Introduction to Educational Supervision

Meaning and concept

Supervision is a creative and dynamic process giving friendly guidance and

direction to teachers and pupils for improving themselves and the teaching-
learning situation for the accomplishment of the desired goals of education.”

–R.P. Bhatnagar & I.B. Verma

Some of the few definitions of supervision are given below:

1. A.S. Barr:
“Supervision is an expert technical service primarily concerned with studying and
improving the conditions that surround learning and pupil growth.”

2. Chester T. Mc Nerney:
“Supervision is the procedure of giving direction to, and providing critical
evaluations of the instructional process. The end result of all supervision should be
to provide students at all levels with better educational services. ”

3. T.H. Briggs & Joseph Justman:

‘In general Supervision means to coordinate, stimulate and direct the growth of
the teachers in the power to stimulate and direct the growth of every individual
pupil through the exercise of his talents towards the richest and the most intelligent
participation in the civilization in which he lives. ”

4. John A. Bartky:
Good supervision is always concerned with the development of the teachers, the
growth of the pupil and the improvement of the teaching-learning process.”
5. H.R. Douglass & others:
“Supervision is the effort to stimulate, coordinate and guide the continued growth
of teachers, both individually and collectively, in better understanding and more
effective performance of all the functions of instruction, so that they will be better
able to stimulate and direct each student’s continued growth towards a rich and
intelligent participation in society. ”

Educational Supervision means an all out effort of the school officials

directed towards providing leadership to teachers and other educational workers
for the improvement of institution. It involves both human and material elements.
The human elements are the pupils, parents, teachers and other employees, the
community and other officials of the state. On the material side money, building,
equipment, playgrounds etc. are included. Besides these, the curriculum, methods
and techniques of teaching also come under the scope of supervision.

Teaching is a creative act. A teacher has to coordinate his thought with

action. So the basic psychological problems underlying supervision is to see that
the teaching is improved through supervisory techniques and supervisor is able to
secure integration between teaching practices and sound principles of education on
which the practices are based.

As commonly used, the term ‘Supervision’ means to guide and to stimulate

the activities of others with a view to their improvement. It attempts to develop
instructional programmes according to the needs of the youth of modem
democratic society and also to provide materials and methods of teaching for
enabling the children to learn more easily and effectively. There are various
definitions of supervision in educational literature.
Functions, process and skills
Functions

(a) Supervision is a creative and dynamic expert technical service.

(b) It provides leadership with expert knowledge and superior skills

(c) It gives coordination, direction and guidance to teacher’s activities.

(d) It stimulates the continuous growth of teachers and development of pupils.

(e) It improves instruction and the teaching-learning process.

Here are 8 crucial skills supervisors need to have:

1. Communication
According to a research
”86% of employees and executives cite lack of collaboration or ineffective
communication for workplace failures” .

Supervisors with developed communication skills are able to use listening

techniques and nonverbal strategies to improve conversations. It is essential for a
supervisor to be able to balance time constraints and a heavy workload
while managing other employees and projects.
Having excellent communication skills allows supervisors to speak with impact,
whether it is off-the-cuff dialogue or brief updates to their team. It is essential to
keep thoughts organized and to the point.

Giving and receiving feedback is another area that can be improved with
developed communication skills. When using the right techniques, feedback can be
used to reinforce or change behavior.

2. Conflict Resolution
Conflict is when change happens and stances differ. When a supervisor has the
ability to manage conflict well, issues comes to resolutions and successful
relationships are developed.

A supervisor’s ability to define and identify conflict styles, causes, and methods
for handling conflict can improve the department’s or organization’s productivity.
According to CPP’s Global Human Capital Report, “where training does exist, it
adds value: over 95% of people receiving training as part of leadership
development or on formal external courses say that it helped them in some way. A
quarter (27%) say it made them more comfortable and confident in managing
disputes and 58% of those who have been trained say they now look for win–win
outcomes from conflict.”

3. Leadership
Supervisors with leadership skills help bring accountability to their teams by
creating a supportive and motivating work environment.

Leaders are able to delegate and manage a wide variety of skill sets. It is important
for supervisors to lead their teams in the most effective way by recognizing where
the strengths are, where improvement is needed, and how to properly use the skill
sets of each team member.

4. Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is a crucial skill in understanding how to methodically,
strategically, and collaboratively make decisions, solve problems, and foster
innovation.
A study by Pearson notes that “the higher up the ladder a position is, the more
essential critical thinking becomes.”
A supervisor with critical thinking skills has the ability to develop a step-by-step
process from targeting the problem to developing a solution.
Critical thinking also helps in situations in which groups have different thinking
styles and need a collaborative environment created to successfully work through
issues.

5. Interpersonal Skills
Different from communication skills, interpersonal skills are important for a
supervisor to identify and build a purposeful team culture within an organization.
Interpersonal skills enable an individual to develop highly effective teams that are
built upon consensus, effective meetings, social style understanding and
relationships.

6. Time and Priority Management

Supervisors with time and priority management skills can boost productivity and
efficiency.

Being able to balance a heavy workload and time constraints while managing and
delegating other employees and projects is an essential skill.

It is ideal for supervisors to understand what is urgent and what is important.

The University of Georgia conducted a study that found people, who practice good
management techniques often find that they are more productive, feel less stressed,
get more things done, have more energy, and feel better about them. Supervisors
with time and priority management skills are able to understand the differences in
employee’s time and priority management and adjust projects and workloads to
ensure success.

7. Diversity and Generational Differences in the Workplace

The University of Florida studied workplace diversity and found that “respecting
individual differences will benefit the workplace by creating a competitive edge
and increasing work productivity. Diversity management benefits associates by
creating a fair and safe environment where everyone has access to opportunities
and challenges.”
It is crucial for supervisors to have the ability to be aware of workplace
diversity and understand the gaps and differences that exist as well as their impact.

Being aware of diversity issues helps supervisors appreciate the different

experiences and places value on the impact it has on the workplace.

8. Problem Solving
 Good problem solving skills are fundamentally important within the
workplace.
Achieve Global reports that “successful problem solving translates into enhanced
productivity and increased profit.”

A valuable supervisor is someone who not only knows how to take an issue and
find the root of the real problem but also has a process for solving the problem in a
structured manner. Supervisors with excellent problem solving skills can greatly
benefit any organization.
Nature , objectives and scope of Supervision:
As regards its nature, modem supervision is a cooperative enterprise, experimental
in its approach. The scope of modem supervision extends to the improvement of
the whole teaching-learning situation. So it is concerned with the pupils, teachers,
curriculum and the socio-physical environment and their improvement
1. Supervision is a creative and dynamic expert technical service.

2. It provides leadership with expert knowledge & superior skills.

. It promotes cooperative educational effort in a friendly atmosphere.

4. It gives coordination, direction and guidance to teachers’ activities.

5. It stimulates the continuous growth of teachers and development of pupils.

6. It improves instruction and the teaching learning process.

7. It helps achievement of appropriate educational aims and objectives.

8. It helps to decide and order execution and assists in improving instruction.

9. It represents a portion of the whole enterprise of school management.

10. It saves us from the victimization of soul killing administration.

Scope of Supervision:
The scope of educational supervision extends to all the areas of educational
activity with the larger purpose of improving the product of education through the
upgrading of the quality of instruction and other school practices. “Education is
now conceived as a powerful social force for the development of personality and
the values of the democratic social order.

Democratic philosophy extends the scope of supervision to the ultimate goals and
values of education determined democratically through the participation of all the
people concerned with the educative process. Democracy requires supervision
should he made more and more participatory and cooperative. ”

In India we believe, in democratic philosophy. So our conduct, behavior and

activities should be governed by the democratic philosophy of life. This is true of
education and also educational supervision. One important source of the true of
education and also educational supervision is therefore the democratic philosophy
of life and living.

Hence supervision should be a cooperative enterprise in which everyone has the

right to contribute. Democratic supervision provides full opportunity to discussion,
free expression of views and opinions, enlists participation of all persons and
welcomes and utilizes their contribution for the improvement of the teaching-
learning situation and process.

So supervision is planned cooperatively by all educational workers. Its

programmes are flexible and related to the situation, and include analysis and
improvement of the situation, of the final product of education and of its own
effectiveness.

Supervision employs various techniques such as observation, demonstration,

visitation, workshops, seminars, conferences, teacher’s guides, handbooks of
suggestions, professional journals and in-service education.

Supervision continuously makes its best effort to evaluate and improve the work
environment of the pupils and teachers with their help and community’s assistance
and cooperation. It also continuously maintains an atmosphere of mutual trust,
integrity, loyalty, freedom, goodwill, responsibility and self-direction.

Objectives /purpose of supervision

1. Checking on the availability of teaching-learning materials

2. Advising on the appropriateness of the teaching- learning materials in use
3. Assessing staff levels
4. Advising on the school climate
5. Advising the availability and quality of advising and support services
available to the teacher
6. Promoting curriculum change and innovation
7. Timetabling
8. Attending to the welfare of teachers
9. Attending to institutional problems
10. Data collection to facilitate planning and decision making
11. Monitoring policy implementation
12. providing professional support and guidance to the teachers ensuring
teacher motivation and morale
13. conducting quality assurance checks
14. identifying potential for promotion
15. identifying needs for staff development
16. providing feedback on teachers performance
Components, functions, types and methods
The Components of Supervision
The first 3 components of supervision relate to the working alliance between
supervisor and supervisee. This relationship is an essential base for supervision.
1. First, this relationship should be supportive. That is, the supervisor should be
interested and motivated in teaching the supervisee, in a manner that makes the
supervisee feel heard, encouraged, and capable. In a supportive supervisory
relationship, supervisees should feel comfortable to discuss clients, including both
personal and clinical challenges that arise when working with clients, and ask
questions as needed.
2. Second, this relationship should involve bi-directional trust. Supervisees should
know that the supervisor will teach them the skills needed to perform ethical and
effective clinical work. Supervisors should actively work to create a safe,
professional, and inviting environment for open and challenging discussion of
supervisees’ training.
Supervisors should be especially aware of their own possible discomfort with
difficult conversations, (e.g., regarding difficult feedback or boundary setting) and
rather than avoiding such discussions actively work to reduce the impact of their
discomfort on their supervisory practice.
The supervisor should use self-disclosure, as appropriate, to demonstrate this bi-
directional trust and encourage and welcome ongoing feedback from the
supervisee regarding the supervisory relationship to help mitigate supervisee
tendencies towards non-disclosure.
3. Last, the supervisory relationship should be marked by bi-directional respect.
This includes being willing to provide constructive feedback to supervisees, and
likewise, to be open and receptive to receiving constructive feedback from
supervisees as well.
4. “Good enough” supervision also involves devoting enough time to supervision.
We believe that the “right” amount should be determined by asking oneself: 1) Is
client safety ensured? 2) Is my supervisee receiving adequate and developmentally
appropriate feedback to enable learning the basic skills needed? If the answer to
either of these is “no,” then more supervision time is likely required. Supervisees
also need to feel adequately supported in their clinical role, in order to facilitate
trainee growth and the working alliance discussed above.
5. “Good enough” supervision requires investment on behalf of the supervisor.
This includes providing the supervisee with clear expectations at the start of the
supervisory relationship, fulfilling the requirements of the trainee’s placement
(such as using the institutions evaluation form and teaching the expected skills),
and providing supervision that is developmentally appropriate for the supervisee
The functions of Educational supervision may be enumerated as following:

