
Take surface tension of water at 20°C =
Solution. Diameter of a bubble, d = 3.0 mm = 3 × 10–3 m
Surface tension of water at 20°C, = 0.0735 N/m
The excess pressure intensity of air over that of surrounding water, p = p.
4 4 0.0735
We know, p= = 98 N/m2 (Ans.)
d 3 10 –3
pabs:
pabs = p + p
= 98 × 10–3 + 100.3
= 0.098 + 100.3 = 100.398 kN/m2 (Ans.)
Example 1.25.
outside pressure of 20 N/ 2. ?
Solution. Given: Diameter of the bubble, d = 62.5 mm = 62.5 × 10–3
Internal pressure in excess of the outside pressure, p = 20 N/m2.

8
Using the relation, p=
d
8 62.5 10 –3
i.e., 20 20 = 0.156 N/m (Ans.)
62.5 10 –3 8
Example 1.26.

at air-water interface? (N.U.)

Solution. as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact

The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free surface will have the
same value as the surface energy per unit area. It is denoted by the letter and is expressed as N/m.
p d2 = ( d)
4
d
or = p
4
d = 0.01 × 10–3 p = 29.2 × 103 Pa ( or N/m2), we get
0.01 10 –3
= 29.2 × 103 × = 0.073 N/m (Ans.)
4

(depending upon its specific gravity) rises into a

thin glass tube above or below its general level. This phenomenon is due to the
cohesion and adhesion of liquid particles.
Fig. 1.22 shows the phenomenon of rising water in the tube of diameters.
Let, d = Diameter of the capillary tube,
= Angle of contact of the water surface,
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 29
= Surface tension force for unit length, and
w = Weight density ( g).
Now, upward surface tension force (lifting
force) = weight of the water column in the tube
(gravity force)
d. cos = d2 h w
4
4 cos
h = ...(1.20)
wd
For water and glass: 0.
Hence the capillary rise of water in the glass
tube,
4
h = ...(1.21)
wd
In case of mercury there is a capillary depression
as shown in Fig. 1.23, and the angle of depression is
140°. (It may be noted that here cos = cos 140°
= cos (180 – 40°) = – cos 40°, therefore, h is negative
indicating capillary depression).
Following points are worth noting:
(i) Smaller the diameter of the capillary tube,
greater is the capillary rise or depression.
(ii) The measurement of liquid level in labora-
tory capillary (glass) tubes should not be smaller than
8 mm.
(iii) Capillary effects are negligible for tubes
longer than 12 mm.
(iv) For wetting liquid (water): /2. For water:
= 0 when pure water is in contact with clean glass.
But becomes as high as 25° when water is slightly
contaminated.
For non-wetting liquid (mercury): /2.
(For mercury: varies between 130° to 150°)
Refer Fig. 1.24 which illustrates the liquid gas
interface with a solid surface.
(v) The effects of surface tension are negligible
in many flow problems except those involving.
—

— hydraulic model studies where the model

Capillary inversion. Due to surface tension

the liquid passing out of an elliptical orifice tends
to assume a circular or minimum perimeter cross-
section. Here transformation of surface energy into
 30 Fluid Mechanics

varies as the Weber number changes and the

motion continues giving rise to a series of
standing waves. This phenomenon is known as
capillary inversion non-
circular cross-section. As shown in the Fig. 1.25

be observed to undergo two inversion cycles in

a given length.
The phenomenon of capillary inversion of

production and size control of liquid droplets

like:
–– paint,
— molten shot, and
— agricultural insecticides, etc.
Example 1.27.

3
.
What would be the level of the liquid in the tube relative to the free surface of the liquid inside
the tube.
Solution. Given: d = = 4 N/m, = 13600 kg/m3
h:
The liquid in the tube rises (or falls) due to capillarity. The capillary rise (or fall),
4 cos
h = ...[Eqn. (1.20)]
wd
4 0.4 cos 135
= ( w = g)
(9.81 13600) 2.5 10 –3
= – 3.39 × 10–3m or – 3.39 mm
Negative sign indicates that there is a capillary depression (fall) of 3.39 mm. (Ans.)
Example 1.28.

