FACULITY OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF HYADRULIC & WATER RESOURCE

ENGINEERING

FLUID MECHANICS Lecture Note ppt

FOR SECOND YEAR HYDRULIC & WATER RESOURCE ENG. STUDENTS

BY Diress Y(Ass.prof).

ACADAMIC YEAR 2022

First SEMESTR
 COURSE OUT LINE
CHAPTER 1: FLUID PROPERTIES
 Introduction
 Properties of fluids
 Physical Properties
• Density and viscosity
• compressibility & Elasticity
• Surface tension & capillarity
CHAPTER 2: PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
 Introduction
 Hydrostatic pressure at a point
 Hydrostatic pressure at Pascal's law
 Measurement of pressure
CHAPTER -3 HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES
 Hydrostatic forces on plane Surfaces: 2
 Hydrostatic forces on curved surfaces
 Relative Equilibrium of liquids
CHAPTE- 4 BUOYANCY AND FLOATATION
 Buoyancy & Center of buoyancy
 Metacenter & Metacentric height
 Determination of Metacentric height
 Stability of Floating & Submerged bodies:
CHAPTE- 5 KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW
 Introduction
 Dimensions of Flow
 Describing the pattern of flow
 Types of flow
 Continuity equation
 Stream function & Velocity potential
 Flow Nets
CHAPTER-6 DYNAMICS OF FLUID FLOW
 Introduction
 Forces influencing fluid motion and Equation of Motion 3
 Bernoulli’s Equation (Hydraulics grade line & Energy grade line)
 CHAPTER ONE
FLUID PROPERTIES

1.0 Introduction

 After studying this introduction the student should understand:-

 Define Fluid Mechanics

 Define Hydraulics

 Differentiate Fluid mechanics and Hydraulics

 Application of hydraulics
4
 Importance of studding Hydraulics
What is fluid mechanics?

 It is the study of force and flow with in fluid let as see fluid and
mechanics separately

 Fluid is a substance that has no fixed shape and yields easily

to external pressure (gas & liquid).

 Matter exist in the form of solid and fluid ( gas & liquid)

 Mechanics concerned with motion and force

Therefore when we combine fluid and mechanics,

 Fluid mechanics is the motion of substance that has no fixed

5
shape within an external pressure.
Fluid mechanics

 It is the branch of science which deals with the behaviour of fluids

at rest as well as in motion.

Fluid static

 The study of fluid at rest.

Fluid Kinematics

 The study of fluid in motion where pressure forces are not

considered.

Fluid Dynamics

 The study of fluids in motion where pressure forces 7are

considered.
What is hydraulics?
Hydraulics is derived from the Greek word “Hydraulikos” mean water.

 It is the study of water and other Engineering fluids, Such as

water, wastewater in waste disposal and oil in hydraulic control
structures.
Activity: What is the difference between Hydraulics and Fluid mechanics?

 Fluid mechanics is a branch of mechanics and studies about fluid

(liquid + Gasses) while Hydraulics is a branch of fluid mechanics
which studies about engineering liquids i.e. most of the time
Hydraulics is concerned with water.

 Generally, fluid mechanics is about fluid while Hydraulics is

concerned with engineering liquids.
 The basic aim to study Hydraulics is to control and understand:-

 Occurrence

 Movement

 Use of water for the benefit of the society.

Activity: Why do we study Hydraulics?

 We study hydraulics:-

 To supply the society with adequate water

 To dispose waste and excess water

 To protect the society from uncontrolled water.

9
Activity: Where we apply hydraulics?
Hydraulics is applied for different purposes such as:
 Design of wide range of Hydraulic structure (dams, canals
weirs etc.) and machinery (pumps, turbine etc.)
 Design of complex network of pumping and pipe lines for
transporting liquids.
 Power generation
 Flood protection
 Surface and ground water studies
 Flow metering like orifice meter
10
 Pressure measurement
1.1 Fluid properties

Objectives

After studding this chapter the student should understand:-

 Define the nature of fluid

 Physical form of existence of matter

 Physical properties of fluid

 Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid

 Surface tension and capillarity

 Vapor pressure 11
FLUIDS

 Matter can be in the form of solid, liquid and gas.

However, liquid and gas are both fluids.

 Fluids are substances, which deforms continuously under

the application of shear force.

Activity : What mean by shear force and average shear stress?

 Shear force is the component of the force that is tangent to the

surface and cause fluid deformation.

12
Shearing force, F, acting on a fluid element.
 For a fluid at rest, there is no shear force.

 When a fluid is in motion shear stresses are develop, shear

stresses happens when adjacent particles have different velocities.

 Average shear stress is the force component tangent to the

surface divided by the area of the surface.

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Therefore, 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Shear stress is denoted by tau “Ԏ”

13
 FLUID PROPERTIES
The properties of fluid can be many categories such as

Intensive properties are independent of the mass of the system. Examples:

temperature, pressure, and density.

Extensive properties are those whose value depends on the size of the system.

Examples: Total mass, total volume, and total momentum.

 The dimensions of each unit are also given in the MLT system.

The other fluid properties are physical and chemical properties:

Chemical properties is about the interaction of fluid with other substance.

Physical properties it is the properties of fluid without reference to any other

fluid.
14
 PROPERTIES OF FLUID
Density
Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of mass of
fluid to its volume.
ρ = Mass of fluid (kg)
Volume of fluid (m3)

Specific Weight or Weight Density

Specific weight of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to
its volume.
w = Weight of the fluid
Volume of the fluid
w = (Mass of the fluid x Acceleration due to gravity)
volume of the fluid 15
w = ρxg
Specific volume
Specific volume of the fluid is defined as the volume occupied by a unit
mass of the fluid.

Volume of the fluid 𝑚3 1

Specific volume =
Mass of the fluid (Kg)
=ρ

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of density of a fluid to the density of
the standard fluid.

Density of Liquid
S=
Density of water

The standard fluid for liquid is water and for gas it is air. 16
NB: density of fluid significantly vary with both Temperature & Pressure.
 EXAMPLE

1. A 1000kg of oil at 20℃ has a volume of 1.5m3. Find: -

a. Density of oil
b. Unit weight
c. Relative density
2. The density of the substance is 5.35 gm/cm3 what is
a. Specific gravity
b. Specific volume
c. Specific weight
17
d. Unit gravity
Viscosity
viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers
resistance to then movement of one layer of fluid over
another adjacent layer of fluid.

Newton’s Law of Viscosity

 Method one

We can start by considering a 3D rectangular element of fluid,

18
Fluid element under a
shear force
 The shearing force F acts on the area on the top of the element. This
is given by A=ds*dx.
 We can thus calculate the shear stress which is equal force per unit area.

i.e.

 The deformation which this shear stress causes is measured by the

size of the angle ᶲ and is known as shearing strain.

 U, is the velocity of the particle at E.

 Using the experimental result that shear stress is proportional to the
rate of shear strain
 The velocity gradient can be written in differential form
19

 This is equation of Newton’s law of viscosity

Method two

• Consider a fluid confined between two plates which are situated a

very short distance y- apart.

• The lower plate is stationary whilst the upper plate is moving at a

velocity v.

Viscous deformation

If proportionality constant μ, called absolute (dynamic) viscosity, is introduced.

dv 
  or 
dv
dy
dy 20
dv
  This is equation of Newton’s law of viscosity
dy
Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity

 The Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity, µ , is defined as the sheer

force, per unit area, (or shear stress t ),

 required to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another
layer a unit distance away.

Units: Newton seconds per square meter, N sm-2 or Kilograms per

meter per second, kg m-1s-1
Kinematic Viscosity
• Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio between the dynamic
viscosity and density of fluid. 21

Units: SI system: m2 /s and CGS system: cm2 /s (Stokes)

Effect of Temperature on Viscosity
• Viscosity decreases with increase in temperature of liquid.
• Viscous Forces
• Cohesive Forces
• Molecular momentum transfer
• In liquid the cohesive forces dominates due to closely packed
molecules and with the increase in temperature, the cohesive
forces decreases hence decreasing the viscosity.

22
EXAMPLE
2
1. If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by 𝑣 = 𝑦 − 𝑦 2
3
in which v is the velocity in m/s at a distance y meters above the
plate, determine the shear stress at y=0 and y=0.15m. Take
Ѵ=1.015x10-3m2/s and s=0.85.
2. Two large plane surfaces are 2.4cm apart. The space between the
surfaces is filled with glycerine. What force is required to drag a
very thin plate of surface area 0.5 square meter between the two
large plane surfaces at a speed of 0.6 m/s. if:
I. The thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces, and
II. The thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm of the plane surfaces?
23
Take the dynamic viscosity of glycerine = 8.10*10-1 Ns/m2
 Types of Fluids
Ideal Solids
Fluids can be classified into
five basic types. Ideal Plastic fluid

Non Newtonian fluid

They are:

Shear stress
• Ideal Fluid Newtonian fluid

• Real Fluid
• Newtonian Fluid
• Non Newtonian Fluid Ideal Liquid

• Ideal Plastic Fluid Velocity gradient

24
IDEAL FLUID

 An Ideal Fluid is a fluid that has no viscosity.

 It is incompressible in nature.

 Practically, no ideal fluid exists. Ideal

Friction = 0
 Just an imaginary fluid. Ideal Flow ( μ =0)
Energy loss =0
REAL FLUID

 Real fluids are compressible in nature.