1) Providing leadership
2) Formulating policies
3) Studying the teaching-learning situation
4) Improving the teaching-learning situation
5) Improving the personnel
6) Improving human relations
7) Improving the group interaction
8) Improving the product of education
9) Improving the morale of teacher
Types of Supervision:

There are two types of Supervision:

(a) Autocratic

(b) Democratic.

(A) Autocratic Supervision:

In this type, the authority is centralized in the key person or head, who has been
legally appointed to look after the organization. The policies and techniques of the
school programme are directed by him. Here, the authority and power may be
delegated to the supervisors who are directly responsible to the head.
There is quick communication between the authority and supervisors so that they
can be easily contacted and ordered to carry out definite directions. All suggestions
and prescriptions of duties and activities come from one person and may be passed
down, the line and performance is checked in the same manner upward.
Supervisors are appointed in establishments as the inspectors.

Generally the inspectors visit individual teachers classes, meet them individually to
solve their problems. Students are also assisted individually. The authoritarian
leader remains in the focus of the group’s attention. He emphasizes their obedience

Methods of Supervision:
Supervision can be done by the following methods:
1. Personal contact:
Supervisors personally observe the work of employees, analyze problems, correct
them and explain better methods of work to them.

2. Correspondence:
Supervisors contact employees through correspondence. They send instructions in
writing and receive written replies from them.

3. Reports:
Workers prepare periodic reports (weekly, monthly or annual) of their performance
and send them to the head office. In case of sales reports, they contain information
about number of calls made by the salesmen, number of orders taken, new
prospects added etc. The sales supervisors go through the report, evaluate the
salesmen’s performance and offer sales advice to enhance their sales efforts.

4. Telecommunication:
Modern means of communication like telephone, electronic mail, voice mail, video
conferencing etc. help supervisors correspond with workers, supervise their efforts
and provide the necessary support and help.
 CHAPTER 2

Understanding the Components of Supervision and Evaluation

Teacher Supervision and Evaluation: Historical Roots

• in the 19th Century, supervisors were more like inspectors. Their job was
more of evaluation than supervision in that their task was to eliminate
unsatisfactory teachers.
• In the early 20th Century, there was great emphasis on efficiency and
scientific quantification as a valid means of evaluation. Consequently the era
brought about an abundance of rating scales as evaluative mechanisms. This
obsession with scientific quantification was the catalyst behind evaluation.
• The growth of Progressivism brought the beginnings of a shift in mindset
from supervisor as evaluator to supervisor as supervisor.
• "The Progressive era, with its philosophy of inquiry, democratic processes,
and scientific investigation, led to a supervisory process that was seen as
helpful, improvement oriented, and collaborative."
• "Progressive supervision, while downplaying teacher evaluation,
emphasized collaboration, group processes, inquiry, and experimentation."
• "...teachers were seen as part of the solution rather than as the problem."
• "...we find a scholarly literature that advocates collegial improvement and
practitioners who find themselves unable to accept the collegial role owing to
the hierarchical superiority that is implied - indeed necessitated - by the role
of teacher evaluator."
• The end of the 20th Century saw great tension between the desire to set
professional goals with teachers, functioning in collegial roles and acting as
true supervisors, and the shackles of the bureaucratic functions of teach er
evaluation.
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Supervision is providing coaching to build teachers’ capacity. Evaluation is
assigning merit to teachers’ performance.

The Purpose of Supervision

The improvement of teaching and learning is the general purpose of supervision. A

basic premise of supervision is that a teacher’s instructional behavior affects
student learning. An examination of instructional behaviors can lead to
improvement in teaching and learning. The effective school research identifies
schooling practice and characteristics associated with measurable improvements in
student achievement and excellence in student behavior. These “effective school
practices” include elements of schooling associated with a clearly defined
curriculum; focused classroom instruction and management; firm consistent
discipline; close monitoring of student performance; and strong instructional
leadership.

1. To acknowledge that teachers are individuals and professionals with

different needs and interests.
2. To define supervision as an art and science.
3. To consider that taken together, passion for learning and reflective practice
provides modeling and the basis for individual perception and insight.

4. To maximize individual growth through reflective practice and professional

dialog.

5. To provide time and support for growth and change.

6. To encourage self-initiated professional development.

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7. To develop an educational environment characterized by collaboration,
cooperation, and communicating yielding a supportive, non-threatening
environment to foster professional growth.

8. To assert that all faculty have a professional responsibility to continually

learn and improve. Based on these purposes, the Northern Bedford County
School District provides for a system of differentiated supervision which shall
be provided in the context of a supervisory model best suited for an individual’s
professional development needs:

A. Directed/Clinical Supervision

B. Mentoring

C. Administrative Monitoring (Walkthroughs)

D. Peer Coaching (Collegial Consultation)

E. Self-Directed Supervision (Individual Contracts)

F. Instructional Leadership (Internship)

G. Professional Colloquium (Book Talks/Study Groups)

H. Action Research (Data-Informed Improvement of Teaching and Learning)

I. National Teacher Certification

The Purpose of Evaluation

Evaluation serves as the process by which data are collected, analyzed, and
interpreted so as to inform personnel management decisions related to
teaching and learning. Specifically, the purposes of evaluation are:

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 1. To inform employees of the performance expectations of the Northern
Bedford County School District.
2. To provide data to assist in the continuous improvement of professional
performance.
3. To provide data that will enable the Northern Bedford County School
District to:
a. satisfy tenure and certification requirements of the Pennsylvania School
Code and the Pennsylvania Department of Education.
b. plan and implement professional development programs.
c. evaluate employees for additional or advanced job responsibilities.
4. To measure the identifiable elements of teacher performance.
5. To communicate the evaluator’s assessment to the teacher.
6. To recognize the teacher’s adherence to the approved curriculum of the
Northern Bedford County School District.

7. To insure an on-site observation of teacher performance.

8. To provide opportunity for Supervisor-Teacher interaction.

9. To critique teacher performance.

10. To plan strategies to enhance the teaching-learning process.

11. To provide an avenue of communication between the administrator and

teacher.
12. To promote the achievement of district and/or school program goals and
objectives.

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 Teacher Supervision and Evaluation: Separate, Essential,
Complementary Functions

Scholars and practitioners alike are confused by the terms supervision and
evaluation. Discrepancies in definitions and practices feed this confusion. In
addition, the tensions fet in the dual role of supervisor and evaluator also
contribute to the confusion because these double headed monsters (my
language) either have trouble making the distinction or do not understand the
distinction themselves and are, therefore, perceived as one in the same.
The question then becomes - what does an effective practitioner of both
supervision and evaluation look like?
• DEFINITION:

'Teacher evaluation' is an organizational function designed to make

comprehensive judgments concerning teacher performance and competence
for the purposes of personnel decisions such as tenure and co ntinuing
employment...the process as a whole is aimed primarily at making a
summative judgment about the quality of the teacher's performance in
carrying out instructional duties and other responsibilities...(it) is a state -
mandated function carried out only by persons properly certificated by the
state ."
• DEFINITION

Teacher supervision' is an organizational function concerned with promoting

teacher growth, which in turn leads to improvement in teaching performance
and greater student learning. The function can be carried out by multiple
individuals who find themselves in multiple roles within the school system
Supervision and evaluation differ on seven dimensions:

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 o Basic purpose
Evaluation Supervision
Imposed Teacher selected topics based on interest
Limited impact Promotes individual growth
Measured against a standard - Meets the individual teacher as
his/her level
a minimal level of competence as a starting point and grows from there
Practices of tenured teachers Can be very motivating
cannot be forced to changed
Makes judgments Nonjudgmental

Rationale for existence

Evaluation Supervision

Has legal and bureaucratic It is a professional, community-building

activity
implications - these governing that recognizes that teachers are
motivated
bodies have the moral obligation by internal drives such as a desire
to ensure that students are not to improve their professional competence
harmed under the care of a and a desire to maximize
teacher. student learning

Scope
Evaluation Supervision
Broad focus looking at painting Narrow focus looking at a teacher-
selected,

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a global picture and passing particular aspect where growth is the
judgment on competence goal

o Inherent nature of the relationship between teacher and

administrator
Evaluation Supervision
Neutral stance On the teacher's side
Dis-empowering Empowering
Unequal power Equal power/shared power
Separate, unequal roles Blended roles
Could lead to mistrust and a Shared leadership, responsibility,
sense of wariness trust, and mutual vulnerability
Focus of data collection procedures
Evaluation Supervision
Derived from criteria and Derived from the individual teacher
standards
External judgments in that the Internal judgments in that the individual
evaluator makes the judgment teacher looks at the data presented
about the teaching and passes judgment
Data is universal and standard Data is individualized and differentiated

Whose professional expertise counts

Evaluation Supervision

Resident expert both parties bring expertise to the table

Must make a summative Is not required to make a
judgment at some point summative judgment

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Teacher's perspective on the overall process
Evaluation Supervision
Environment of fear - fear of Positive environment based on
negative judgments trust and absent of external
judgments
Does not promote risk taking and Promotes risk taking and
experimentation experimentation
Dog-an- pony show and New, untried lessons
"showcase" lessons
Fear of failure environment Failure as opportunity
environment

• Essentially, but Fundamentally Different

Both evaluation and supervision are necessary. Evaluation is needed to
protect children and allow competent teachers to remain members of the
professional education community. Whereas supervision is needed to promote
the expectation of eternal growth and help teachers reac h individual
expectations. It is possible for one person to wear both hats, but that
person's actions must clearly communicate the distinction between the two.
Otherwise, the teacher will maintain that the supervisor is always the
evaluator, and the relationship of trust and collegiality will be broken down.