1
Solution. Given: Diameter of the pores, d = 0.074 N/m
10
Assuming = 0°
4 4 0.074
h = = 6.286 m (Ans.)
wd (9.81 1000) 0.0048 10 –3
Example 1.29.

Solution. Given: d= = 0.038 N/m.

The soap bubble has two interfaces.
Work done = Surface tension × total surface area
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 31

2
0.1
= 0.038 × 4 × 2
2
= 0.002388 Nm (Ans.)
Example 1.30.

with air as 0.0735 .

Solution. Given :Capillary rise, h = 0.3 mm = 0.3 × 10–3 m
Surface tension, = 0.0735 N/m
w = 9810 N/m3.
d:
4 cos 4
Capillary rise, h =
wd wd
(Assuming = 0 for water)
4 0.0735
0.3 × 10–3 =
9810 d
4 0.0735
d = 0.1 m = 100 mm (Ans.)
0.3 10 –3 9810
Example 1.31.
and zero contact

the liquid.
Solution. Given: Bores of the capillaries:
d1 = 1.2 mm = 0.0012 m
d2 = 2.4 mm = 0.0024 m
Difference of level, h1 – h2 =0

4 cos 4 cos
h1 = , and h2 =
wd1 wd 2
[where w (= g) = weight density of the liquid)]
4 1 1
h1 – h2 = – ( = 0)
w d1 d 2
4 0.06 1 1 0.02446
0.015 = – 416.67
9.81 0.0012 0.0024
0.02446 416.67 3
= (Ans.)
0.015
Example 1.32.
and contact angle between two vertical parallel plates at a distance W apart. If the plates are of
, = 0°?. Take W = 1
(Anna University)
Solution. Refer to Fig. 1.26. Consider two vertical parallel plates immersed in a liquid whose
weight density is w.
Given :
 32 Fluid Mechanics
= Contact angle.
Let, h = Height of liquid between plates above general
liquid surface.
Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of liquid of height h is
balanced by the force at the surface of liquid between the plates.
Then weight of liquid of height h is balanced by the force
between the plates
= volume of liquid of height h between the plates × w
=W×L×h×w ...(1)
where, L = length of plate, and w = weight density of the liquid.
Vertical component of surface tensile force
= ( × circumference) × cos
= × 2L × cos ...(2)
For equilibrium, eqns. (1) and (2) must balance.
W × L × h × w = × 2L × cos ...(3)
2 cos
or, h =
W w
Eqn. (3) is the expression for capillary rise. (Ans.)
When plates are of glass,
= 0°, = 0.073 N/m
W = 1 mm = 0.001 m, w = 9810 N/m3
2 cos
Capillary rise of water, h =
W w
2 0.073 cos 0
= = 0.0149 m or 14.9 mm
0.001 9810
Hence, capillary rise = 14.9 mm (Ans.)

Example 1.33.
,

= 0.52 N/m and angle of contact = 140°

Solution. Given: d1 d2 = 140°.
Error in measurement due to surface tension effects:
The surface tension manifests the phenomenon of capillary action due to which rise or depression
of manometric liquid in a tube is given by
4 cos
h =
wd1
4 0.52 cos140
Now, h1 = = 4.97 × 10–3 m
(13.6 9810) ( 2.4 10 –3 )
(Negative sign indicates capillary depression)
4 0.52 cos140
h2 = = – 4.52 × 10–3 m
(13.6 9810) (2.64 10 –3)
Hence, error in measurement due to surface tension effects
= (4.97 – 4.52) × 10–3 = 0.45 × 10–3 m = 0.45 mm (Ans.)
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 33
Example 1.34.
(i) water and (ii) and the values
in contact with air are 0.0735
respectively. The contact angle for water = 0° = 130°.
3
water at 20°C as equal to 9790 .
Solution. Given: Diameter of glass tube, d = 4 mm = 0.004 m
Surface tension at 20°C :
water = 0.0735 N/m, = 0.051 N/m
3