 They have some viscosity.

 Real fluids implies friction effects. Real

Friction ≠ o
 Examples: Kerosene, Petrol, Castor oil
Real Flow ( μ ≠0)
Energy loss ≠ 0
NEWTONIAN FLUID
 Shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.
 Slope of line is dynamic viscosity
 For a Newtonian fluid, viscosity is entirely dependent upon the temperature
and pressure of the fluid.
 Examples: water, air, gasoline and light oils. (Under normal condition)
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
 Shear stress is not directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.
 Examples: human blood, butter, printers ink etc….
IDEAL PLASTIC FLUID
 Sustain a certain amount of shearing stress with out deformation and there
after it would deform in proportion to the shearing stress.
26
 Shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.
 EXAMPLE

1. Classify the substance that has the following rates of

deformation and corresponding shear stresses:

Dv/dy,s-
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
,KPa
0 2 4 6 8

27
Compressibility and elasticity of fluids
• All fluids are compressible under the application of an external
force and when the force is removed they original volume
exhibiting the property that stress is proportional to volumetric
strain.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
• 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑘 = =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

• If the pressure of a volume of fluid is increased by dp, it will

cause a volume decrease dv
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑣
• 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣

𝑑𝑝 28
• 𝑘=− 𝑑𝑣 v is original volume
𝑣
• The negative sign indicates a decrease in volume with the
increase in pressure.
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣
Mass of a certain volume is constant, differentiating .

Example
1. Eight kilometers below the surface of the ocean the pressure is
82Mpa. Determine the density of the seawater at this depth if the
density at the surface is 1025kg/m3 and the average bulk modulus
of elasticity is 2.3GPa. 29
Surface Tension
• Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the
surface of the liquid in contact with gas or on the surface
between two immiscible liquid.
• Liquid poses the property of cohesion and adhesion due to
molecular attraction.

Surface tension on liquid droplet

4σ
𝑷=
𝒅
30
Surface tension on a hollow bubble

P= 8σ
d
Surface tension on a liquid jet

P = σ * 2L
L *d
Where P = Pressure in N/ m2
σ = Surface tension in N/m
d = diameter of the liquid droplet
L = length of water jet

31
 Show that p=2/d and 8/d for jet of water and soap bubble
respectively.
Capillarity

Capillarity is defined as the phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid

surface in a small tube relative to adjacent general level of liquid
when the tube is held vertically in the liquid.

• Rise of liquid in the tube - Capillary rise

• Fall of liquid in the tube - Capillary depression

Factors affecting rise or fall

1. Density of liquid

2. Diameter of the tube

3. Surface tension of the liquid 32

 Expression for Capillary rise

Under state of equilibrium weight of the liquid of height is balanced

by the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube
Weight of liquid = ρ x g x Area of tube x h

𝒅𝟐
=ρxgx π 𝒙𝒉
𝟒

33
• Vertical component of the tensile force = σ x π d Cos θ
• Equating two equations,

4 σ Cos θ
• The capillary rise is given as 𝒉=
ρxg xd
• θ = 0 for clean water and clean glass tube

4σ
𝒉=
ρxg xd
Where ρ= density;
σ= surface tension;
34
d = diameter of the tube
 Expression for Capillary depression

If the glass tube is dipped in mercury the level of mercury in

the tube is lower that the general level of the outside liquid.

− 4 σ Cos θ
The capillary depression is 𝒉 =
ρxg xd
θ = 128 ° for mercury and glass tube 35
Where: ρ= density; σ= surface tension; d = diameter of the tube
The force of attraction between unlike charges in the atoms or
molecules of substances are responsible for cohesion and
adhesion.

 Cohesion: it is the property of the fluid by which particles of

same fluid are attracted.

 Surface tension is mainly due to cohesion property.

 Adhesion: it is the property of the fluid by which particles of

different fluids or solid and fluid are attracted.

 Capillarity is mainly due to adhesion property of fluid. 36

Differences between adhesive & Cohesive

 A distinction is usually made between

 an adhesive force, which acts to hold two separate bodies
together (or to stick one body to another) and

 a cohesive force, which acts to hold together the like or

unlike atoms, ions, or molecules of a single body.

Vapor pressure
 Vapor pressure: the pressure at which a liquid will boil.

 Vapor pressure ↑ when temperature increases

37
 At atmospheric pressure, water at 100 °C will boil
 Water can boil at lower temperatures if the pressure is lower

 When vapor pressure > the liquid’s actual pressure

 It will boil.

CAVITATION
It is the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing
liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below the
vapour pressure and sudden collapsing of these vapour bubbles38 in
a region of a higher pressure.
 EXAMPLE

1. The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20℃ in 0.0725

N/m. The pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.02 N/cm2
greater than the outside pressure. Calculate the diameter of the
droplet of water.
2. The diameter of two glass limbs of a differential U tube
manometer was found to be 2mm and 3mm respectively. The
tube is kept vertically and partially filled with water of surface
tension 0.0735N/m and zero contact angle. Calculate the
difference in levels of water in the two limbs caused by surface
tension effect. 39
 CHAPTER- TWO
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Objective

After studding this chapter the students have to know and

understand:

 The concept of pressure and prove it has a unique value at any

particular elevation.

 How the pressure varies with depth according to the

hydrostatic equation.

 How pressure can be expressed in terms of head. 40

 Fluid Pressure
 Fluid exerts a normal force on any boundary it is in contact with.
The force applied per unit area is Pressure.
𝑑𝐹
𝑃= but the force should be applied normal to the surface.
𝑑𝐴
 Pascal’s Law for Pressure at a Pointe at a point
consider a small element of fluid in the form of a triangular prism
which contains a point P.
we can establish a relationship between the three pressures PX in
the x direction, Py in the y direction ,and Ps in the direction normal to
the sloping face.
 In the Z direction the forces are equal and opposite and cancel each
other. 41
 Px and Py are the average pressure in the horizontal and vertical
directions.
For equilibrium condition,
Fx= 0
PxdydZ- PdSdZcos  = 0
but ds cos =dy
PxdydZ –PdZdy = 0
42
 Px=P
 Fy =0
Pydxdz-Pdsdz sin -1/2dxdydz=0
ds sin=dx
Pydxdz-Pdxdz -1/2dxdydz=0
Py-P -1/2dy=0 as compared to others dy is small so,
1/2dy is ignored.
 Py=P

 The pressure at any point in X,Y and Z direction is equal

(P=PX=Py=Pz).
 Since, the choice of the fluid element was completely arbitrary 43
which means the pressure at any point is the same in all direction.
 PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST
 The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the Hydrostatic
low which states that the rate of increase of pressure in vertically
downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at
that point.

 Consider a small fluid element as shown in the figure.

44
45
46
 ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM PRESSURE
The pressure on the fluid is measured in two different system.

 Absolute pressure is the pressure which is measured with

reference to vacuum pressure.

 Gauge pressures is the pressure which is measured with the help

of pressure measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric
pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is
marked as zero.

 Vacuum Pressure- is defined as the pressure below the

atmospheric pressure.
47
 A

Gauge Pressure

Absolute Pressure
Vacuum Pressure
B
Pressure

Absolute Pressure

Absolute Zero Pressure

Graphical relationship between pressure 48

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
The pressure of the fluid is measured by the following devices:
1. Manometer : Devices used to measure the pressure at a point in a
fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another
column of the fluid. They are classified as
1. Simple Manometer
2. Differential Manometer
2. Mechanical Gauges : Devices used for measuring pressure by
balancing the fluid column by the spring or dead weight.
1. Diaphragm pressure gauges
2. Bourdon tube pressure gauges
49
3. Dead-weight pressure gauges
4. Bellows pressure gauges
Simple Manometer

A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its

end connected to a point where pressure is to be measured and the
other end remains open to atmosphere. The common type of
simple manometers are

1. Piezometer.

2. U-tube Manometer.

3. Single column manometer.

50
Piezometer

• Simplest method to measure pressure.

• One end of manometer is connected to the point where
pressure is to be measured and other end is open to the
atmosphere.
• The rise of liquid gives the pressure head at that point.
• If at a point A, the height of liquid is h
• Pressure at point A is P = ρ * g * h 51
 U Tube Manometer
For Gauge Pressure
• Pressure above AA in the left column
= P + 𝜸𝟏 * h1
• Pressure above AA in the right column
= 𝜸𝟐 * h2 Simple U tube Gauge Pressure

• Equating both, Pressure (P) at the point B is given as

P = 𝜸𝟐 * h2 – 𝜸𝟏 * h1

Where:- h1 = Height of the light liquid above datum line.

h2 = Height of the heavy liquid above datum line.
S1 = Specific gravity of the light liquid.
S2 = Specific gravity of heavy liquid.
ρ1 = Density of light liquid.
52
ρ2 = Density of heavy liquid.
U Tube Manometer
For Vacuum Pressure
• Pressure above AA in the left column
= P + ρ1 * g * h1 + ρ2 * g * h2
• Pressure above AA in the right column = 0
• Equating both P = - [ (ρ2 * g * h2) + (ρ1 * g * h1) ]

Where:- h1 = Height of the light liquid above datum line.

h2 = Height of the heavy liquid above datum line.
S1 = Specific gravity of the light liquid.
S2 = Specific gravity of heavy liquid.
ρ1 = Density of light liquid. 53

ρ2 = Density of heavy liquid.