Criteria for High-Quality Supervision and Evaluation Systems

• The Processes for Judging Competence (Evaluation) are Clearly
Differentiated from Processes for Promoting Growth (Supervision)
Two Models:
Model 1 Model 2
Evaluators Separate, different people Same person
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(Administrator)
(Administrator)
Supervisor Peers Administrator
Time and Procedures Separate, distinct acts Separate, distinct acts in
order
to preserve the fragile
relationship
Resources Very extensive - more Less extensive since the
same
personnel & training needed person is wearing
both hats
Administrators usually like to Allows the administrator to
fulfill
help teachers grow.

In this bureaucratic responsibilities

while
model, their sole role is also
engaging in the rewarding
evaluation and not growth. acts of helping
teachers grow

"A single model of supervision for all tenured teachers does not make any
more sense than a single model of instruction for all children (p. 40)."
"The deeper tragedy of this (single model of supervision for all tenured
teachers) failure to meet individual teacher needs is that many models of
supervision and evaluation are designed with the case of the marginal teacher

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in mind. The entire system consists of regulations and practices designed to
force marginal teachers to improve.

• The Process for Evaluation Makes Clear the Criteria by which

Performance is judged.
Evaluation criteria need to be clear and communicated clearly to teachers.
Professional development is essential for obtaining and maintaining evaluator
reliability and avoiding "observer drift."
"Observer drift is a phenomenon in which researchers initially trained to
achieve a high degree of reliability gradually drifts into individualized
interpretation once they start observing on their own.
"Unlike teacher supervision, which is optimized by a differentiated,
individualized approach, teacher evaluation demands consistency and
uniformity across evaluators.

• The Organizational Climate is Conducive to Effective Supervision and

Evaluation
"The most well intentioned and carefully crafted system of teacher
supervision and evaluation will sputter and die in an organizational climate
marked by distrust, animosity, and cynicism.
Because evaluation is not based on relationships, the impact of a negative
organizational climate is limited. Supervision, on the other hand, depends on
relationships and is, therefore, extremely vulnerable to organizational
climate. Evaluation offers limited growth potential. Supervision offers
unlimited growth potential. The Entire System of Supervision and Evaluation
is Aimed at Enhancing Student Learning.
Documenting the impact of the supervision and evaluation program on student
learning is difficult because "the causal chain from a system of supervision
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and evaluation to improved test scores for an individual student is very long.
The opportunity for interferences form a large number of intervening
variables (teacher effort, student motivation, test-curriculum match, etc.) is
huge but essential for communicating successes to all stakeholders involved
and for refining practices within the program itself.

All coaches use research-based strategies to support adult learning and

professional development

Quality Coaching

Quality Teaching • All teachers and staff use effective curricula and research-based
teaching practices

• All children learn important skills and are ready for kindergarten Quality
Learning.

PRACTICE-BASED COACHING
Practice-based coaching is a cyclical process for supporting teachers’ use of
effective teaching practices that lead to positive outcomes for children
1. Components of Practice Based Coaching
2. “Adoption of coaching as a form of professional development is a complex
endeavor that requires careful planning, system-wide changes, and ongoing
support and review.” (Loyd & Modlin, 2012)
3. THE “3Ps” OF PROGRAMMATIC SUPPORT
Programs must prepare to implement coaching and prepare coaches and
teachers for the coaching process.
Policies
Preparation

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 Processes
Successful coaching programs are grounded in effective processes such as
using data to support coaching and connect coaching to child outcomes.
Sustained Quality Coaching Guarantee policies, such as providing sufficient
time for coaching and training for coaches and teachers, are critical and lay
the foundation for effective coaching.
4. PREPARATION
5. Preparation Practice Based Coaching
6. PREPARATION: GRANTEE-WIDE
7. Stakeholders should: • work together to determine the goals and design of
the coaching program. • agree on the allocation of resources to support and
sustain coaching.
8. PREPARATION: COACHES
9. Provide training and ongoing support for coaches – Adopt a set of coaching
competencies – Train coaches in coaching strategies, adult learning
principles, administrative tasks and content as needed – Community of
coaches
10. PREPARATION: TEACHERS • Provide training for teachers and other
participants – Focus on expectations for coaching – Explain coaching
procedures and purpose – Discuss the teacher’s roles and responsibilities in
coaching – Any specific equipment or documentation needed for the
coaching process
11. PREPARATION: PROGRAMMATIC SUPPORTS
12. Coaching Competencies • Coaching Contracts • Supervision Policy
Statement
13. POLICIES Policies Preparation Practice Based Coaching

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 14. POLICIES • Establish coaching as a “Safe Place” – The teacher is able to
try new things, get supportive and corrective feedback, and ask for help in a
non-evaluative environment – When supervisors serve as coaches, roles are
clearly defined – Data collected are clearly identified for coaching or for
evaluation
15. • Provide the time and supports needed for both teachers and coaches –
Reasonable caseloads – Additional personnel for support – Time for all
aspects of coaching
16. PROCESSES
17. Processes Policies Preparation Practice Based Coaching
18. DATA PROCESSES
19. • Data guides coaching – At the classroom level – At the program level –
Before, during, and after coaching
20. PROCESSES • Gathering information on coaching processes and progress
regularly – Ensure sustainability by: Review the strengths and needs of the
coaching model • Gather input from all stakeholders.

Key Concepts and Skills in Classroom Supervision

For Educational Administrators at whatever level-pre-school, elementary,

secondary, college, university- one of the most difficult responsibilities of the job
is the supervision of staff. You will put your personal stamp on any process for
which you are responsible. That is the nature of education.

1. You bring with you your personal strengths to all your work. And that is the
way it should be. This is a personal business. Most educational
administrators began their careers as classroom teachers.

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2. When you become an administrator you must never forget you’re a teacher
first and an administrator second. You’ve traded a classroom of students for
a school of adult teachers for whom you are responsible.
3. What is Formative Supervision? The term formative indicates forming or
developing something through changes. Supervision is the act of overseeing
something.
4. Formative supervision is the process of one person (administrator) assisting
another person (classroom teacher) in order to improve instruction (teacher)
and learning (students) in the classroom.
5. The Process It includes not just a classroom visits (including the pre-visit
and post-visit consultations) but goal- setting, follow-up visits to the
classroom, provision of additional support to implement changes, mentoring
and coaching, provision of professional development opportunities, feedback
on progress, along with many other aspects.
6. Improvement of Instruction in the classroom is the primary goal of the
process. Through proper supervisions teachers the way they work in the
classroom. One of the goals to keep in mind with formative supervision is to
make sure that very good teachers continue to be very good.
7. Student learning is also a major focus of the process. As an administrator
you cannot directly affect student learning to any great extent. It is through
the continuous improvement of instruction in each and every classroom in
your school that you have the most impact.
8. The primary function of classroom supervision is to effect changes in
teacher behavior that will result in improved instructional skill. Among the
problems associated with supervision are lack of time, lack of specific
supervisory techniques, and poor interpersonal relations.

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There are seven essential skills of classroom-based supervision:

1. build trust and positive communication

2. uncover espoused platforms and platforms in use
3. encourage continues reflection and inquiry into teaching
4. collect systematic data
5. interpret and use the data
6. conference
7. foster a professional learning community
Building a Positive Relationship
One problem in effective supervision is mistrust and apprehension of teachers.
Establishing readiness by building trust and positive communication opens the
door for the teacher to reveal their assumptions and attitudes that shape their
behaviors. Long-term change in teach behaviors will not occur without addressing
these underlying aspects. Teachers want a supervisor that helps the teacher feel
safe and keep matters confidential, one who is nonjudgmental and open-minded, is
proficient in pedagogical and supervisory skills, has good communication skills,
models a positive attitude and maintains a sense of humor.

Two factors that promote trust are a collaborative approach to problem solving
where teachers and supervisors freely exchange ideas and share responsibility in
the supervisory process and the supervisors’ ability to communicate confidence in
the teachers’ ability to contribute to the supervisory process. Supervisors may do
this by acknowledging the teachers specialized knowledge of the classroom
context. Additionally, teachers much are privy to the nuances of
the supervisory observation process. Supervisors much make the time to engage in
this time consuming process of developing a shared understanding of supervision.

15
Uncovering Espoused Platforms and Platforms in Use
An additional element to establishing readiness is uncovering the
teacher’s espoused platform that reveals the teachers philosophy about teaching
and learning. This platform is derived from the teacher’s personal history, formal
education and actual classroom experiences (Sergiovanni & Starratt) Supervisory
knowledge of this platform allows the supervisory to view the classroom from the
teacher’s perspective. Supervisors can help teachers reveal their platform of beliefs
through conversation in the beginning stages of the relationship, writing prompts
or facilitated discussion with in a group.

Teachers also operate through their use of their “platform in use.” Data can be used
to help teachers see the variation between their platform of beliefs and platform in
use; an experience with cognitive dissonance. These exercises provide a platform
for the supervisor and teacher to establish shared goals and purpose. “Without
consciously articulating and probing into the assumptions underlying their
philosophies, teachers have little hope of sustained change in perspective or
teaching practice .”

Encouraging continuous reflection and inquiry into teaching

The supervisor’s role is to serve as a guide who facilitates a teacher’s continuous
self-improvement through an informed “reshaping” of underlying assumptions and
overt actions. Supervisors should encourage teachers to inquiry into their practice
and take action in their day to day practice. This action is also termed praxis
/practice. Teachers can make the transition from thought to praxis by describing
the event, finding meaning through analyzing and looking for patterns, confront
beliefs by asking how they came to embody the particular patterns, and
reconstructing by discussing how they could do things differently.