The rise or depression h of a liquid in a capillary tube is given by

4 cos
h =
wd
where, = surface tension, = angle of contact, and w
(i)
4 0.0735 cos 0
h = ( water = 0° ...given)
9790 0.004
= 7.51 × 10–3 m = 7.51 mm (rise) (Ans.)
(ii) Capillary effect for mercury
4 0.051 cos130
h= ( = 130° ... given)
(13.6 9790) 0.004
or, = – 2.46 × 10–3 m = – 2.46 mm
= 2.46 mm (depression ) (Ans.)
Example 1.35. (specific gravity = 0.85) by the

2
.
Solution. Sp. gravity of oil = 0.85
Internal diameter of the tube,
d = 1.5 mm = 0.0015 m
Depth, h = 12.5 mm = 0.0125 m
Gauge pressure inside the bubble
pi = 150 N/m2

Gauge pressure outside the bubble,

p0 = wh = (0.85 × 9810) × 0.0125 = 104.23 N/m2
Net pressure attributable to surface tension
p = pi – p0 = 150 – 104.23 = 45.77 N/m2
4
Also, pi – p 0
d
Assuming diameter of bubble equal to that of the tube,
4
45.77 =
0.0015
45.77 0.0015
= = 0.0172 N/m (Ans.)
4
 34 Fluid Mechanics
Example 1.36.
water in a trough. The inner and outer radii of the annulus are ri and r0 respectively. What is the
capillary rise if is the surface tension of water in contact with air? (PTU)
Solution. Refer to Fig. 1.28. If the angle of contact between the liquid and the curved tube
surface is , the water in the annulus will continue to rise until the vertical component of the surface
tension force which acts over the wetted length (outer curve of the inner tube and inner curve of the
outer tube) equals the height of the water column, or
T cos (r02 – r2i ) h g, where T = (r0 + ri T, we get

(r0 + ri) cos (r02 – r2i ) h g

cos
or, h = capillary rise =
(r0 – ri ) g

For pure water and clean glass 0 and h

(r0 – ri ) g
Under neither water is pure, nor glass is clean.
Gibson has obtained the value of as 25° 32 .

cos 25 32 0.902
Thus, h (Ans.)
(r0 – ri ) g (r0 – ri ) g

pressure is known as It decreases with the increases in pressure of fluid as the

volume modulus increases with the increase of pressure.
The variation in volume of water, with variation of pressure, is so small that for all practical
purposes it is neglected. Thus, the water is considered to be an incompressible liquid. However in
e.g. water hammer)
take place, the compressibility cannot be neglected. The in Fluid Mechanics is

as the Compressibility is the reciprocal of bulk

modulus of elasticity.
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 35
Let, V = Volume of gas enclosed in the cylinder, and
p = Pressure of gas when volume is V
P
= where A is the area of cross-section of the cylinder.
A
Let the pressure is increased to p + dp, the volume of gas decreases from V to V – dV.
Then increase in pressure = dp dV
dV
Volumetric strain = –
V
(Negative sign indicates )
dp (increase of pressure )
Bulk modulus, K =
– dV / V ( volumetricstrain )
dp
– dV / V
1
Compressibility = ...(1.22)
K

value of K increases
with increase of pressure.
The following points are worth noting:
1. The bulk modulus of elasticity (K) of a fluid is not constant, but it increases with increase
in pressure. This is so because when a fluid mass is compressed its molecules become close together
and its resistance to further compression increases increases. (e.g. the value of K roughly
doubles as the pressure is raised from 1 atmosphere to 3500 atmosphere).
2. The bulk modulus of elasticity (K) of the fluid is affected by the temperature of the fluid. In
the case of liquids there is a decrease of K with However, for gases since
pressure and temperature are inter-related and as temperature increases, pressure also increases, an
results in an increase in the value of K.
3. At NTP (normal temperature and pressure):
Kwater = 2.07 × 106 kN/m2, Kair = 101.3 kN/m2
2 2
Example 1.37.
is found to decrease by 0.08 ?
2
Solution. Initial pressure = 3.5 MN/m
Final pressure = 6.5 MN/m2
Increase in pressure, dp = 6.5 – 3.5 = 3.0 MN/m2
dV 0.08
Decrease in volume = 0.08 percent
V 100
Bulk modulus (K) is given by:
dp 3 10 6
K = = 3.75 × 109 N/m2 or 3.75 GN/m2
dV 0.08
–
V 100
Hence, K = 3.75 GN/m2 (Ans.)
2
Example 1.38. is applied to 100 litres of a