Single Column Manometer

 Single column manometer is modified from Tube manometer in which reservoir

,having large cross sectional area as compared to the area of the tube is connected

to one of the limbs of the manometer.

• Due to large cross sectional area of the reservoir for any variation in pressure, the

change in liquid level in the reservoir will be very small which may be neglected

and hence the pressure is given by the height of liquid in the other limb. The other

limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus there are two types of single column

manometer as:

 Vertical Single Column Manometer

 Inclined Single Column Manometer

Differential Manometer
 Differential manometers are the devices used for
measuring the difference of pressure between
two points in a pipe or in two different pipes.
 A differential manometer consists of a U-tube
,containing heavy liquid whose two ends are
connected to the points, whose difference of
pressure is to be measured.
 Most commonly types of differential
manometers are:
a)U-tube differential manometer
b)Inverted U-tube differential manometer
U-tube Differential Manometer

56
Inverted Manometer

Pressure at Left limb = PA - (ρ1 * g * h1)

Pressure at right limb = - PB - (ρ2 * g * h2) - (ρs * g * h)

PA - PB= (ρ1 * g * h1) - (ρ2 * g * h2) - (ρs * g * h)

Where ρs = density of the lighter liquid.

57
h = fall of mercury.
 CHAPTER THREE
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON SURFACES
 In this topic deals with the fluids (i.e. liquids & gases) at rest.
 There will be no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers.
 The shear stress will also be zero.
 Then the force acting on the fluid particles will be:
 Due to pressure of fluid normal to the surface
 Due to gravity (or self-weight of fluid particles).
 Total pressure is defined as the force exerted by a static fluid on a
surface either plane or curved when the fluid comes in contact
with the surface. 58

 This force always acts normal to the surface.

 CENTER OF PRESSURE
Center of pressure is the point of the total pressure on the surface.

 It is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body,
causing a force to act through that point.

 The total force vector acting at the center of pressure is the value of
the integrated vectorial pressure field.

 The resultant force & center of pressure location produce equivalent

force & moment on the body as the original pressure field.
 The submerged surfaces may be:
 Vertical plane surface,
 Horizontal plane surface,
59
 Inclined plane surface, and
 Curved surface
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON PLANE AND CURVED SURFACES

 When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the

surface due to the fluid.
 The determination of these forces is important in the design of
storage tanks, ships, dams, gates and other hydraulic structures
and the analysis of stability of floating bodies.
 For fluid at rest we know that the force must be perpendicular to
the surface since there are no shearing stresses present.
 We also know that the pressure will vary linearly with depth if the
fluid is incompressible. 60
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface:

The origin O is at the Free

Surface.
q is the angle the plane makes
with the free surface.

y is directed along the plane

surface.
A is the area of the surface.
dA is a differential
element of the surface.

dF is the force acting on

the differential element. General Shape: Planar
View, in the x-y plane
C is the centroid.
CP is the center of Pressure

FR is the resultant force

acting through CP 61
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface:

Then the force acting on the differential element:

Then the resultant force acting on the entire surface:

We note h = ysinq

With  and q taken as constant:

We note, the integral part is the first moment of area about the x-axis

Where yc is the y coordinate to the centroid of the object.

62

hc
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface: Location
Now, we must find the location of the center of Pressure where the Resultant Force Acts:
“The Moments of the Resultant Force must Equal the Moment of the Distributed
Pressure Force”

Moments about the x-axis: And, note h = ysin𝜽

We note,
Second moment of Inertia, Ix
Then,

Parallel Axis Theorem:

Ixc is the second moment of inertia through the centroid
Substituting the parallel Axis theorem, and rearranging:

63
We, note that for a submerged plane, the resultant force always acts below the centroid of
the plane.
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface: Location
Moments about the y-axis:
FR xR   xdF
A And, note h = ysin𝜽

We note,
Second moment of Inertia, Ixy

Then,
Parallel Axis Theorem:
I xy  I xyc  Axc yc Ixc is the second moment of inertia through the centroid

Substituting the parallel Axis theorem, and rearranging:

64
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface: Geometric Properties

Centroid Coordinates

Areas
Moments of Inertia
 Hydrostatic Force: Vertical Wall
Find the Pressure on a Vertical Wall using Hydrostatic Force Method
Pressure varies linearly with depth by the hydrostatic equation:
The magnitude of pressure at the bottom is p = gh
The depth of the fluid is “h” into the board O

The width of the wall is “b” into the board

yR = 2/3h

By inspection, the average pressure occurs at

h/2, pav = gh/2

The resultant force act through the center of pressure, CP:

y-coordinate:

1
bh3 bh3 h
I xc
12 yR  
12 bh 2
h h
yc  2 66
2
h h 2
A  bh yR    h
6 2 3
 Hydrostatic Force: Vertical Wall

x-coordinate: 0 b
xR   Center of Pressure:
I xyc  0 h
bh 2
yc 
b 2  b 2h 
 , 
2 b 2 3 
xR 
A  bh 2

Now, we have both the resultant force and its location.

The pressure prism is a second way of analyzing the forces on a vertical wall.

67
 Pressure Prism: Vertical Wall
Pressure Prism: A graphical interpretation of the forces due to a fluid
acting on a plane area. The “volume” of fluid acting on the wall is the
pressure prism and equals the resultant force acting on the wall.
Resultant Force:
O Volume
FR  h bh
1
2

FR  h  A
1
2
Location of the Resultant Force, CP:
The location is at the centroid of the volume of
the pressure prism.

Center of Pressure: 68
 b 2h 
 , 
2 3 
 Pressure Prism: Submerged Vertical Wall

Trapezoidal

Location of Resultant Force: “use sum of moments”

The Resultant Force: break into two “volumes”

F1  h1 A
Solve for yA
y1 and y2 is the centroid location for the
F2   h2  h1 A
1 two volumes where F1 and F2 are the
2 resultant forces of the volumes. 69
A  bh2  h1 
Example

1. A rectangular plate 3m*5m is immersed vertically in water

such that the 3m side is parallel to the surface. Determine the
hydrostatic force and center of pressure if the top edge of the
surface is
a. Conside with the water surface
b. 2m below the water surface
2. Answer the questions on above Example 1 by prism pressure
method
70
 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
• General theory of plane surfaces does not apply to curved surfaces
• Many surfaces in dams, pumps, pipes or tanks are curved
• No simple formulas by integration similar to those for plane surfaces
• A new method must be used
Then we mark a F.B.D. for the volume:

Isolated Volume
F1 and F2 is the hydrostatic force on
Bounded by AB an
each planar face
AC and BC
FH and FV is the component of the 71
resultant force on the curved surface.
W is the weight of the fluid volume.
 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

Now, balancing the forces for the Equilibrium condition:

Horizontal Force:

Vertical Force:

Resultant Force:
𝑭𝑽
Angle of force is: ∅ = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝑭𝑯
The location of the Resultant Force is through O by sum of Moments:
Y-axis: F1 x1  Wxc  FV xV
72
X-axis: F2 x2  FH xH
Example
1. A 2m long curved gate in the figure below is hinged at o.
a. Find the horizontal component of force and its line of action.
b. Find the vertical component of force and its line of action.
c. What force is required to open the gate?
Neglect the weight of the gate

4.5m
o
Water 1.5m
1.5m

73
Tensile stress in a pipe and spherical shell

• A circular pipe under the action of an internal pressure is in

tension around its periphery. Assuming that no longitudinal
stress occurs, the walls are in tension, as shown in Fig. below.

Internal forces on walls of a pipe. A section of pipe of unit length is considered

Total bursting pressure force = P* 2r * 1

P = pressure at the center line 74

r = the internal pipe radius

For high pressures the pressure center can be taken at the pipe center; then T1 = T2
T = Pr
For wall thickness t, the tensile stress in the pipe wall,

𝑇 𝑃𝑟
𝜎= =
𝑡 𝑡
For larger variations in pressure b/n top and bottom of pipe, the location of pressure
center y is computed.
[ 𝐹𝐻 = 𝑂} 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 = 𝐹𝐻 = 2𝑃𝑟
[ 𝑀 @ 𝑇2 ] 2𝑟𝑇1 − 2𝑃𝑟𝑦 = 0 (Neglecting the vertical component)
𝑇1 = 𝑃𝑦 𝑇2 = 𝑃(2𝑟 − 𝑦)
Thin spherical shell subjected to an internal pressure
Fluid force = 𝐹𝐻 = 𝑃𝜋𝑟 2 (considering half of the sphere)
Resisting force = stress in the wall ∗ cut wall area = σ ∗ 2πr ∗t
75
𝑃𝑟
Neglecting the weight 𝜎=
2𝑡
 RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM
Translation and Rotation of fluid masses
• If a body of fluid is subjected to motion such that no layer moves relative
to adjacent layer, shear stress doesn’t exist within the fluid.
• Since there is no deformation, there will be no shearing stresses and
similarly if a fluid is contained in a tank that rotates about a fixed axis,
the fluid will simply rotate with the tank as a rigid body.
• In both cases there is no relative motion between particles; hence no shear
stress occurs in the fluid.
• This condition of fluid is called relative equilibrium.
• Generally there is no motion between the fluid and the containing vessel,
however, there is an additional force acting to cause the acceleration.
76
• Specific results for these two cases (rigid body uniform motion and rigid
body rotation) are developed in the following two sections.
 UNIFORM LINEAR ACCELERATION
 A liquid in an open vessel subjected to uniform acceleration adjusts
to the acceleration after some time so that it moves as a solid and
the whole mass of liquid will be in relative equilibrium.
 A horizontal acceleration ax causes the free liquid surface to slope
upward in a direction opposite to ax and the entire mass of liquid is
the under the action of gravity force, hydrostatic force and the
inertia force mxa.