16
Collecting Systematic Data
One of the greatest disservices to a teacher is the untrained supervisor’s tendency
to sit in the back of the room and record personal judgment and what is occurring
in the lesson. Providing summative judgments that require little or no reflection on
part of the teacher defeats the goal of teacher self-direction.

Wide-lens Technique provides a “holistic or global picture of the lesson. The

teacher may choose this option as an observation instrument if they don’t have a
clear idea of the areas where they would like to focus on, however, in doing this,
the supervisor is placed in control and has say over what is recorded and displayed.
Common techniques used in wide-lens data collection are script
taping, anecdotal notes (with timelines), and video recordings

Script tapping

are word-for-word verbal interactions that occur in a lesson where both teacher
and student voices are recorded. Supervisors keep up with the high volume and
speed by developing short hand notes.

Anecdotal notes

are a looser rendition of script taping that includes non-evaluative summary

descriptions of what occurs in the classroom.

Selective Verbatim

17
a targeted “word-for-word record of anything stated during the observation that
pertains to a particular question or concern that the supervisor and teacher wish to
address.”Data can be collected on both teacher and student verbalizations.

SCORE Instruments

Provides both individualized and whole class information simultaneously through a

more visual representation of the data. SCORE instruments emphasis the frequency
and kind of communication that occurs between the teachers and students. The
supervisor and teacher work together to gather a coding system that represents
information they are interested in focusing on in the observation. It is important for
the supervisor to keep the coding scheme simple and decide the interval of time
between sweeps. Score cards can also be used to track movement in a classroom.

The most important aspect of data collection is to ensure that the instrument
matches the questions or concerns the teacher put forth during the pre observation
conference.

Interpreting and Making use of the data

“The process of data interpretation entails reconstructing the observed lesson,
searching for salient patterns or behaviors repeated over time, seeking to
understand why the data look s they do and projecting what the findings reveal
about the teacher’s instructional practice in terms of consequences for student
learning. p 38 It is also important for the teacher and supervisor to celebrate
positive teaching practices.
The teacher and supervisor should examine and interpret the
data independently before conferences. Supervisors must decide who will lead the
conference and what issues will be discussed. This decision should be based on the
18
developmental level of the teacher. Supervisors directions may span from non
directive (total teacher controls over interpretation, analysis and course of action
where the supervisor is a sounding board), Collaborative (teachers and supervisors
share equal responsibility for interpretation and analysis. This approach supports a
true spirit of supervision), Directive Information (the supervisor provides a menu
of options based on the data about interpretation and solutions that the teacher
takes their cues from, and Directive control (the supervisor models data analysis
and mandates future action). It is important for supervisors to recognize where
teachers are in their ability to self-supervise and should always be working towards
helping them become more independent.

Salience “means focusing on issues that have the greatest demonstrable impact on
students’ learning and selectivity, or fewness when choosing data to discuss. The
supervisor does not want to overwhelm the teacher intellectually or emotionally.

Conferencing
Pre observation Conference

Fluency, rehearsal and contract (Gold hammer, 1969)

Conferring behaviors

Peer coaching

Peer coaching is a confidential process through which two or more

colleagues work together to reflect on current practices; expand, refine, and build
new skills; share ideas; teach one another; conduct classroom research; or solve
problems in the workplace (Robbins,1991).

19
We can dissect several elements from this definition:
1) peer coaching takes place between two or more colleagues who reflect on
current practices, this looks a lot like giving feedback;
2) the second part is about building skills, which has a development element to it;
3) the third part is about sharing ideas and teaching one another which also has a
learning and development element to it;
4) the last part is about solving problems in the workplace which reminds us of the
importance of soft skills – and collaboration in particular – to solve (future)
workplace challenges.
Together, these elements make up for a rather complete definition of peer
coaching. Each of them can be tied to one or more benefits of coaching in the
workplace which we’ll discuss below.

20
21
 CHAPTER4

BASI
CSUPERVI
SORYSKI
LLS

Super
visi
ngI
naChangeEnv
ironment

Super
visormustcompet
ewi
thal
lfact
orst
hataf
fectt
hei
ror
gani
zat
ions.
Thef
oll
owi
ngl
i
stsi
nter
nal
andext
ernal
env
ironmentt
hatcanencour
age
or
gani
zat
ional
changes:

Theext
ernalenv
ironmenti
spol
i
tical
,soci
al,
technol
ogi
cal
,andeconomi
c
st
imul
iout
sideoft
heor
gani
zat
iont
hatcausechanges.

Thei
nter
nalenv
ironmenti
stheor
gani
zat
ion'
smanagementpol
i
ciesand
st
yles,
syst
ems,
andpr
ocedur
es,
aswel
lasempl
oyeeat
ti
tudes

Managi
ngChange

St
ategoal
andspeci
fi
cmeasur
abl
eobj
ect
ivesandal
sot
het
imeal
l
ott
ed.
Est
abl
i
shi
ngt
hewho,
how,
what
,andwhenofchange.

Al
l
ocat
ingr
esour
ces,
budgetandev
aluat
ionmet
hods

Pl
anf
orr
esi
stancemanagement

I
dent
if
yar
easofsuppor
t&r
esi
stance.I
ncl
udeev
ery
onei
nthepl
anni
ngt
hat
wi
l
lbeaf
fect
ed.

Est
abl
i
sht
argetdat
esf
ori
mpl
ement
ati
on.Dev
elopappr
opr
iat
est
rat
egyf
or
al
ter
ati
on.

Beav
ail
abl
etosuppor
tot
her
sthr
ought
hepr
ocess.
Ev
aluat
ethechanget
henmodi
fyi
fnecessar
y.

I
nther
api
dlychangi
ngenv
ironmentbot
hfi
nanci
alandr
egul
ator
shav
e
maj
orr
esponsi
bil
i
tiesf
ormanagi
ngandmi
ti
gat
ingr
isk.Super
visorshoul
d
mustsetal
lthegoal
sandobj
ect
ivesaccor
dingt
othechangi
ng
env
ironmentandaccor
dingt
otheneedsandspeci
fi
cat
ionsoft
hel
ear
ner
.

Moder
nSuper
visi
on:

I
ntegr
ati
ngLeader
shi
pandManagement

ManagementFunct
ions

•Copi
ngwi
thcompl
exi
ty

•Or
derandconsi
stency

•Pr
ocedur
esandpol
i
cies

•St
aff
ing(
rol
esandr
esponsi
bil
i
ties)

•Document
ati
on•Fi
scal
viabi
l
ity

•Ri
skmanagementLeader
shi
pFunct
ions

•Copi
ngwi
thchange

•Adapt
ingt
oshi
ft
ingcondi
ti
ons,
expect
ati
onsandenv
ironment
s

•Ant
ici
pat
ingchanges

•I
nit
iat
ingchanges

Changei
snoteasyt
okeepupwi
thpay
ers,
regul
ati
ons,
cust
omer
sand
compet
it
ion,
organi
zat
ionsmustr
eactt
oext
ernal
pressur
esf
orchange,
as
wel
lasaccommodat
ethei
rowndesi
ret
ochange.Thi
scombi
nat
ioncanbe
ov
erwhel
ming.For
tyy
ear
sago,
inhi
sgr
oundbr
eaki
ngbookcal
l
ed‘
”f
utur
e
shock,
”.

Tof
fl
erdescr
ibedt
hev
ari
ouspr
obl
emst
hatar
isewhenpeopl
edeal
wit
h
mor
echanget
hant
heycanmet
abol
i
ze.

•Resi
stance:
thei
nabi
l
ityoft
hepeopl
ebei
ngaf
fect
edt
oadequat
ely
assi
mil
atewhati
sbei
ngi
mpl
ement
ed

•Super
fi
cial
/shor
tter
m change:
inst
eadoff
ull
yaccompl
i
shi
ngt
het
rue
pur
posef
ort
hechange,
theyonl
yhav
etheabsor
pti
oncapaci
tyf
orshor
t-
t
erm/
super
fi
cial
appl
i
cat
ion.

•Encr
oachment
:Ov
erl
oadi
noneef
for
tcanspr
eadandaf
fectot
her
i
mpor
tantchange

•Cr
edi
bil
i
ty:
”Wheni
mpor
tantchangesar
eannouncedt
hatdon’
tmat
eri
ali
ze,
t
hel
eader
swhosponsor
edt
hesei
nit
iat
ivesi
nadv
ert
ent
lyt
eachpeopl
enot
t
oli
stent
othem.

Changei
sinev
itabl
ebutf
orcesexi
sti
nor
gani
zat
ionst
omai
ntai
nthest
atus
quo‣Under
standi
ngt
hehumanr
esponset
ochangeenabl
esl
eader
sto
engaget
hewor
kfor
cei
nawayt
hati
smor
eli
kel
ytopr
omot
easuccessf
ul
change.Engagi
ngt
hewor
kfor
cet
osuppor
tani
nnov
ati
onorachangei
n
or
gani
zat
ional
expect
ati
onsi
snotani
cet
hing…I
tisacr
it
ical
thi
ng

St
affi
sof
tenconcer
nedt
hatasi
gni
fi
cantchangewi
l
lnegat
ivel
yaf
fect
.The
meani
ngt
heyder
ivei
nthei
rwor
k(i
.e.
,wi
l
lthechangei
nrol
e,f
unct
ion,
act
ivi
ti
esbesat
isf
yingandpr
ofessi
onal
l
yrewar
ding?
).Thei
rcont
rol
over
t
hei
rwor
kli
fe(
unwant
eddemandsont
ime,
ener
gyandaut
onomy
).Thei
r
st
atusi
ntheor
gani
zat
ion(
aff
ect
sonaut
hor
it
yandposi
ti
oni
nthe
or
gani
zat
ion)

Super
visor
s’Goal
s/Pur
poseNott
opr
event
,sol
veorcur
eapr
obl
em
associ
atedwi
thshockorst
rat
egi
cchangebutt
ohel
ppeopl
emov
emor
e
f
reel
ythr
ought
hechangepr
ocess

•Ski
l
lsandknowl
edget
omanagechange

•Reducet
heupset
,di
srupt
ions,
anxi
eti
es,
disl
ocat
ionassoci
atedwi
th
change•Lossofcont
rol