Solution. Net pressure applied, dp = 20.7 MN/m2

 36 Fluid Mechanics
Decrease in volume, dV = 1 litre
dV 1
Initial volume, V = 100 litres –
V 100
Bulk modulus K:
dp 20.7 10 6
K = – = 20.7 × 108 N/m2 = 2.07 GN/m2
– dV / V 1 / 100
K = 2.07 GN/m2 (Ans.)
Evidently the liquid is (Ans.).
Example 1.39. (abs.)
(abs.) ( = 1.4).
? (N.U.)
Solution. Compressibility is (For density) when the
It is the reciprocal of the bulks modulus of elasticity (K).
It is expressed mathetically as:
1 – (dV / V )
Z =
K dp
1
For an ideal gas, if the compression is isothermal, Z = , and if the compression is isentropic,
p
1
Z= .
p
1 1
For the given A ZA = = 0.008 m2/kN
p 125
1 1
For the B, Z = = 0.007143 m2/kN
p 1.4 100
Hence A more compressible. (Ans.).
Example 1.40.
obeys Van der Waals’ law of state according to the equation:
1 a
p = pRT –
1– b RT

(P.E.C.)
Solution. Bulk modulus of elasticity,
dp dp
K = – –V ,
dV dV
V
dp
where, V is volume = – v ,v
dv
1 dv d
Since, v = or v = 1 –
v

dp 1 a
K = p = RT – ...(Given)
d 1– b RT
dp 1 a b a RT b RT
RT – RT 2
– –a –a
d 1– b RT (1 – b ) RT 1–b (1 – b ) 2
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 37

RT b RT
= 1 – 2a – 2a
1–b 1–b (1 – b ) 2
dp RT 2
and, K = – 2a ... Required expression (Ans.).
d (1 – b ) 2

All liquids have a tendency to evaporate or vaporize ( to change from the liquid to the

surface. This pressure is known as the vapour pressure of the liquid (pv). If the surface above the
liquid is confined, the partial vapour pressure exerted by the molecules increases till the rate at
which the molecules re-enter the liquid is equal to the rate at which they leave the surface. When the
equilibrium condition is reached, the vapour pressure is called saturation vapour pressure (pvs).
The following points are worth noting:
1. If the pressure on the liquid surface is
boiling takes place.
2.
3. Mercury has a it is an excellent fluid to be used in a

Table 1.1. Summary of Fluid Characteristics

Sr. No. Characteristics Symbol Dimensions Units

1. Mass density Mass per unit volume, ML–3 kg/m3

V
Weight density w
2. w Weight per unit volume, FL–3 N/m3
(or ) V
V 1
3. Volume per unit mass L3M–1 m3/kg

Specific weight of liquid

Specific weight of pure water
4. S
wliquid
=
wwater

N.s/m2
du –2
5. Newton’s law: . FTL poise,
dy centipoise
m2/s stoke,
6. L2T–1
centistoke

7. K p FL–2 N/m2
K –
dV / V
8. Surface tension Force per unit length FL–1 N/m

9. Vapour pressure p F FL–2 N/m2

pv
A
 38

Table 1.2. Properties of Some Common Fluids at 20°C and Atmospheric Pressure HIGHLIGHTS