77

Linear acceleration of a liquid with a free surface

 For equilibrium of a particle of mass, say on the free surface:
𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0 𝑜𝑟 F cosθ =mg
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑥
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒, tan 𝜃 = =
𝑚𝑔 𝑔
 And the line of constant pressure will be parallel to the liquid surface.
 A vertical acceleration ( positive upward) 𝑎𝑦 cause no disturbance to the
free surface and the fluid mass is in equilibrium under gravity, hydrostatic
force and the inertia force 𝑚𝑎𝑦 .
 For equilibrium of a small column of liquid of area dA
P𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑑𝐴 + 𝜌ℎ𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝐴
 P, the pressure intensity at a depth h below free surface

𝑎𝑦 78
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ 1 +
𝑔
Example
1. An oil tanker 3m wide, 2m deep and 10 m long contains oil
density 800kg/m3 to a depth of 1m. Determine the maximum
horizontal acceleration that can be given to the tanker such that
the oil just reaches its top end. If the tanker is closed and
completely filled with the oil and accelerated horizontally at
3m/s2, determine the liquid thrust:

a) on the front end

b) on the rear end

c) on one of its longitudinal vertical side 79

 RADIAL ACCELERATION
 Fluid particles moving in a curved path experience radial acceleration.

 When a cylindrical container partly filled with a liquid is rotated at a

constant angular velocity ω about a vertical axis the rotation motion is
transmitted to different parts of the liquid and

 After some time the whole fluid mass assumes the same angular velocity
as a solid and the fluid particles experience no relative motion.
The gradient of the free surface,
𝑑𝑦 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟 𝜔2 𝑟
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = =
𝑑𝑟 𝑚𝑔 𝑔
𝜔2 𝑟 2
𝑦= + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2𝑔
When r=0, y=0 and hence C=0 80
𝜔2 𝑟 2
Fluid subjected to 𝑦= This shows that the free liquid surface is a
2𝑔
radial acceleration paraboloid of revolution.
 Activity: prove that the free surface of the liquid in a vessel rotating about its axis
is paraboloid? How will the pressure intensity vary along the bottom of the
vessel?
Example:
1. A 375mm high open cylinder, 150mm in diameter, is filled with water and
rotated about its vertical axis at an angular speed of 33.5rad/s2. Determine
a) The depth of water in the cylinder when it is brought to rest
b) The volume of water in the cylinder if the speed is doubled.

81
 CHAPTER 4
BUOYANCY AND FLOATATION

• In this chapter, the equilibrium of the floating and sub-merged bodies

will be considered. Thus the chapter will include:

• Buoyancy,

• Center of buoyancy ,

• Metacenter,

• Metacentric height,

• Analytical method for determining metacentric height,

• Conditions of equilibrium of a floating and sub-merged body, and

82
• Experimental method for metacentric height.
 Buoyancy: Archimedes’ Principle
Archimedes' principle states that: “The upward buoyant force that
is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether partially or fully
submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body
displaces and acts in the upward direction at the center of mass of
the displaced fluid

Archimedes (287-212 BC) Story

• Buoyant force is a force that results from a floating or submerged body in a fluid.
• The force results from different pressures on the top and bottom of the object
• The pressure forces acting from below are greater than those on top
Now, treat an arbitrary submerged object as a planar surface:

Forces on the Fluid

Arbitrary Shape

83
V
 Buoyancy and Flotation: Archimedes’ Principle
Balancing the Forces of the F.B.D. in the vertical Direction:

W   h2  h1 A  V 
Then, substituting:
W is the weight of the shaded area 𝑭𝑩 = 𝜸 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 𝑨 − 𝜸 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 𝑨 − 𝑽
F1 and F2 are the forces on the plane surfaces
FB is the buoyant force the body exerts on the fluid Simplifying,
𝑭𝑩 = 𝜸𝑽
• The force of the fluid on the body is opposite, or
vertically upward and is known as the Buoyant Force. 85
• The force is equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.
 Buoyancy and Flotation: Archimedes’ Principle
Find where the Buoyant Force Acts by Summing Moments:
Sum the Moments about the z-axis:

VT is the total volume of the parallelepiped

We find that the buoyant forces

acts through the centroid of the
displaced volume.
The location is known as the center of buoyancy.
CENTER OF BUOYANCY
• It is defined as the point, through which the force of buoyancy is
supposed to act.
86
• The up thrust will act through the center of gravity of the
displaced fluid.
 META-CENTER
 It is defined as the point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is
tilted by a small angle.

 The meta-center may also be defined as the point at which the line of action of
the force of buoyancy will meet the normal axis of the body when the body is
given a small angular displacement.

 Consider a body floating in a liquid as shown in fig. (a).

 Let the body is in equilibrium and G is the center of gravity and B the center of
buoyancy.

 For equilibrium, both the points lie on the normal axis, which is vertical.

 Let the body is given a small angular displacement in the clockwise direction
as shown in fig. (b). 87
 The center of buoyancy, which is the center of gravity of the displaced
 liquid or center of gravity of portion of the body sub-merged in
liquid, will now be shifted towards right from the normal axis.

 Let it is at 𝐵1 as shown in fig. (b).

 The line of action of the force of buoyancy in this new position,

will intersect the normal axis of the body at some point say M.

 This point M is called Meta-center.

88
Meta-center
 META-CENTRIC HEIGHT
 The distance MG, i.e., the distance between the meta-center of a floating
body and the center of gravity of the body is called meta-centric height.

Analytical method for determining of metacentric height

Fig. (a) shows the position of a floating body in equilibrium.
The location of center of gravity & center of buoyancy in this position is at G & B.

• The floating body is given a small angular

displacement in the clockwise direction. This is
shown in fig. (b).
• The new center of buoyancy is at 𝐵1 . The
vertical line through 𝐵1 cuts the normal axis at
M. Hence M is the meta-center and GM is 89
meta-centric height.
Meta-center height of floating body
 EVALUATION OF METACENTRIC HEIGHT

Cross- section and plan in upright position

The buoyant force FB acting through B’ may be considered as the resultant of the
original buoyant force through B and the gain & loss of buoyant force.
Taking moment about B, we have
𝐹𝐵 ∗ 𝐵𝑀𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ∆𝐹𝐵 ∗ 𝑙 (Moment of resultant =  moment of components.)
90
Consider an element of area dA in plan at a distance x, from O. The buoyant
force acting on this element is  x q dA. q << Small tan q  sin q  q
 𝐹𝐵 =  ∗ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝛾 𝑥 𝜃 𝑑𝐴

 Then FB = xqdA (integrated half of the water line)

 Moment of this force about O

∆𝐹𝐵 ∗ 𝑙 2 = 𝛾𝑥 2 𝜃𝑑𝐴 ∆𝐹𝐵 ∗ 𝑙 = 2 𝛾𝑥 2 𝜃𝑑𝐴

If the integration is performed over the entire area

𝐴 𝐴
∆𝐹𝐵 ∗ 𝑙 = 𝛾𝜃𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾𝜃 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴
0 0
𝐴
𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴 = Moment of inertia I of a horizontal section of the body
0
taken at the surface of the fluid
∆𝐹𝐵 ∗ 𝑙 = 𝑦𝜃𝐼
𝐹𝐵 ∗ 𝐵𝑀𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ∆𝐹𝐵 ∗ 𝑙 91
W𝐵𝑀𝜃 = 𝛾𝜃𝐼
 𝛾𝐼 𝛾𝐼 𝐼
𝐵𝑀 = = =
𝑊 𝛾𝑉 𝑉

 V = volume of water displaced by the vessel.

 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡,
𝐺 𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝐺
𝐼
= − 𝐵𝐺
𝑉

𝐼
 If the G is below B, then 𝐺 𝑀 = + 𝐵𝐺
𝑉
𝐼
𝐺 𝑀 = ± 𝐵𝐺
𝑉
 Attend the laboratory session for experimental determination of
92
the metacentric height.
 STABILITY OF SUBMERGED AND FLOATING BODIES.
3 – Possible conditions of equilibrium of solid body.
 Stable equilibrium – A small displacement from the equilibrium
produces a righting moment tending to restore the body to the
equilibrium position.
 Unstable equilibrium – A small displacement produces an over turning
moment tending to displace the body further from its equilibrium
position
 Neutral equilibrium - The body remains at rest in any position to which
it may be displaced. No couple.