•Lossofst
atus•

Lossofmeani
ng•

Maxi
mizet
heoppor
tuni
ti
est
hatt
hechangemayof
fer(
notsoeasyt
osee
pot
ent
ial
forgr
owt
handgr
eat
erper
sonal
andpr
ofessi
onal
sat
isf
act
ion)

Sol
vi
ngpr
obl
emsandmaki
ngdeci
sion

Super
visor
s’Goal
s/Pur
posenott
opr
event
,sol
veorcur
eapr
obl
em
associ
atedwi
thshockorst
rat
egi
cchangebutt
ohel
ppeopl
emov
emor
e
f
reel
ythr
ought
hechangepr
ocess

•Ski
l
lsandknowl
edget
omanagechange

•Reducet
heupset
,di
srupt
ions,
anxi
eti
es,
disl
ocat
ionassoci
atedwi
th
change

•Lossofcont
rol

•Lossofst
atus
•Lossofmeani
ng

•Maxi
mizet
heoppor
tuni
ti
est
hatt
hechangemayof
fer(
notsoeasyt
osee
pot
ent
ial
forgr
owt
handgr
eat
erper
sonal
andpr
ofessi
onal
sat
isf
act
ion)

Communi
cat
oraboutt
heChange

Empl
oyeeswantt
ohearchangemessagesabouthowt
hei
rwor
kandt
hei
r
t
eam wi
l
lbeaf
fect
edbyachangef
rom t
heper
sont
heyr
epor
tto.An
empl
oyee'
ssuper
visori
sakeycondui
tofi
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
he
or
gani
zat
ion,
thewor
kthati
sdoneandchangest
othatwor
kresul
ti
ngf
rom
pr
oject
sandi
nit
iat
ives.Theanswer
stot
hef
oll
owi
ngquest
ionsar
ebest
del
i
ver
edbyanempl
oyee’
simmedi
atemanager
:

 Whatdoest
hischangemeant
ome?

 What
'si
nitf
orme?

 Whyshoul
dIgetonboar
d? 

 Whyar
ewedoi
ngt
his?
 

Thechangemanagementt
eam needst
opr
ovi
det
alki
ngpoi
ntsand
per
ti
nenti
nfor
mat
ion,
butt
hosemessagesshoul
dul
ti
mat
elybedel
i
ver
ed
t
oempl
oyeesbyt
hei
rsuper
visor
.

Mot
ivat
ion

Mot
iv
ati
oni
swhatdr
ivespeopl
etosuccess.
Forex
ampl
e,t
hinkaboutpeopl
e
whoar
emot
iv
atedt
olosewei
ght
—themor
edr
ivent
heyar
e,t
hegr
eat
er
successt
heyhav
e.
Mot
iv
ati
onpl
aysacr
it
ical
rol
einempl
oyeepr
oduct
iv
it
y,qual
i
tyandspeedof
wor
k.Leader
sar
ety
pical
l
yhel
daccount
abl
etomot
iv
atet
hei
rteam,
whi
chi
s
qui
techal
l
engi
ng.
Inf
act
,i
tisdi
ff
icul
tforl
eader
stomot
iv
atet
hei
rempl
oyees,
becausepeopl
ear
eal
readymot
iv
ated.
Thequest
iont
heni
snotwhet
her
someonei
smot
iv
ated,
but
 why
 t
heyar
emot
iv
at what
edand   t
heyar
e
mot
iv
atedt
odo.

Her
ear
etwof
act
orst
hatar
egr
eat
lyaf
fect
edwhenempl
oyeesl
ack
mot
iv
ati
on.

Of
tent
imesl
eader
sf ext
ocuson  ri
nsi
c 
mot
ivat
ion,
whi
chmeansi
ndi
vi
dual
s
ar
efocusedonanex
ter
nal
inc
ent
iv
e.Thi
sty
peofmot
iv
ati
onoccur
swhena
per
soni
smot
iv
atedt
oper
for
m abehav
iororact
iv
it
yinor
dert
oear
nar
ewar
d
orav
oidapuni
shment
.Forex
ampl
e,i
fsomeoneex
ceedst
hesal
esquot
a,a
bonusmaybei
nst
ore,
buti
fthesal
esquot
aismi
ssedbyasi
gni
fi
cant
amount
,ther
esul
tmi
ghtbet
ermi
nat
ion.

Ont
heot i
herhand,
 nt
ri
nsi
c 
mot
ivat
ionoccur
swhenpeopl
ear
emot
iv
atedt
o
per
for
m abehav
iororact
iv
it
ybecausei
tisper
sonal
l
yrewar
ding.
Theymay
engagei
nanact
iv
it
yfori
tsownsak
erat
hert
hanadesi
ref
orsomeex
ter
nal
r
ewar
d.Anex
ampl
eoft
hisi
sempl
oyeeswhost
ayl
atet
ofi
nal
i
zeadel
i
ver
abl
e
becauset
heyf
indt
hewor
kfunandi
nter
est
ing.
Int
ri
nsi
cmot
iv
ati
oni
swhen
i
ndi
vi
dual
swantt
odosomet
hing.
Ext
ri
nsi
cmot
iv
ati
oni
swhensomebodyel
se
t
ri
est
omak
ethem dosomet
hing.

Leader
stodayr
eal
l
yneedt
omak
eami
ndshi
ftchangef
rom f
ocusi
ngsol
el
y
onex
tri
nsi
ctocr
eat
inganenv
ironmentt
hati
sbot
hint
ri
nsi
cal
l
ysat
isf
yingand
ex
tri
nsi
cal
l
yencour
agi
ng.
Dani
elPi
nkex
plai
nsi
nhi
sbook
,“Dr
ive:
The
Sur
pri
si
ngTr
uthAboutWhatMot
iv
atesUs,
” t
hat“
thesecr
ett
oper
for
mance
andsat
isf
act
ion—atwor
k,atschool
,andathome—i
sthedeepl
yhumanneed
t
odi
rectourownl
i
ves,
tol
ear
nandcr
eat
enewt
hings,
andt
odobet
terby
our
sel
vesandourwor
ld.
”

Essent
ial
l
y,t
hedr
ivef
orsucces
scomesf
rom wi
thi
n.Thi
smeanst
hatl
eader
s
mustl
ear
nhowt
otapi
nt why
o   t
hei
rempl
oyeesar
emot
iv
atedandf
orwhat
  .

Bel
owar
efourt
act
icsl
eader
scanuset
oensur
etheyar
eappl
yi
ngbot
hty
pes
ofmot
iv
ati
on.

Gett
oKnowYourEmpl
oyees

Bewi
l
li
ngt
otak
ethet
imet
omeetwi
thandl
i
stent
oempl
oyees,
asmuchas
t
heyneedorwant
.Schedul
eindi
vi
dual
meet
ingst
ofocusonpi
npoi
nti
ngwhat
r
eal
l
ydr
ivest
hem andt
het
ypeofr
ecogni
ti
ont
heypr
efert
orecei
ve.
Spend
t
imeobser
vingt
hem andhowt
heyi
nter
actwi
tht
her
estoft
het
eam.
Some
peopl
epr
eferpubl
i
crecogni
ti
onwhi
l
eot
her
sdonot
.

FocusConv
ersat
ionsonMeani
ngf
ulChoi
ce,
Compet
enceandPr
ogr
ess

Ensur
ethaty
ourconv
ersat
ionswi
tht
eam member
sar
efocusedont
hev
alue
oft
hei
rempl
oyeecont
ri
but
ion.
Int
hear
ti
cl
e,“
TheFourI
ntr
insi
cRewar
dsThat
Dr
iveEmpl
oyeeEngagement
,
”byKennet
hThomas,
hedi
scussest
he
i
mpor
tanceofencour
agi
ngempl
oyeest
o“uset
hei
rint
ell
i
genceand
ex
per
iencet
odi
rectt
hei
rwor
kact
iv
it
iest
oaccompl
i
shi
mpor
tant
 or
gani
zat
ional
pur
poses.
”Empl
oyeesmak
ejudgment
saboutt
hei
rwor
kbased
ont
hef
oll
owi
ng:

 Themeani
ngf
ulnessoft
hei
rpur
pose.
 Thedegr
eeofchoi
cet
heyhav
efordoi
ngt
hingst
her
ightway
.
 Thecompet
enceoft
hei
rper
for
mance.
 Theact
ual
progr
essbei
ngmadet
owar
dful
fi
l
li
ngt
hepur
pose.

Tof
ost
ermot
iv
ati
on,
leader
sshoul
dweav
ethesecomponent
sint
o
conv
ersat
ionswi
thempl
oyeest
oensur
etheyunder
standt
hev
aluet
heybr
ing
t
othet
eam.

Al
i
gnt
heI
ntr
insi
candEx
tri
nsi
cRewar
ds

Eachel
ementofar
ewar
dsy
stem shoul
dsuppor
ttheot
her
s.Forex
ampl
e,
empl
oyeebehav
iorshoul
dber
ecogni
zedandi
ncl
udedwhenconsi
der
ing
r
aises,
bonusesand/
orpr
omot
ions.
Empl
oyeesshoul
dfeel
thi
sconnect
ion
bet
weent
het
wo.
Iti
sof
tenhel
pful
tok
eepwr
it
tennot
esont
hesebehav
ior
s
sowhenev
aluat
ingannual
per
for
mance,
iti
seasyt
oci
tespeci
fi
cex
ampl
esof
behav
ior
sthatl
eadt
oout
comessuchasapar
ti
cul
arper
cent
ager
aise.

Fost
erCol
l
abor
ati
onamongYourTeam

Bei
ngpar
tofat
eam andf
eel
i
ngasenseofbel
ongi
ngpr
ovi
desi
ntr
insi
c
r
ewar
dsf
orempl
oyeesbecausei
tfost
ersast
rongersenseofmeani
ngand
r
esponsi
bi
li
ty
.Teamwor
kcanal
sof
aci
l
it
ateget
ti
ngi
nnov
ati
vewor
kdone,
somet
hingt
hatcanber
ewar
dedex
tri
nsi
cal
l
y.Encour
ageempl
oyeest
owor
k
t
oget
herbyassi
gni
ngt
eamst
ocompl
etewor
k.Gi
vet
hem t
het
ool
sand
 r
esour
cest
heyneedt
oef
fect
iv
elycol
l
abor
ateandpl
aceemphasi
sont
he
wor
ktheydot
oget
her
.The

Suggest
ionsf
ormanagi
ngt
hemy
riadofev
ery
daycommuni
cat
ionsy
ou
ar
einv
olv
edi
nasapr
inci
pal
.