Fluid Mass Dynamic viscosity Kinematic viscosity Modulus of Surface Vapour

Fluid Mechanics

density elasticity tension in pressure

3
(kN/m3) ) E(N/m2) (N/m2)
(N/m)
2
Poise kg/ms Stoke m /s
Air 1.208 0.01185 1.85 × 10–4 1.85 × 10–5 1.53 × 10–1 1.53 × 10–5 – – –
–4 –3 –7 9
Benzene 860 8.434 0.007 7.00 × 1 8.14 × 10 8.14 × 10 1.0356 × 10 0.0255 1.000 × 104
Castor oil 960 9.414 9.800 9.80 × 10–1 1.00 × 101 1.00 × 103 1.441 × 109 0.0392 –
Carbon 1594 15.632 0.010 1.00 × 10–3 6.04 × 10–3 6.04 × 10–7 1.104 × 109 0.0265 1.275 × 104
tetrachloride
Ethyl alcohol 789 7.737 0.012 1.20 ×10–3 1.52 × 10–2 1.52 × 10–6 1.118 × 109 0.0216 5.786 × 103
Glycerine 1260 12.356 8.350 8.35 × 10–1 6.63 6.63 × 10–4 4.354 × 109 0.0637 1.373 × 10–2
Kerosene 800 7.845 0.020 2.00 × 10–3 2.50 × 10–2 2.50 × 10–6 – 0.0235 –
Mercury 13550 132.880 0.016 1.60 × 10–3 1.18 × 10–3 1.18 × 10–7 2.431 × 1010 0.510 1.726 × 10–1
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 39

1. Hydraulics is that branch of Engineering science, which deals with water at rest or in
motion.
2. may be defined as that branch of Engineering science which deals with
the behaviour of fluid under the conditions of rest and motion.
3. A fluid is substance which is capable of flowing.
4. Mass density is the mass per unit volume whereas weight density (or specific weight) is the
weight per unit volume at the standard temperature and pressure.
5. Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight of the liquid to the specific weight of a
standard fluid. It is dimensionless and has no units.
6. Viscosity is the property of a fluid which determines its resistance to shearing stresses.
Newton’s law of viscosity states that the shear stress ( ) on a fluid element layer is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co-
efficient of viscosity.
du
Mathematically, = . ,
dy
du
where = co-efficient of dynamic viscosity, and = rate of shear deformation or veloc-
dy
ity gradient.

denoted by (nu).

7. Cohesion and adhesion:

Cohesion means intermolecular attraction between molecules of the same liquid.
Adhesion means attraction between molecules of a liquid and the molecules of a solid
boundary surface in contact with the liquid.
8. Surface tension ( ) is caused by the force of cohesion at the free surface. It is usually
expressed in N/m.
Pressure inside:
4 8
(a) Water droplet: p= , (b) Soap bubble : p = , and
d d
2
(c p= (where d stands for diameter).
d

9. Capillarity is a phenomenon by which a liquid (depending upon its specific gravity) rises
into a thin glass tube or below its general level.
4 cos
h=
wd
where, h = Height of capillary rise,
d = Diameter of the capillary tube,
= Angle of contact of the water surface,
= Surface tension per unit length, and
w = Weight density ( g).
 40 Fluid Mechanics
10. is the property by virtue of which fluid undergoes a change in volume under
the action of external pressure. It is the reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity (K).
dV
K = dp (increase of pressure)/ – (volumetric strain)
V
1
compressibility
K