93

Conditions of equilibrium
 Stability: Submerged Object
Stable Equilibrium: if when displaced returns to equilibrium position.
Unstable Equilibrium: if when displaced it returns to a new equilibrium position.
Neutral Equilibrium: if when displaced at rest in any position

Stable Equilibrium: Unstable Equilibrium: Neutral Equilibrium:

* C, CG No
couple
Neutral

C > CG, “Higher” C < CG, “Lower” C = CG

Stable equilibrium Unstable equilibrium 94

Neutral equilibrium
(-ve stability) (0 stability)
(+ve stability)
 Buoyancy and Stability: Floating Object
Slightly more complicated as the location of the center buoyancy can change:

Comparing the above figures, it can be seen that:

1. If M lies above G a righting moment is produced, GM is regarded as positive,
and equilibrium is stable.
2. If M lies below G an overturning moment is produced, GM is regarded as
95
negative, and equilibrium is unstable.
3. If M and G coincide the body is in neutral equilibrium.
 EXAMPLE
1. Find the volume of the water displaced and position of center of
buoyancy for a wooden block of width 2.5m and of depth 1.5m, when
it floats horizontally in water. The density of wooden block is
650kg/m3 and its length 6m.
2. A block of wood of specific gravity of floats in water. Determine the
meta-centric height of the block if its size is 2m*1m*0.8m.
Exercise
1. An open tank is filled to the top of water. A steel cylindrical container,
wall thickness δ=1mm, outside diameter D=100mm, and height H
=1m, with an open at the top, is gently placed in the water. What is the
volume of water that overflows from the tank? How many 1kg weights
96
must be placed in the container to make it sink? Neglect surface
tension effects and take SG for steel is 7.83.
 CHAPTER FIVE
KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW
 Kinematics of fluid flow deals with motion of particles without considering the
forces causing the motion.

 The velocity and acceleration at any point in a flow filed at any time will
studied in this chapter.

 Objectives: The kinematics of the fluid flow is the description and visualization
of motion that is velocity and acceleration of fluid.

97
 METHODS OF DESCRIBING FLUID MOTION

The fluid motion is described by two methods:

1. Eulerian Method:

The properties (pressure, acceleration, velocity, density etc.) are

expressed as function of space and time. F = f(x, y, z, t)

Common method in fluid mechanics

2. Lagrangian Method:

 Follows an individual particle ( or given mass) flowing through

the flow field and thus determines the fluid properties of
individual particles or masses as a function of time like p(t), v(t)
etc. 98
 DIMENSION OF FLOW
 A Fluid flow said to be one, two or three-dimensional flow
depending up on the number of independent space coordinate &
y
required to describe the flow.
x

• One dimensional flow • Two dimensional flow means

means that the flow velocity that the flow velocity is
is function of one coordinate function of two coordinates
V = f( X or Y or Z ) V = f( X,Y or X,Z or Y,Z )

99

Example flow of ideal fluid in a pipe Example: flow of real fluid over a weir
 cont.
• Three dimensional flow means
that the flow velocity is function
of there coordinates
V = f( X,Y,Z)

Example: The flow of air past an airplane wing provides a complex

100
 Types of Fluid Flow

A.Classification according to type of fluid

1. Real and Ideal Flow:
• If the fluid is considered frictionless with zero viscosity it is called ideal.
• In real fluids the viscosity is considered and shear stresses occur causing
conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy

Ideal Real
Friction = 0 Friction ≠ o 101
Ideal Flow ( μ =0) Real Flow ( μ ≠0)
Energy loss =0 Energy loss ≠ 0
2. Compressible and Incompressible Fluid Flow

• Compressible Flow:- When the density of flow varies with

pressure.

 Density varies, 𝜌 ≠ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

 Gases are generally treated as compressible.

• Incompressible Flow:- When the density of flow does not varies

with pressure

• Density remains constant, 𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

• Liquids are generally treated as incompressible.

102
B. Classification according to variation of fluid characteristics with time

Steady and Unsteady Flow

 Steady flow is the type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like
velocity, pressure and density at a point don’t change with respect to
time.
𝜕( )
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦, =0
𝜕 𝑡

 Unsteady Flow is the type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like
velocity, pressure and density at a point change with respect to time.
Mathematically , we can express

𝜕( )
𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦, ≠0
𝜕 𝑡 103
3. Uniform and Non uniform Flow

Y Y

x x

 Uniform Flow is the type of flow in  Non- uniform Flow is the type of
which the velocity at any given time flow in which the velocity at any
does not changes with respect to given time changes with respect to
space. space. mathematically,
𝜕( 𝑣)
U𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚, =0
𝜕 𝑠 𝜕(𝑣 )
Non−𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚, ҂0
𝜕 𝑠

104
 A Combination of Uniform and Steady Flow
 Steady uniform flow:
 Conditions: do not change with position in the stream or with time.
 Example: the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant velocity.
 Steady non-uniform flow:
 Conditions: change from point to point in the stream but do not change with
time.
 Example: flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the inlet-velocity
will change as you move along the length of the pipe toward the exit.
 Unsteady uniform flow:
 At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are the same, but will
change with time.
 Example: a pipe of constant diameter connected to a pump, pumping at a
constant rate which is then switched off.
 Unsteady non-uniform flow:
 105at
Every condition of the flow may change from point to point and with time
every point.
 Example: waves in a channel.
 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
 Laminar flow

 All the particles proceed along smooth parallel paths and all particles on any
path will follow it without deviation.

 Hence all particles have a velocity only in the direction of flow.

Typical
particles
path a: Laminar flow
o Turbulent Flow
 The particles move in an irregular manner through the flow field.
 Each particle has superimposed on its mean velocity fluctuating velocity
components both transverse to and in the direction of the net flow.

106
Particle
paths
b: Turbulent flow
 5. Laminar and Turbulent Flow:

In Turbulent Flow:
In Laminar Flow: • No separate layers
• Fluid flows in separate layers • Continuous mass mixing
• No mass mixing between fluid layers • Friction mainly between fluid and
• Friction mainly between fluid layers pipe walls
• Reynolds’ Number (NRe) < 2000 • Reynolds’ Number (NRe) > 4000
• Vmax.= 2Vmean • Vmax.= 1.2 V mean

Vmean Vmean
107
Vmax Vmax
 Laminar Flow- The flow in which the fluid particles move in the
same direction is called as Laminar Flow.
 Turbulent Flow- The flow in which the fluid particles move
randomly in any direction is called as Turbulent Flow.

108
 Transition Flow

 Exists between laminar and turbulent flow.

 In this region, the flow is very unpredictable and often changeable

back and forth between laminar and turbulent states.

 Modern experimentation has demonstrated that this type of flow may

comprise short ‘burst’ of turbulence embedded in a laminar flow.

10
9
 6. Rotational and irrotational flows:
• Rotational flow is the type of flow in which the fluid particles
flowing along the stream lines and rotate about their own axis.
• irrotational flow is the fluid particle flowing along stream lines and
do not rotate on their own axis .
111
Rate of Flow or Discharge
 It is defined as the quantity of a fluid flowing per second
through a section of a pipe or channel.
 For an incompressible fluid the rate of flow or discharge is
expressed as the volume of fluid flowing a cross section per
second. Consider the liquid flowing through a pipe
Q=A*V
Where A= cross section area of pipe.
V= average velocity of fluid across the section
 CONTINUITY EQUATION
 The continuity equation is a mathematical statement of the
principle of conservation of mass.
 Consider the following fixed region with flowing fluid.
 Since fluid is neither created nor destroyed with in the region it
may be stored that the rate of increase of mass contained with in
the region must be equal to the differences b/n the rate at which the
fluid mass enters the region & the rate of which it leaves the
region.
Fixed region

Mass of fluid Mass of fluid leaving

entering the region the region
113
 However, if the flow is steady, the rate of increase of the fluid mass with
in the region is equal to zero; then the rate at which fluid mass enters the
region is equal to the rate at which the fluid mass leaves the region.

 Considers flow through a portion of a stream tube:

dA2
V2
1
dA1
V1
1

At section-1 At section-2
Area of elementary tube = dA1 Area of elementary tube= dA2
Average velocity = V1 Average velocity = V2
Density = 1 Density = 2
114
 Mass of fluid per unit time flowing  Mass of fluid flowing per unit of time
past section-1 = 1* dA1* V1 [ kg/s ] past section 2 = 2 *dA2 *V2 [ kg/s ]
  For steady flow, by the principle of conservation of mass
1 dA1 V1 = 2 d A2 V2
 For the entire area of the stream tube:

• If 1 and 2 are average densities at section (1) and (2), then

𝜌1 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 𝐴2 = 𝜌𝑉𝐴 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
• This is equation of continuity applicable to steady, one-dimensional flow of
compressible as well as incompressible (1 = 2) flow.
• For incompressible flow,  = constant and doesn’t vary form point to point, 1 = 2
A1V1 = A2V2 = Q = constant.This is continuity equation for steady incompressible
flow.
𝑄 𝑄
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 → 𝑉1 = , 𝑉2 =
𝐴1 𝐴2
115
Examples:-
1. The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are 10cm and 15cm
respectively. Find the discharge through the pipe at a section 1 is 5m/s.
determine also the velocity at section 2.
2. A30 cm diameter pipe , conveying water ,branches in to two pipes of
diameters20cm and 15cm respectively. If the average velocity in the
30cm diameter pipe is 2.5m/s. find the discharge in this pipe. Also
determine the velocity in 15cm pipe if the average velocity in 20cm
diameter pipe is 2 m/s.