 Leader
'sr
ole
 Communi
cat
ionpl
anni
ng
 I
n-school
communi
cat
ion
 Communi
tycommuni
cat
ion
 Communi
cat
ionmet
hods
 Pr
inci
pal
s'v
iewsont
hei
rcommuni
cat
ion
 Fur
theri
nfor
mat
ion

Leader
'sr
ole

Managi
ngcommuni
cat
ionsef
fect
ivel
yisakeydi
mensi
onofl
eader
shi
p.
Thi
sisst
ressedi
nKi
wiLeader
shi
pforPr
inci
pal
s(Mi
nist
ryofEducat
ion)
andi
nTāt
aiako:
Cul
tur
alcompet
enci
esf
ort
eacher
sofMāor
ilear
ner
s
(
Educat
ionCounci
l
).Thecul
tur
alcompet
enci
esofWānangaandWhanaun
gat
angacont
ainusef
ul 
behav
ior
ali
ndi
cat
orsandout
comesspeci
fi
cto
l
eader
sthatcanbeappl
i
edi
nal
lsi
tuat
ions.
 

Ef
fect
ivecommuni
cat
ionunder
pinst
heknowl
edge;
ski
l
lsanddi
sposi
ti
ons
pr
inci
pal
srequi
rehav
ingadi
rectandi
ndi
recti
nfl
uenceonst
udent
out
comes,
asi
dent
if
iedi
ntheBestEv
idenceSy
nthesi
sonl
eader
shi
p.

Taki
ngt
imet
orev
iewy
ourcommuni
cat
ionsst
rat
egyandi
deaswi
l
lbet
ime
wel
lspent
. 
Manypr
obl
ems,
inandoutofschool
s,canbedi
rect
lyt
racedt
o
t
heef
fect
ivenessofy
ouandy
ourschool
'
scommuni
cat
ions–whet
her
 i
nfor
mat
ionwascommuni
cat
edornot
,whatwascommuni
cat
ed,
howi
t
wascommuni
cat
ed,
andwhocommuni
cat
edi
t.

Taki
ngt
imet
othi
nkaboutwhaty
ouwantt
osaywi
l
lal
soensur
eyou
mai
ntai
nyouri
ntegr
it
yandpr
ofessi
onal
i
sm,
thatofy
ourschool
,andoft
he
wi
dereducat
ional
communi
ty.

Communi
cat
ionpl
anni
ng

Pr
inci
pal
sappl
yar
angeoff
ormal
andi
nfor
mal
communi
cat
ionski
l
lsev
ery
day
.Communi
cat
ionsmaybedel
i
ber
atel
ypl
annedoradhoc;
facet
oface
orv
irt
ual
;wr
it
ten,
videoorv
erbal
;di
git
alornon-
digi
tal
.I
n-school
communi
cat
ion

I
nter
nal
communi
cat
ioni
sjustasi
mpor
tantascommuni
cat
ingout
sidet
he
school
. 
Element
sofgoodpr
act
icef
ori
nter
nal
communi
cat
ioni
ncl
ude:

 champi
oni
ngandbei
ngagoodr
olemodel
forcl
earandconsi
stent
communi
cat
ion

 mat
chi
ngy
ourwor
dst
oyouract
ions–t
hisi
spar
tofdev
elopi
ngi
ntegr
it
yas
al
eader

 bei
ngcommi
tt
edt
oopen,
two-
waycommuni
cat
ion

 f
ace-
to-
facecommuni
cat
ion

 communi
cat
ingwi
thempat
hy–communi
cat
ingbadnewsasef
fect
ivel
yas
goodnews

 Seei
ngcommuni
cat
ionasanessent
ial
leader
shi
pcapabi
l
ity
,notasasetof
t
echni
ques.
 Thi
ngst
otr
ytoi
mpr
ovey
ourcommuni
cat
ion

Ext
ernal
feedback

Consi
derusi
ngani
nter
viewerf
rom out
sidet
heschool
,suchasy
ourment
or
orpr
inci
pal
’
sappr
aiser
,tocar
ryoutaf
act
-f
indi
ngr
evi
ew.Thei
nter
viewer
needst
obesomeoney
oucanr
elyont
ogi
vey
ouhonestandconst
ruct
ive
f
eedback.
 

Pr
epar
eyour
sel
ftohandl
eanycr
it
ici
sm t
hatmaybebr
oughtup.Tr
ytov
iew
anycr
it
ici
smsasconst
ruct
ive.Wheny
ouest
abl
i
sht
haty
ouappr
eci
ate
f
eedbackandact
ivel
ytakei
tonboar
d,peopl
ewi
l
lkeepy
ouwel
li
nfor
med.

Youmi
ghtaskani
nter
viewert
o:

 Askwhatt
het
woort
hreemosti
mpor
tantschool
dev
elopmentact
ionsand
i
ntent
ionsy
ouhav
ebeencommuni
cat
ingt
ost
affar
e.

 Askar
angeofst
affwhatt
heyt
hinky
ouhav
ebeencommuni
cat
ingabout
,
andy
ouref
fect
ivenessi
ncommuni
cat
ingaboutt
hoset
opi
cs.The
i
nter
viewersi
mpl
ytakesnot
esanddoesnotcommentont
hedescr
ipt
ions,
apar
tfr
om seeki
ngcl
ari
ty.Fourorf
ivest
afff
rom ar
angeofcont
ext
sis
pl
ent
y;i
nasmal
lschool
,maybeoneort
woatmost
.

 I
nter
viewf
iveorsi
xst
udent
sacr
ossar
angeofy
earl
evel
s.Askeacht
o
descr
ibewhaty
ouhav
ebeencommuni
cat
ing.Thi
smaybebestdonei
n
smal
lgr
oupst
oassi
stt
hef
lowofdescr
ipt
ionandt
obr
ingoutt
her
angeof
v
iews.

 Wr
it
eupwhathasbeendi
scov
eredandr
epor
tbackt
oyouont
hest
yleand
ef
fect
ivenessofy
ourcommuni
cat
ion.

Youmaybeabl
etoi
dent
if
ygapsandi
ssueswi
tht
hei
nter
viewer
.Check
whet
hert
hechoi
cesy
ou'
vemadeaboutt
hemet
hodsy
ou'
reusi
ngar
ethe
bestonest
ofocuson.

Af
terget
ti
ngt
hissnapshotofy
ourcommuni
cat
ion,
usei
ttohel
pshape
newcommuni
cat
ions.I
ncl
udet
hisr
evi
ewandy
ourr
efl
ect
ionsaspar
tof
y
ourappr
aisal

I
nter
nalf
eedback

Askat
rust
edandexper
iencedcol
l
eaguet
opr
ovi
dehonestand
const
ruct
ivef
eedbackonanypr
esent
ati
onsy
oumake.Askf
orf
eedbackon
af
ewspeci
fi
caspect
s,suchast
hecl
ari
tyofy
ourmessage,
qual
i
tyofy
our
message,
audi
encer
esponse,
andpr
esent
ati
onst
yle.Or
 askf
orf
eedback
ononet
hingy
oudi
dwel
landonet
hingy
oucoul
dimpr
oveonordo
di
ff
erent
lynextt
ime.
 

Uset
hisf
eedbackst
rat
egysev
eral
timesay
earandr
emembert
hatt
his
ev
idenceofpr
ofessi
onal
growt
handr
efl
ect
ioncanal
sof
eedi
ntoy
our
appr
aisal
.

Vi
sit
ingst
affwor
kspaces

Byr
ecogni
zi
ngt
hei
ndi
vi
dual
nat
uresandci
rcumst
ancesofst
affmember
s
pr
inci
pal
sst
rengt
hent
rustandconnect
ednessacr
osst
hest
affasa
whol
e. 
(KLP,
p.23 
)
I
nanygoodcommuni
cat
ion,
iti
simpor
tantt
oest
abl
i
sht
rustand
conf
idence,
wit
houtwhi
chy
ourmessagemaybel
ost
,mi
sconst
ruedor
,
wor
se,
ignor
ed.

Bui
l
dunder
standi
ngandr
appor
twi
thst
affbymeet
ingwi
tht
hem i
nthei
r
ownwor
kspacesf
rom t
imet
oti
me.
 St
afft
alki
ngi
nthei
rwor
kspaceswi
l
l
 beabl
etoputt
hei
rvi
ewsacr
ossmor
ecl
ear
lyi
ncont
ext
,andar
emor
e
l
i
kel
ytot
ell
yout
her
eal
i
tyofwhati
sgoi
ngonmor
equi
ckl
y.Consi
der
i
nfor
mal
wal
kst
hroughcl
assr
ooms;
orgoi
ngal
ongt
ofacul
tymeet
ingsi
n
ani
nfor
mal
capaci
ty.

Conv
ersel
y,r
epr
imand,
cri
ti
cism,
oranydi
sci
pli
nar
ycommuni
cat
ionshoul
d
t
akepl
acei
nyourof
fi
ce,
wher
eyousett
hest
ageandt
hel
evel
off
ormal
i
ty
y
ouwant
.Rememberpr
aisei
npubl
i
c,cor
recti
npr
ivat
e.

Li
steni
ng

Ef
fect
ivecommuni
cat
ioni
sat
wo-
waypr
ocess.Beari
nmi
ndt
haty
ouwi
l
l
l
ear
nmor
ewheny
ouar
eli
steni
ngt
hanwheny
ouar
espeaki
ng,
andt
hat
peopl
ewi
l
lnotopenupt
othoset
heyconsi
derpoorl
i
stener
s.