1. The branch of Engineering-science, which deals (c) Thyxotropic substance

with water at rest or in motion is called (d) Elastic solid.
(a) hydraulics (b 10. The viscosity of liquids ..... with increase in
(c) applied mechanics (d) kinematics. temperature.
2. A solid can resist which of the following stresses? (a) decreases
(a) Tensile (b) Compressive (b) increases
(c) Shear (d) All of the above. (c
3. - (d
pressible. 11. Surface tension is caused by the force of ..... at
(a) Solid (b) Liquid the free surface.
(c) Gas (d) Vapour. (a) cohesion (b) adhesion
4. - (c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of the above.
lowing? 12. Which of the following is an example of phe-
(a) Viscosity (b) Surface tension nomenon of surface tension?
(c) Compressibility (d) density. (a) Rain drops
5. (b) Rise of sap in a tree
(c
as (d) All of the above.
(a b) weight density 13. Surface tension is expressed in
(c d) viscosity. (a) N/m (b) N/m2
2
6. (c) N /m (d) N/m3.
resistance to shearing stress is called 14. Pressure inside a water droplet is given by the
(a) viscosity (b) surface tension relation
(c) compressibility (d) none of the above. 4 3
(a) p = (b) p =
7. Newton’s law of viscosity is given by the rela- d d
tion: 8 16
2 du du (c) p = (d) p =
(a) (b) d d
dy dy
15. ...... is a phenomenon by which a liquid rises
du du into a thin glass tube above or below its general
(c) . (d) ( ) 3/2
dy dy level.
8. Fluids which do not follow the linear relationship (a) Surface tension (b) Capillarity
between shear stress and rate of deformation are (c) Cohesion (d) Adhesion.
16. The capillary rise of water in the glass tube is
(a) Newtonian (b) Non-Newtonian given by
(c) dilatent (d) ideal 2 3
(a) h = (b) h =
9. The printer’s ink is an example of wd wd
(a 4 6
(c) h = (d) h =
(b) Non-Newtonian wd wd
 Chapter 1 : Properties of Fluids 41
17. 19. Bulk modulus of elasticity is the ratio of
(a) Young’s modulus of elasticity (a) tensile stress to tensilestrain
(b) shear modulus of elasticity (b) compressive stress to compressive strain
(c) bulk modulus of elasticity (c) compressive stress to volumetric strain
(d) none of the above. (d) none of the above.
18. Compressibility is the reciprocal of 20. The value of bulk modulus of elasticity ..........
(a) bulk modulus of elasticity with increase of pressure.
(b) shear modulus of elasticity (a) increases (b) decreases
(c) Young’s modulus of elasticity (c) either of the above
(d) any of the above. (d) none of the above.

1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (e) 5. (c) 6. (a)

7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (d)
13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (c) 18. (a)
19. (c) 20. (a)

1. 8. What is dynamic viscosity? What are its units?

(i) Hydraulics (ii) Fluid mechanics 9. What is kinematic viscosity? What are its units?
(iii) Fluid (iv) Aerostatics. 10.
2. 11.
3. What is the difference between an ideal and a vary with temperature?
12. What is the difference between cohesion and
4. Name some important properties of liquids. adhesion?
5. 13.
(i) Mass density (ii) Weight density (i) Surface tension, and
(iii iv (ii) Compressibility.
6. What do you mean by the term ‘Viscosity’? 14. What is capillarity? Derive expression for height
7. State and explain the Newton’s law of viscosity. of capillary rise.

1. 4. A plate has an area of 1 m2. It slides down an

inclined plane, having angle of inclination 45°
is 0.85. to the horizontal, with a velocity of 0.5 m/s. The
[Ans. 850 kg/m3, 0.00118 m3/kg, 8350 N/m3]
2. -
matic viscosity of 6 stokes. What is its dynamic the weight of the plate is 70.72 N.
viscosity? [Ans. 11.38 poise] [Ans. 1 poise]
3. The space between two parallel plates 5 mm apart 5. The velocity distribution over a plate is given by

to drag the upper plate at a constant velocity of

3 1 2
u y y
0.8 m/s. The lower plate is stationary. The area 2 2
of the upper plate is 0.09 m2. Determine: (i) The where, u = velocity, m/s, and
dynamic viscosity, and (ii) the kinematic viscos- y = distance from the plate boundary, m.

is 0.9. [Ans. (i) 1.39 poise, (ii) 1.52 stokes]