116
Exercises

1. For the two components of the velocity given, find the third component, so
that they satisfy the continuity eqn. (steady, incompressible flow)

𝑢𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑧 2 𝑣𝑦 = −𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥𝑦

2. A fluid of constant density flows at a rate of 15 l/s along a pipe of 100mm

diameter. This pipe further branch to pipe BC and BD each with 25 mm and a
third pipe BE of 50mm diameter. The flow through BC is three times the flow
through BE and the velocity through BD is 4 m/s. Find the discharge in the
three branches BC, BD and BE and the velocity in AB,BC and BE (assume
steady flow).
 Velocity & Acceleration in a fluid flow
• The motion of fluid is described in terms of the velocity &
acceleration of the fluid particles.
• Any fluid property may be given as a function of the fluids location
i.e, V = u ( x, y, z, t , ) i +v ( x, y ,z, t, ) j + w ( x, y z, t)k

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉 = 𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑗 + 𝑤𝑘 = 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2
The acceleration components are given by:

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑢 +𝑣 + 𝑤 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
118
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
𝑎𝑧 = 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
 ax , ay & az are called total or substantial acceleration in the x, y & z direction , the
components are called convective acceleration excluding the last expression
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
, & Which are called local acceleration
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

 Total acceleration ↔ 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2 + 𝑎𝑧 2

 Convective acceleration:– it is instantaneous space rate of change of velocity,

 Local acceleration:- local time rate of change of velocity,

Example: the velocity vector in a fluid flow given by

𝑉 = 4𝑥 3 𝑖 − 10𝑥 2 𝑦𝑗 + 2𝑡𝑘
Find the velocity and acceleration of a fluid particle at(2,1,3) at time t=1.
Exercise: A fluid flow is described by the velocity field:
𝑉 = 5𝑥 3 𝑖 − 15𝑥 2 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑡𝑘. 119
Evaluate the velocity & acceleration components at pints ( 1, 2, 3, 1)
 VELOCITY POTENTIAL ( ) AND STREAM FUNCTION ( Ѱ)
 Velocity potential and stream function are two scalar functions that help whether the
given fluid flow is rotational or irrotational. The fluid flow can be rotational or
irrotational flow based on whether it satisfies the Laplace equation or not.

 Velocity potential ( ) is a scalar function, whose negative derivative, with respect to any
direction, gives the velocity component in that direction.

−𝜕∅ −𝜕∅ −𝜕∅

 𝑢= v= 𝑤=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
The continuity equation for an incompressible steady flow is + + = 0.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Substituting the values of u, v and w from equation, we get

𝜕 −𝜕∅ 𝜕 −𝜕∅ 𝜕 −𝜕∅

+ ( )+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
120
𝜕2 ∅ 𝜕2 ∅ 𝜕2 ∅
+ 2+ 2 = 0 is a Laplace equation
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 𝜕2 ∅ 𝜕2 ∅
 For two-dimension case, reduce to + 2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦

 If any value of ∅ that satisfies the Laplace equation, will

correspond to some case of fluid flow.

 The rotational components are given by

1 𝜕v 𝜕u
𝜔𝑧 = ( − )
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕w
𝜔𝑦 = ( − )
2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

1 𝜕w 𝜕v 121
𝜔𝑥 = ( − )
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Substituting the values of u, v & w from the above rotational components, we get

1 𝜕 −𝜕∅ 𝜕 −𝜕∅ 1 𝜕2∅ 𝜕2∅

𝜔𝑧 = − = − +
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥

1 𝜕 −𝜕∅ 𝜕 −𝜕∅ 1 𝜕2∅ 𝜕2∅

𝜔𝑦 = − = − +
2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧

1 𝜕 −𝜕∅ 𝜕 −𝜕∅ 1 𝜕2∅ 𝜕2∅

𝜔𝑥 = − = − +
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦
𝜕2 ∅ 𝜕2 ∅ 𝜕2 ∅ 𝜕2 ∅
 If ∅ is a continuous function, then = , = , etc.
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧

∴ 𝜔𝑧 = 𝜔𝑦 = 𝜔𝑥 =0.
 When rotational components are zero, the flow is called irrotational. Hence,
The properties of the potential function are:
1. If velocity potential (∅) exists, the flow should be irrotational.
122
2. If velocity potential (∅) satisfies the Laplace equation, it represents the possible
steady incompressible irrotational flow.
 STREAM FUNCTION ( Ѱ)

Stream function (ѱ)

 Stream function (ѱ):- allows to determine the components
of velocity by differentiating the stream function with
respect to the given coordinates.
 Consider the following stream line pattern of two dimensional,
steady, incompressible flow, ѱ=f(x,y).
𝜕ѱ 𝜕ѱ
 By analogy of u= 𝑣=−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

123
 By substituting the expression for u & v in to the differential equation
of a stream line we obtain:
𝜕ѱ 𝜕ѱ 𝜕ѱ 𝜕ѱ
 𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑑𝑥 ↔ 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
The continuity equation for 2-D, incompressible flow is:
𝜕u 𝜕v
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Substituting u and v we have;
𝜕 𝜕ѱ 𝜕 𝜕ѱ
( ) + (− ) = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2ѱ 𝜕2ѱ 𝜕2ѱ 𝜕2ѱ
− = − =0
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
This shows that continuity equation is also satisfied.
124
 The flow may be rotational or irrotational.
1 𝜕v 𝜕u
 The rotational component 𝜔𝑧 is given by 𝜔𝑧 = ( − ) substituting the
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
values of u and v from equation

1 𝜕 𝜕ѱ 𝜕 𝜕ѱ 1 𝜕2 ѱ 𝜕2 ѱ
 𝜔𝑧 = − − = +
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

 For irrotational flow, 𝜔𝑧 = 0, hence above equation becomes as

𝜕2 ѱ 𝜕2 ѱ
 + 2 = 0 which is Laplace equation for ѱ
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦

Properties of Stream function:

 If stream function ѱ exists it is a possible case of fluid flow which may be
rotational or irrotational.
 If stream function ѱ satisfies Laplace equation it is a possible case of125
an
irrotational flow.
Equipotential Line: A line along which the velocity potential
is constant.
For equipotential line ∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
∴ 𝑑∅=0 but ∅ = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
δ∅ δ∅
∴ d∅ = dx + dy
δx δy
δ∅ δ∅
= −udx − vdy ∴ = −u, = −v
δx δy
= −(udx + vdy)
 For equipotential line, 𝑑∅ = 𝟎
= − 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑢 126
∴ =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑣
 𝑑𝑦
 But = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑑𝑥

 From equation it is clear that the product of the slope of

equipotential lines and the slope of the stream line at the point of
intersection is equal to -1. thus the equipotential lines are
orthogonal to the stream lines at all points of intersection.

127
 FLOW NET
 For any two dimensional irrotational flow one can draw
two sets of lines or curves
1. Streamlines and 2. Equipotential lines
• The plot of the above two types of lines forms a grid of
quadrilaterals having 900 corners.
• The lines of ѱ and ∅ are drawn at equal increment of
each respectively.
• and equipotential lines for chosen increments of ѱ and ∅
• Considering (parallel to streamlines) and n (perpendicular to streamlines)
𝛿ѱ 𝛿∅
coordinates. 𝑣𝑠 = =−
𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑠
This means higher velocity will result in closer streamlines
 a grid obtained by drawing a series of equipotential lines and stream lines is called a
flow net.

128
RELATION BETWEEN STREAM FUNCTION & VELOCITY POTENTIAL FUNCTION
 From equation
𝜹∅ 𝜹∅
We have 𝐮 = − 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗 = −
𝜹𝒙 𝜹𝒚
δѱ δѱ
 From equation, we have u = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = −
𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑥
𝜹∅ δѱ 𝜹∅ δѱ
 Thus, we have 𝐮 = − = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗 = − =−
𝜹𝒙 𝛿𝑦 𝜹𝒚 𝛿𝑥
𝜹∅ δѱ
Hence =−
𝜹𝒙 𝛿𝑦
𝜹∅ δѱ
and =
𝜹𝒚 𝛿𝑥

Example: A flow is defined by u = 2x and v = -2y Find the stream

function Ψ and velocity potential function Φ for this flow and draw
flow net. 129
Example:
 CHAPTER SIX
FLUID DYNAMICS
Introduction
• In the previous chapter, we studied the velocity and
acceleration at a point in a fluid flow, without taking into
consideration the forces causing the flow.
• But this chapter is the study of fluid motion with the forces
causing flow.
• The dynamic behavior of fluid flow is analyzed by the
Newton’s 2nd law of motion, which relates the acceleration
with the forces. 131
• The fluid is assumed to be incompressible and non viscous.
 EQUATIONS OF MOTION
 According to Newton’s 2nd law of motion, the net force 𝐹𝑥 acting on a
fluid element in the direction of x is equal to mass of the fluid element
multiplied by the acceleration 𝑎𝑥 in the x-direction. Thus
mathematically,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (6.1)

 In fluid flow, the following forces are present:

i. Gravity force (𝐹𝑔 )

ii. Pressure force (𝐹𝑝 )

iii. Force due to viscosity (𝐹𝑣 )

iv. Force due to turbulence (𝐹𝑡 ) 132

v. Force due to compressibility (𝐹𝑐 )
 Thus, in equation (6.1), the net force

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑔 + 𝐹𝑝 + 𝐹𝑣 𝑥 + 𝐹𝑡 𝑥 + 𝐹𝑐 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥

i. If the force due to compressibility is negligible, the resulting net

force

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑔 + 𝐹𝑝 + 𝐹𝑣 𝑥 + 𝐹𝑡 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥

 And equation of motions are called Reynold’s equations of

motion.
ii. For flow, where 𝐹𝑡 is negligible, the resulting equations of
motion are known as Navier-Stokes equation.
iii. If the flow is assumed to be ideal, viscous force is zero and
133
equation of motions are known as Euler’s Equation of motion.
 EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION
 This is equation of motion in which the forces of gravity and
pressure are taken into consideration.
 This is derived by considering the motion of a fluid element along
a stream-line in which the flow is taking place in S-direction as
shown in figure 5.1.
 consider a cylindrical element of cross section dA and length ds.
 The forces acting on cylindrical element are:
1. Pressure force 𝑃𝑑𝐴 in the direction of flow.
𝜕𝑃
2. Pressure force 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝐴 opposite to the direction of flow.
𝜕𝑠
134
3. Weight of element ρ𝑔𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠
 Let 𝜃 is angle between the direction flow and the line of action of the
weight of element.