Consi
der
:

 f
ocusi
ngont
hemomentandt
heper
sonspeaki
ng–adopt
ingal
i
steni
ng
at
ti
tude

 av
oidi
ngdi
str
act
ions,
forexampl
emov
eawayf
rom y
ourcomput
erandput
awayy
ourphone

 aski
ngquest
ionsi
nst
eadofj
ustgi
vi
nganswer
s

 gi
vi
ngy
ourf
ull
att
ent
iont
owhatt
heot
herpar
tyi
ssay
ing–notj
ustt
hinki
ng
aboutwhaty
ouwantt
osaynext

 f
ocusi
ngonwhaty
oumi
ghtl
ear
ninst
eadofwhaty
ouwantt
oteachor
i
nst
ruct

 aski
nghowy
oumi
ghthel
p

 seeki
ngcl
ari
fi
cat
ionandexpl
anat
ion,
especi
all
ywhent
het
oneoft
he
 speakeri
ssomewhatcr
it
ical

 r
est
ati
ngwhaty
out
hinkt
heyhav
esai
dinor
dert
oseekcl
ari
tyand
agr
eement

 Checki
ngwhosev
oicesar
emi
ssi
ngorunder
repr
esent
ed.

Adoptal
i
steni
ngappr
oachf
or:

 '
sounds'
ofl
ear
ningaty
ourschool
,suchasev
idenceofcur
iosi
ty,
inqui
ry,
ear
nestendeav
our
,shar
edt
hinki
ngandcol
l
abor
ati
on,
andt
eacher
f
aci
l
itat
ion

 '
sounds'
oft
eacher
s’shar
edappr
oacht
oteachi
ng,
suchast
eam t
eachi
ng,
col
l
abor
ati
vepl
anni
ng,
quest
ioni
ng,
andsuppor
ti
ng.

Adoptananal
yti
cal
earf
ort
hesounds:

 y
ouwantt
oheart
hatar
eabsent

 y
ouhear
,butwoul
dpr
efernott
ohear
.

Addal
lthesesoundst
oyourknowl
edgebankaboutt
heschool
anduse
t
hem atappr
opr
iat
eti
mest
omakepr
ogr
essondev
elopment
.

Communi
tycommuni
cat
ion

Begi
nwi
tht
heendi
nmi
nd.Remembert
hatpr
inci
pal
sst
rengt
hen
par
tner
shi
psandnet
wor
kst
oenhancest
udentl
ear
ning.

Ext
endy
ourknowl
edgesot
haty
oubecomeanexper
tony
ourschool
communi
ty.Shar
esot
hateducat
ionbecomesev
ery
one’
sbusi
ness.

Hav
eabr
oadandsi
mpl
ecommuni
tycommuni
cat
iongoal
thati
s
appr
opr
iat
etoy
ourschool
’
sset
ti
ng.Forexampl
e:
 Anewpr
inci
pal
inasmal
lrur
alschool
maydeci
det
o'dev
elopandmai
ntai
n
st
rongi
nter
act
ivecommuni
cat
ionpat
ter
nswi
theachf
ami
l
yaboutt
hei
r
chi
l
dren’
seducat
ion'
.

 Anewpr
inci
pal
inal
argeur
banschool
maydeci
det
hat'
dur
ingt
hef
ir
st
y
ear
,mycommuni
cat
ionswi
thi
nandacr
osst
heschool
communi
tywi
l
lhel
p
megai
nacl
earunder
standi
ngofhowt
hingsar
edonear
oundher
e'.

Communi
cat
ionmet
hods

Per
sonal

Yourmood,
act
ions,
anddemeanor

Yourbodyl
anguage,
moods,
andact
ionsconv
eypower
ful
messages.

 Conf
idencei
nwhaty
ouar
esay
inganddoi
ngi
sessent
ial
.St
udi
essuggest
t
hati
fyouappearconf
ident
,ot
her
sar
emor
eli
kel
ytoagr
eet
owhaty
ou
mi
ghtpr
opose.Conv
ersel
y,t
hel
essconf
identy
ouappeari
nyourown
message,
themor
eobj
ect
ionsy
ouar
eli
kel
ytomeet
.

 Fai
l
uret
ocompl
eteorcar
ryoutar
out
inet
asksuggest
sther
out
inei
snot
i
mpor
tant
.Si
mil
arl
y,f
ail
uret
ofol
l
owt
hroughonagoal
orpr
omi
sewi
l
l
under
miney
ourcr
edi
bil
i
ty.Ensur
ethel
i
nkbet
weenwhaty
ousayandwhat
y
oudor
emai
nscl
ose.I
fadi
spar
it
ydev
elopsbet
weent
hem f
oranyr
eason,
expl
ainwhy
.

 Remai
ning 
appr
oachabl
ewhi
l
ebei
ngr
egar
dedandconsul
tedasa
pr
ofessi
onal
leaderwi
thsi
gni
fi
cantknowl
edgeaboutt
eachi
ngandl
ear
ning
r
equi
respr
inci
pal
stomai
ntai
nacheer
ful
demeanorev
eni
fthegoi
ngi
s
t
ough.Thegr
umpi
nessofapr
inci
pal
canqui
ckl
yper
vadet
hei
rschool
.
 Remembert
haty
ouar
enowapubl
i
cfi
gur
eandsubj
ectt
omuchmor
e
scr
uti
nyt
hany
ouwer
easat
eacher
.Becl
ear
,consi
stentandt
ranspar
ent
sot
hatal
lmember
soft
hecommuni
tyknowt
hatwhatt
heyseei
swhat
t
heyget
.Enj
oyanswer
ingquest
ionsanddi
scussi
ngt
heschool
visi
onand
goal
s,andl
i
stenat
tent
ivel
ytoal
lcommuni
tymember
s.

Phonecal
l
sandemai
l
s

Tr
eatcal
l
sandemai
l
sasani
mpor
tantpar
toft
hej
ob.Thesear
eof
tent
he
f
ir
stexper
iencepeopl
ehav
eofy
ourschool
.

 Hav
eanent
husi
ast
icphonev
oiceandmanner
,ev
enont
hewor
stday
.

 Cl
ear
lyi
dent
if
yyour
sel
f.

 Uset
heemai
lsubj
ectl
i
net
oyouradv
ant
age,
thati
s,asashor
tsummar
y.

 Putasi
det
imet
oanswerphonecal
l
sandemai
l
s.Thi
shel
psy
ouwi
tht
ime
management
. 
Per
hapspubl
i
cizet
hebestt
imet
ori
ngi
nnewsl
ett
ers.

 Answerphonemessagesandemai
l
swi
thi
n24hour
sifpossi
blebutdon'
t
r
ushanswer
sthaty
ouneedl
ongert
othi
nkabout
.

 Tr
yforabal
anceoff
ivecal
l
shomet
opr
aisest
udent
sforev
eryonet
hati
s
cr
it
ical
.

 Checkt
hatt
heschool
'
sanswerphonemessages,
hol
dmusi
candsoon,
ar
ecompat
ibl
ewi
thschool
goal
sandcont
ext
.Maket
hem war
m,
wel
comi
ng,
andi
ncl
usi
ve.
  

Face-
to-
facecommuni
cat
ion

 Al
way
sli
stencar
eful
l
y.Tr
ynott
oint
err
upt–t
hinkabouthowmuchy
ou
 woul
ddi
sli
kei
tyour
sel
f.

 Appr
eci
atecr
it
icsandt
hankt
hem.

 Tr
eateachconv
ersat
ionasbei
ngcr
uci
al.

 Ensur
eyouragendasar
eappl
i
ed;
takeadv
ant
ageoff
ace-
to-
facemeet
ings
t
oini
ti
atenewdi
scussi
onaboutt
hingsofi
mpor
tancet
oyouandy
our
school
.

 Makenot
es.I
npar
ti
cul
ar,
recor
dagr
eedt
imesanddat
es.Tel
ltheper
son
y
ouar
etal
ki
ngt
owhaty
ouar
erecor
ding.Putf
oll
ow-
uoact
ionsi
nyour
cal
endar
.

 Wor
konr
educi
ngy
ouruseofconv
ersat
iondead-
airf
il
ler
sli
ke‘
um’
and‘
er’
,
aswel
lascl
i
chésandphr
asessuchas‘
youknow’
,‘
basi
cal
l
y’,
‘t
obehonest
’,
‘
att
heendoft
heday
’,‘
thef
actoft
hemat
teri
s’
,‘
sor
toft
hing’
,andsoon.

 Di
ff
icul
tconv
ersat
ionswi
thadul
tswi
l
loccur
.Don'
tbecomedef
ensi
ve–
br
eat
heandcountt
o10.

Communi
cat
ionchannel
s

I
nter
netpr
esence

What
'sy
our
 school
'
sdi
git
alf
oot
pri
ntl
i
ke?Youandt
heboar
doft
rust
ees
hav
eul
ti
mat
eresponsi
bil
i
tyf
ori
t.
 

 Deci
dewhet
hery
ouneedcl
osedorpubl
i
caccesschannel
sandf
orwhom.

 Choosepl
atf
ormst
hatar
eeasyt
ouse,
fory
ourschool
andf
ort
he
audi
ence(
s).

 Becl
ear
,conci
se,
prof
essi
onal
andsaf
einy
ourcont
ent
,forexampl
edonot
 posti
magesofchi
l
drenwi
thoutpar
ent
alper
missi
on.

 Checkcont
entenhancesy
ourschool
'
skeymessages,
val
uesandbel
i
efs.

 Hav
epr
otocol
sinpl
acet
omanaget
hecont
ent
.

 Hav
emor
ethanoneper
sonr
esponsi
blef
orpr
oduci
ngcont
ent
,moder
ati
ng
cont
entandmoni
tor
ingf
ori
nappr
opr
iat
eresponses.

 School
event
s

Tr
eatal
lev
ent
sasgr
eatcommuni
cat
ionoppor
tuni
ti
es.

 Makeev
ent
sascul
tur
all
yref
lect
iveandr
esponsi
bleaspossi
ble.

 Per
sonal
l
ymeetandgr
eetasmanypar
ent
sandcommuni
tymember
sas
possi
ble.

 Tr
ynott
ospeakf
ort
ool
ong.Keept
hef
ocusonst
udentachi
evementand
y
ourschool
’
scur
rentgoal
s.Makei
tcl
earwhatt
heschool
’
scor
ebusi
ness
i
s.

 Ensur
est
udent
sfeel
incl
udedandr
ewar
dedf
ort
hei
ref
for
tand
achi
evement
.