 42 Fluid Mechanics

shear stress at the plate boundary and at y = 0.15

m from the plate. [Ans. 1.20 N/m2, 1.08 N/m2] viscosity of 0.125 N.s/m2, determine the speed
6. of rotation of the cylinder which will be obtained
of 0.1 m2. It slides down an inclined plane at 30° if an external torque of 1 Nm is applied to it.
to the horizontal, at a constant speed of 3 m/s. [Ans. 81.03 r.p.m.]
If the inclined plane is lubricated with an oil of 12.
viscosity 0.1 N.s/m2 2 contained in a vessel at
[Ans. 0.133 mm] a pressure of 800 kN/m2 and temperature 25°C.
7. [Ans. 14.2 kg/m3, 139.4 N/m3, 0.0703 m3/kg]
of 4 m/s on the top of a 5 mm deep liquid layer 13. A soap bubble 50 mm diameter has an internal
of viscosity 20 centipoise. If the area of the plate pressure in excess of the outside pressure of 25
is 1 m2 N/m2
Assume variation of velocity in the liquid to be [Ans. 0.156 N/m]
linear. [Ans. 16 N] 14. Air is introduced through a nozzle into a tank of
8. A square metal plate 1.5 m side and 1.5 mm thick water (at 20°C) to form a stream of bubbles. If
weighing 50 N is to be lifted through a vertical the process requires 2.5 mm diameter bubbles to
be formed, by how much the air pressure at the
nozzle must exceed that of surrounding water.
of 2.5 N.s/m2. If the metal plate is to be lifted Take surface tension of water at 20°C = 0.0735
N/m. [Ans. 117.4 N/m2]
power required. [Ans. 145.7 N, 14.57 W] 15. Determine the minimum size of glass tubing
9. Inside a 60 mm diameter cylinder a piston of that can be used to measure water level, if the
59 mm diameter rotates concentrically. Both capillary rise in the tube is not to exceed 0.25
the cylinder and piston are 80 mm long. If the mm. Take surface tension of water in contact
with air as 0.0735 N/m. [Ans. 120 mm]
with oil of viscosity of 0.3 N.s/m2 and a torque 16. A U-tube is made up of two capillaries of bore
1 mm and 2 mm respectively. The tube is held
(i) The r.p.m. of the piston, and
(ii) The power required. surface tension 0.05 N/m and zero contact angle.
[Ans. (i) 1850 r.p.m. (ii) 290.5 W] Calculate the mass density of the liquid if the
10. estimated difference in the level of two menisci
is 12.5 mm. [Ans. 816 kg/m3]
of viscosity 0.81 N.s/m2 2
17. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a
area moves through the oil at a velocity of 0.6 liquid, if the pressure of the liquid is increased
m/s. Calculate the drag force (i) when the plate from 7 MN/m2 to 13 MN/m2. The volume of
is equidistant from both the planes, and (ii) when liquid decreases by 0.15%. [Ans. 4 GN/m2]
the thin plate is at a distance of 80 mm from one 18. A 20 mm wide gap between two vertical plane
of the plane surfaces.
[Ans. (i) 40.5 N (ii) 45.54 N] 0.85 and dynamic viscosity 2.5 N.s/m2. A metal
11. A cylinder of 100 mm diameter and 300 mm plate 1.25 m × 1.25 m × 2 mm thick and weigh-
length rotates about a vertical axis inside a ing 30 N is placed midway in the gap. Determine
the force required to lift the plate with a constant
300 mm length. If the space between the tube velocity of 0.18 m/s. [Ans. 160.2 N]
 2

When a fluid is contained in a vessel, it exerts force

at all points on the sides and bottom and top of the
container. The force per unit area is called pressure.
If, P = The force, and
A = Area on which the force acts; then
P
intensity of pressure, p = ...(2.1)
A
The pressure of a fluid on a surface will always act
normal to the surface.

A liquid is subjected to pressure due to

its own weight, this pressure increases as
the depth of the liquid increases.
Consider a vessel containing liquid,
as shown in Fig. 2.1. The liquid will exert
pressure on all sides and bottom of the
vessel. Now, let cylinder be made to stand
in the liquid, as shown in the figure.
Let, h = Height of liquid in the cylinder,
A = Area of the cylinder base,
w = Specific weight of the liquid,
and, p = Intensity of pressure.
Now, Total pressure on the base of the cylinder = Weight of liquid in the cylinder
i.e., p. A. = wAh
wAh
p = = wh i.e., p = wh ...(2.2)
A
As p = wh, the intensity of pressure in a liquid due to its depth will vary directly with depth.
As the pressure at any point in a liquid depends on height of the free surface above that point, it
is sometimes convenient to express a liquid pressure by the height of the free surface which would
cause the pressure, i.e.,
43