 The resultant force on the fluid in the direction of “s” must be equal to
the mass of fluid element ∗ acceleration in the direction of “s”.
𝜕𝑃
∴ 𝑃𝑑𝐴 − 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜌𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠 ∗ 𝑎𝑠 … … … … (6.2)
𝜕𝑠
 Where 𝑎𝑠 is the acceleration in the direction of “s.”

𝑑𝑣
 Now 𝑎𝑠 = , where v is a function of s and t.
𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑣
= +
𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑣𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑠
= + 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 =𝑣
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑣
 If the flow is steady, =0 135
𝜕𝑡
 𝑣𝜕𝑣
∴ 𝑎𝑠 =
𝑑𝑠
 Substituting the value of 𝑎𝑠 in equation (6.2) and simplifying the
equation, we get
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑣
− 𝑑𝑠𝑑𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜌𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠

 Dividing by 𝜌𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠,

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑣
− − 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝜌𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑣
Or + 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + =0
𝜌𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠

 But from fig. 5.1 (b), we have

𝑑𝑧
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑑𝑠
Fig. Forces on a fluid element
 1 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑣
∴ +𝑔 +𝑣 =0 or
𝜌 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

𝑑𝑝
+ 𝑔𝑑𝑧 + 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … (6.3)
𝜌

Equation (6.3) is known as Euler’s equation of motion.

Bernoulli’s Equation from Euler’s Equation
 Bernoulli’s Equation is obtained by integrating the Euler’s equation of
motion (6.3) as

𝑑𝑝
+ 𝑔𝑑𝑧 + 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌

 If flow is incompressible, density is constant and

137
𝑝 𝑣2
∴ + 𝑔𝑧 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 2
 𝑝 𝑣2
or +𝑧+ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 … … … … … … … … … … 6.4
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

 This equation is known as Bernoulli’s Equation in which

𝑝
 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑,
𝜌𝑔
𝑣2
 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑
2𝑔
 𝑧 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑)
 Bernoulli’s assumptions:
 The fluid is ideal, i.e. viscosity is zero.
 The flow is Steady incompressible, i.e. Frictionless
 The flow is irrotational
 No shaft work - no pump or turbines on the streamline 138
 No transfer of heat - either added or removed.
 Bernoulli’s Equation for real fluid

 All real fluids are viscous and hence offer resistance to flow.

 Thus there are always some loses in fluid flows.

 Therefore, Bernoulli’s equation b/n two points will be given as;

𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

 where 𝐻𝐿 is head loss b/n points 1 & 2.

Example: A pipe, through which water is flowing, is having

diameters, 20cm and 10cm at the cross-sections 1 and 2 respectively.
The velocity of water at section 1 is given 4m/s. find the velocity
139
head at sections 1 & 2 and also rate of discharge.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
 Bernoulli’s equation is applied in all problems of incompressible fluid
flow where energy considerations are involved.
 In addition, it is practically applied for flow measurement using the
following measuring devices.
1. Venturimeter
2. Pitot tube
3. Orifice meter
1. Venturimeter
a Venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow of a
fluid flowing through a pipe. It consists of three parts,
i. A short converging entrance cone of angle of about 20°
ii. A cylindrical portion of short length called the “throat” 140
iii. A diverging section known as diffuser, of cone angle 5° to 7° .
It is based on the principle of Bernoulli's equation.

141

Fig. 6.2 Horizontal Venturimeter

 Assume that the fluid is ideal (So that energy is not dissipated in
overcoming frictional resistance)
 Velocities V1 & V2 are uniformly distributed over the cross section
 The energy correction factor is 1.
 no frictional resistance
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points (1) and (2) on a central
stream line, we get:

𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
 For a horizontal Venturimeter, the datum 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 and Bernoulli’s
equation is reduced to

𝑉22 − 𝑉12 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 142

= … … … … … … … … … … … . . . (6.5)
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
 𝑃1 −𝑃2
But is the difference of pressure heads at section (1) and (2)
𝜌𝑔

𝑃1 −𝑃2
and it is equal to h or = ℎ.
𝜌𝑔

𝑃1 −𝑃2
Substituting the value of into the above equation, we get
𝜌𝑔

𝑉22 − 𝑉12
ℎ= … … … … … … … … … . (6.6)
2𝑔

For an incompressible fluid, continuity of flow at section 1 and 2

is, Q = A1V1 = A2V2

𝐴2
𝑉1 = 𝑉 Substitute this value of 𝑉1 into equation (6.6)
𝐴1 2

2
𝐴 143
𝑉22 − 2 𝑉2 𝑉22 𝐴22 𝑉22 𝐴12 − 𝐴22
𝐴1
ℎ= = 1− =
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐴12 2𝑔 𝐴12
 𝐴21
Or 𝑉22 = 2ℎ𝑔
𝐴21 −𝐴22

𝐴12 𝐴1
∴ 𝑉2 = 2ℎ𝑔 2 2 = 2𝑔ℎ
𝐴1 − 𝐴2 𝐴12 − 𝐴22
∴ 𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

𝐴2 𝐴1
= ∗ 2𝑔ℎ … … … … … … … … … … . (6.7)
𝐴12 − 𝐴22
 Equation (5.7) gives the discharge under ideal conditions and is
called theoretical discharge.
 Actual discharge will be less than theoretical discharge.
144
𝐴2 𝐴1
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ ∗ 2𝑔ℎ … … … … … (6.8)
𝐴12 − 𝐴22
Where 𝐶𝑑 is co-efficient of Venturimeter and its value is less
than 1.

 Value of ‘h’ given by differential u-tube manometer

Case I. Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which

is heavier than the liquid flowing through the pipe.

𝑆ℎ
ℎ=𝑥 − 1 … … … … … … … … … … … … … 6.9
𝑆𝑜

 𝑆ℎ = Sp. gr. of the heavier liquid

 𝑆𝑜 =Sp. Gravity of the liquid flowing through pipe 145

 X = Difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube

Case II. If the differential manometer contains a liquid which is lighter
than the liquid flowing through the pipe, the value of h is given by
𝑆𝑙
ℎ =𝑥 1− … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 6.10
𝑆𝑜
 𝑆𝑙 = Sp.gr. of lighter liquid in U-tube

 𝑆𝑜 = Sp.gr. fluid flowing through pipe

 X = Difference of the lighter liquid column in U-tube

Case III. Inclined Venturimeter with differential U-tube manometer.

 The above two cases are given for a horizontal Venturimeter.

 This case is related to inclined Venturimeter having differential

146 U-
tube manometer.
 Let the differential manometer contains heavier liquid then h is given as

𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑆ℎ
ℎ= + 𝑧1 − + 𝑧2 = 𝑥 − 1 … … … … … … … … 6.11
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝑆𝑜

Case IV. Similarly, for inclined Venturimeter in which differential

manometer contains a liquid which is lighter than the liquid flowing
through the pipe, the value of h is given as

𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑆ℎ
ℎ= + 𝑧1 − + 𝑧2 = 𝑥 1 − … … … … … … … … 6.12
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝑆𝑜

Example: a horizontal Venturimeter with inlet and throat

diameters 30cm and 15cm respectively is used to measure the
flow of water. The reading of differential manometer connected
to the inlet and the throat is 20cm of mercury. Determine147
the
rate of flow. Take Cd = 0.98.
 2. PITOT TUBE (TOTAL HEAD TUBE)
 It is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or
channel.
 It is based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero,
the pressure is increased due to the conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure
energy.
 The liquid rises in the tube due to the conversion of kinetic energy into pressure.
 The velocity is determined by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube.
 Consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that point (2) is
just as the inlet of the pitot-tube and point (1) is far away from the tube.

148
 Fig. Simple Pitot tube in pipe flow and open channel flow
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to point A in the undisturbed flow
region and the stagnation point B we have
𝑣𝑜2 𝑝𝑜 𝑣𝐴2 𝑝𝐴
+ + 𝑧𝑜 = + + 𝑧𝐴
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
𝑝𝑜 𝑣𝐴2 𝑝𝐴
= +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
𝑣𝐴2 𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝𝐴
=
2𝑔 𝛾
𝑝𝑜 −𝑝𝐴 𝑝𝑜 −𝑝𝐴 𝑝𝑜 −𝑝𝐴
𝑣𝐴2 = 2𝑔 ↔ 𝑉𝐴 = 2𝑔 = 2𝑔ℎ since =ℎ
𝛾 𝛾 𝛾 149
𝑉𝐴 = 2𝑔ℎ … … … … … . … … … … . … .6.13
(Theoretical velocity).
Example: A pitot-static tube placed in the center of a 300mm pipe line has
one orifice pointing upstream and other perpendicular to it. The mean
velocity in the pipe is 0.80 of the central velocity. Find the discharge
through the pipe if the pressure difference between the two orifices is 60mm
of water. Take the co-efficient of pitot tube as 𝐶𝑣 = 0.98
Solution
Given: Dia. Of pipe, d =300mm = 0.30m
Diff. of pressure head, h= 60mm of water=0.6m of water and 𝐶𝑣 = 0.98
Mean velocity, 𝑉 = 0.80 ∗ 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Central velocity is given by equation, = 𝐶𝑣 2𝑔ℎ
= 0.98 ∗ 2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 0.06 = 1.063𝑚/𝑠
𝑉 = 0.80 ∗ 1.063 = 0.8504 𝑚 𝑠
Discharge, Q = area of pipe ∗ 𝑉
150
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋 0.30 2
𝑚 3
= ∗𝑉 = ∗ 0.8504 = 0.06 𝑠
4 4
 3. ORIFICE METER:
 It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid through a
pipe.
 It is a cheaper compared to Venturimeter.
 It also works on the same principle as that of Venturimeter.
 It consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edged hole
called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe.
 The Orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times the diameter of the pipe,
though it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.
 A differential manometer is connected
 at section (1), which is at a distance of about 1.5 to 2 times the
pipe diameter upstream from the Orifice plate, and 151
 at section (2), which is at a distance of about half the diameter of
 A. Orifice flow in pipes, Orifice meter or orifice plate

Let p1 = pressure at section 1

v1 = velocity at section 1
a1 = area of pipe at section 1 and

Fig. 6.7 Orifice meter

p1 , v1 , a1 are corresponding values at section (2). Applying the
152
Bernoulli equation between at 1 (upstream of plate) and 2 (at the
orifice)
𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝2 𝑣22
+ = + Since the orifice is horizontal 𝑧1 = 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑣12 − 𝑣22 𝑝2 − 𝑝1
=
2𝑔 𝛾
𝐴
Using continuity equation 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 ↔ 𝑉2 = 𝐴1 𝑉1
2
2
𝐴1
𝑣12 − 𝐴2 𝑣12 𝑝2 − 𝑝1
=
2𝑔 𝛾
2
𝐴1
1− 𝐴2 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) 2𝑔
𝑣12 = ↔ 𝑉1 = ∗ 2
2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾 𝐴1
1− 𝐴2
The theoretical discharge Q will therefore be,
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) 2
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴1 ∗ 2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … 6.14
𝜌 𝐴1
1− 𝐴2

• The actual discharge will be less than the theoretical since the effective flow area near P2
tapping will be less than A2, the fluid forming a neck or vena contracta.
• In addition, there will be some loss of energy between point 1 and 2. 153
• The actual discharge can be determined by determining coefficient of discharge.
B. FLOW THROUGH A RESERVOIR OPENING (ORIFICE FLOW)
 For a reservoir at water level h above orifice opening shown in the following figure.
 The reservoir is assumed to be very large as compared to size of the opening, so
that the velocities of all points in the reservoir are negligibly small.

Fig. 6.8 Small orifice in the side of a large reservoir

Applying Bernoulli’s equation and neglecting losses between A and B (taking the
datum level at the center of the orifice),

𝑉2
0+0+ℎ = +0+0
2𝑔
154
𝑉= 2𝑔ℎ (Theoretical velocity).
Where h is the depth of center of orifice below the free surface.
Example: An orifice meter with orifice diameter 10cm is inserted
in a pipe of 20cm diameter. The pressure gauges fitted upstream
and downstream of the orifice meter gives readings of 19.62
N/cm2 and 9.81 N/cm2 respectively. Co-efficient of discharge for
the orifice meter is given as 0.6. find the discharge of water
through pipe.

155
HYDRAULIC COEFFICIENTS FOR FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐶𝑐 = … … … . 𝟔. 𝟏𝟓
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎 𝑉

𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐶𝑣 = = … … … … 𝟔. 𝟏𝟔
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2𝑔ℎ

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝐶𝑑 = = 𝐶𝑣 ∗ 𝐶𝑐 … … … . . 𝟔. 𝟏𝟕
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴𝑜 2𝑔ℎ

Where, 𝐴𝑜 = area of orifice (area of jet at C)

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 2𝑔ℎ

 As shown in the figure, the paths of the particles of the liquid converge on
156
the orifice so that the area of the issuing jet is less than the area of the
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC COEFFICIENTS

 Determination of coefficient of discharge (𝑪𝒅):- The water is

allowed to flow through an orifice fitted to a tank under a constant
head H, as shown in fig. 6.9.

Figure 6.9 Value of 𝐶𝑑

The water is collected in a measuring tank for a known time, t. the

height of water in the measuring tank is noted down. Then actual
157
discharge is through orifice,
 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 ∗ 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
𝑄=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)

And 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 ∗ 2𝑔𝐻

𝑄
∴ 𝐶𝑑 = … … … … … … … … … . … . (6.18)
𝑎 ∗ 2𝑔𝐻
 Determination of Coefficient of Velocity 𝐶𝑣 :- Let C-C represents the
vena contrata of a jet of water coming out from an orifice under constant
head H as shown in figure 6.9.

 The consider a liquid particle which is at vena-contrata at any time t, and

takes the position at P along the jet in time ‘t’.

 Let x = horizontal distance travelled by the particle in time ‘t’

158
y = vertical distance between P and C-C

V = actual velocity of jet at vena-contrata.

TYPES OF ORIFICE
 The following figure shows common types of orifice with
their coefficient of discharge.

159
Fig. 6.10 Types of orifice
 NOTCHES AND WEIRS
 A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of a liquid through a small
channel or a tank.
 It may be defined as an opening in the side of a tank or a small channel in
such a way that the liquid surface in the tank or channel is below the top edge
of the opening.
 A weir is a concrete or masonry structure, placed in an open channel over which
the flow occurs.
 It is generally in the form of vertical wall, with a sharp edge at the top,
running all the way across the open channel.
 The notch is of small size while the weir is of a bigger size.
 The notch is generally made of metallic plate while weir is made of concrete or
masonry structure.

160
 CLASSIFICATION OF NOTCHES AND WEIRS

The notches are classified as:

1. According to the shape of the opening
I. Rectangular notch
II. Triangular notch
III. Trapezoidal notch, and
IV. Stepped notch
2. According to the effect of the sides on the nappe:
I. Notch with end contraction
II. Notch without end contraction or suppressed notch.
161
 Weirs are classified according to the shape of the opening, the shape of
the crest, the effect of the sides on the nappe and nature of discharge.
 The following are important classifications
1. According to the shape of the opening:
A. Rectangular weir
B. Triangular weir, and
C. Trapezoidal weir
2. According to the shape of the crest:
A. Sharp-crested weir
B. Broad-crested weir
3. According to the effect of sides on the emerging nappe:
A. Weir with end contraction, and 162

B. Weir without end contraction

 A. RECTANGULAR WEIR
The following figure shows rectangular notch of crest length (L) & working under a
head H.

Fig. 6.11 Rectangular notch

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 𝑑𝑄 = 2𝑔ℎ ∗ 𝐿𝜕ℎ
𝐻
1 2 3
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑄𝑡 = 𝐿 2𝑔 ℎ 2 𝑑ℎ = 𝐿 2𝑔𝐻 2 … … … … … … … . . 𝟔. 𝟐𝟏
0 3
This is the theoretical discharge through a rectangular notch.
2 3
Therefore, 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶 𝐿 2𝑔𝐻 2
3 𝑑 163
From experiment, 𝐶𝑑 = 0.62
3
𝑄𝑎 = 1.831𝐿𝐻 2
 B. TRIANGULAR WEIR (V-NOTCH)

Fig. 6.12 Triangular weir

 Since the velocity of flow through the notch varies from top to
bottom, consider a strip of thickness 𝛿ℎ at a depth h below the
surface. If the velocity of approach is small:
 Head producing flow = h
 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 = 𝑉 = 2𝑔ℎ
 If width of strip = b, Area of strip = b𝛿ℎ
 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 = 𝛿𝑄 = 𝑉𝑏𝛿ℎ 164

 The width b depends on h and is given by b = 2(H - h) tan𝜃

 1
 𝛿𝑄 = 2𝑔ℎ 2 ∗ 2(H − h) tan𝜃 ∗ 𝛿ℎ
1 3
= 2 2𝑔 tan𝜃 (𝐻ℎ 2 −ℎ 2) ∗ 𝛿ℎ
 Integrating between the limits h = 0 and h = H
𝐻
1 3
𝑄 = 2 2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 (𝐻ℎ 2 −ℎ 2 )dh
0
2 3 2 5
= 2 2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝐻ℎ 2 − ℎ 2
3 5
8 5
= 2𝑔 tan 𝜃 𝐻 2 … … … … … … … . . … . . 5.22
15
This is the theoretical discharge.
8 5
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 tan 𝜃 𝐻 2
15
5
 From experiment 𝐶𝑑 = 0.58, 𝑄𝑎 = 1.37 tan𝜃𝐻 2 , 165
0 5
 𝐹𝑜𝑟 90 𝑉 − 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ, 𝑄𝑎 = 1.37𝐻 2 … … … … … … … … . … . 𝟓. 𝟐𝟑