Newsl
ett
ers

Newsl
ett
ersmaybedi
git
alorpaper
. 
Findouthowpar
ent
s,whānauandt
he
l
ocal
communi
tywi
sht
orecei
venewsaboutt
heschool
andi
tsev
ent
s.
Of
ferar
angeofopt
ions.

School
communi
tynewsl
ett
ersshoul
dpr
ovi
det
hemeanst
oinf
orm,
pr
omot
e,gat
her
,andeducat
e.Deci
deonhowy
ouwantt
hebal
anceof
t
hesef
ourt
askst
owor
kineachnewsl
ett
er.
 Togety
ouri
ntendedaudi
encet
oready
ournews,
it’
sbestt
omakei
tbr
ief
,
t
othepoi
nt,
andcust
omi
zed.
 Takei
ntoaccountt
heamountofi
nfor
mat
ion
peopl
ear
edeal
i
ngwi
tht
oday
.Peopl
ehav
ebecomev
erydi
scer
ning
i
nfor
mat
ionconsumer
s.

 Ensur
ethenewsl
ett
erpr
ovi
dest
hemeanst
oconv
eyi
mpor
tantmessages
abouty
ourschool
’
svi
sion,
val
ues,
str
ategi
esandpl
ans.

 Al
i
gnt
hemessagest
osuppor
tyourkeyl
eader
shi
pact
ivi
ti
es:
leadi
ng
change,
leadi
ngl
ear
ningandpr
obl
em sol
vi
ng.

 Est
abl
i
shandst
ickt
oar
egul
arpubl
i
cat
iont
imet
abl
e.

 Useat
empl
atef
oreasypr
epar
ati
onofeachedi
ti
on.

 Enl
i
stot
her
sasr
epor
ter
stogat
hercopy
,forexampl
est
udent
sandst
aff
.

 Qual
i
tyi
simpor
tant
,butst
ickt
othebudget
.Est
abl
i
sht
hehi
ghest
st
andar
dsf
oraccur
acyofdet
ail
andgr
ammar
.Hav
eaneut
ral
proof
reader
.

 Makesur
etheschool
haspar
ent
alper
missi
ont
ouseanyphot
osof
st
udent
sincl
uded.

 Setasi
deaspeci
fi
cti
met
odoy
ourpar
toft
henewsl
ett
er,
pref
erabl
y
sev
eral
day
sbef
orepubl
i
cat
ionar
edue.

 Makesur
edi
git
alnewsl
ett
ersar
eeasyt
oreadonl
i
neort
odownl
oadand
open.

Remembery
ouhav
eov
eral
lresponsi
bil
i
tyf
ory
ournewsl
ett
ers.Youmust
hav
ethef
inal
sayonwhati
sincl
udedandhowi
tissai
d. 

Par
ti
cipat
orymanagement
 i
sthepr
act
iceof
 empower
ing 
member
sofa
gr
oup,
suchasempl
oyeesofacompanyorci
ti
zensofacommuni
ty,
to
par
ti
cipat
einor
gani
zat
ional
 
deci
sionmaki
ng.
 I
tisusedasanal
ter
nat
ivet
o
t
radi
ti
onal
ver
ti
cal
managementst
ruct
ures,
whi
chhasshownt
obel
ess
ef
fect
iveaspar
ti
cipant
sar
egr
owi
ngl
essi
nter
est
edi
nthei
rleader
's
expect
ati
onsduet
oal
ackofr
ecogni
ti
onoft
hepar
ti
cipant
'sef
for
tor
opi
nion.

Thi
spr
act
icegr
ewoutoft
he 
humanr
elat
ions 
mov
ementi
nthe1920s,
and
i
sbasedonsomeoft
hepr
inci
plesdi
scov
eredbyschol
ars
doi
ng 
resear
ch 
i
n management
 and 
organi
zat
ionst
udi
es,
mostnot
abl
ythe
Hawt
hor
neExper
iment
sthatl
edt
othe 
Hawt
hor
neef
fect
.

Whi
l
egr
oupl
eader
sst
il
lret
ainf
inal
deci
sion-
maki
ng 
aut
hor
it
y when
par
ti
cipat
orymanagementi
spr
act
iced,
par
ti
cipant
sar
eencour
agedt
o
v
oicet
hei
ropi
nionsaboutt
hei
rcur
rentenv
ironment
.

Par
ti
cipat
orymanagementmayl
eadt
o
i
ncr
eased 
product
ivi
ty,
 
mot
ivat
ion,
 
jobsat
isf
act
ion 
andqual
i
ty
enhancement
,howev
er,
itmayal
sosl
owdownt
hepr
ocessof
 deci
sion
maki
ng 
andactasapot
ent
ial
secur
it
ythr
eatbypr
ovi
dingaccesst
o
v
aluabl
einf
ormat
iont
ofel
l
owempl
oyees.Thi
ssect
ionwi
l
ldi
scusst
he
ef
fect
sPar
ti
cipat
oryManagementhadatt
heNATURA2000f
orestsi
tesi
n
Gr
eeceandt
he 
prosandcons 
par
ti
cipat
orymanagementhason
pr
oduct
ivi
tyi
nthewor
kpl
ace.

Maki
ngt
eamswor
k:Ani
ntr
oduct
ion

I
ntoday
’sor
gani
zat
ions,
mor
eandmor
ewor
kiscar
ri
edoutbyt
eamsand
gr
oupsofpeopl
ewor
kingt
oget
hert
owar
dsacommonobj
ect
ive.Maki
ng
t
eamsandgr
oupswor
kef
fect
ivel
yisachal
l
engi
ngt
askf
ort
hemanager
.
Br
ingi
ngi
ndi
vi
dual
stoget
hercansl
owdownandcompl
i
cat
eev
ery
day
pr
ocessesandconf
li
ctcanmakeev
ent
hesi
mpl
estt
askdi
ff
icul
ttoachi
eve.

Team wor
kinghasbenef
it
s,howev
er.I
tpr
ovi
desast
ruct
ureandmeansof
br
ingi
ngt
oget
herpeopl
ewi
thasui
tabl
emi
xofski
l
lsandknowl
edge.Thi
s
encour
agest
heexchangeofi
deas,
creat
ivi
ty,
mot
ivat
ionandj
ob
sat
isf
act
ionandcanext
endi
ndi
vi
dual
rol
esandl
ear
ning.I
ntur
n,t
hiscan
i
mpr
ovepr
oduct
ivi
ty,
qual
i
tyandcust
omerf
ocus.I
tcanal
soencour
age
empl
oyeest
obemor
efl
exi
bleandcani
mpr
ovet
heabi
l
ityoft
he
or
gani
zat
iont
orespondt
ofast
-changi
ngenv
ironment
s.Thebenef
it
sand
di
ff
icul
ti
esoft
eam wor
kingar
esummar
izedwel
lbyMabey
 etal
:

At
eam can…achi
evewhatnoneoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
swi
thi
nitcandoal
one;
wi
tht
her
ightdy
nami
c,acol
l
ect
ionofor
dinar
yindi
vi
dual
scanachi
eve
ext
raor
dinar
yfeat
s.Butt
heconv
ersecanal
sooccur
:at
eam canf
ail
to
achi
evewhatanyofi
tsmember
scoul
deasi
l
yaccompl
i
sh.

(
Sour
ce:
Mabey
 etal
,1998)

Thechal
l
engeofl
ear
ninghowt
omaket
eamswor
kbegi
nswi
th
under
standi
ngwhatt
eamsandgr
oupsar
e.

1.
2Def
ini
nggr
oupsandt
eams

Thet
erms‘
group’
and‘
team “ar
eof
tenusedi
nter
changeabl
y.I
sther
ereal
l
y
adi
ff
erencebet
weent
het
wot
ermsandi
fsowhati
sit
?Ast
art
ingpoi
nti
n
expl
ori
ngt
hisdi
ff
erencei
stosayt
hat
 al
lteamsar
egr
oups 
but
 notal
l
gr
oupsar
eteams.Fr
om t
hisi
tfol
l
owst
hatwhati
ssai
daboutgr
oupswi
l
l
appl
ytot
eamsbutt
hatt
eamswi
l
lhav
especi
alchar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hei
rown.

etal
Kakabadse  .(1988)suggestt
hatgr
oupsmay
f
be or
mal
 
ori
nf
  or
mal
,
 pr
imar
y or
 secondar
y.

Pr
imar
ygr
oups 
hav
eregul
arandf
requenti
nter
act
ionswi
theachot
heri
n
wor
kingt
owar
dssomecommoni
nter
est
sort
asks.Asmal
lwor
kgr
oupand
apr
ojectt
eam ar
epr
imar
ygr
oups.Theyusual
l
yhav
eani
mpor
tant
i
nfl
uenceont
hei
rmember
s’v
alues,
att
it
udesandbel
i
efs.

Suchgr f
oupscanbe or
mal
,i
nthatt
heywer
edel
i
ber
atel
ycr
eat
edt
oser
ve
anor
gani
zat
ionneed,
ori
nf
  or
mal
,i
nthatt
hegr
oupf
ormsout
sidef
ormal
st
ruct
urest
omeett
hespeci
fi
cneedsofi
ndi
vi
dual
s.Boddy(
2005)ar
gues
t
hati
nfor
mal
teamsar
eapower
ful
feat
ureofor
gani
zat
ional
li
febecause
t
heybr
ingt
oget
herpeopl
ewhohav
ecommoni
nter
est
sandconcer
nsand
whoexchangeknowl
edgeandi
nfor
mat
ion.

Secondar
ygr
oups 
aret
hosewhosemember
sint
eractl
essf
requent
ly.
Thesear
eof
tenl
argert
hanpr
imar
ygr
oups(
anexampl
eisal
arge
commi
tt
ee)
.Thei
rmember
sdonothav
etheoppor
tuni
tyt
ogett
oknow
eachot
herwel
landasar
esul
ttheyar
eusual
l
ylesscohesi
vet
hanpr
imar
y
gr
oups.

Whendoesagr
oupbecomeat
eam?Theexampl
einBox1i
l
lust
rat
est
he
di
ff
erencev
erysi
mpl
y.

At
eam,
then,
isaspeci
alt
ypeofgr
oupwhi
ch‘
uni
test
hemember
stowar
ds
mut
ual
l
y-hel
dobj
ect
ives’
(Bennet
t,1994)
.

Somedi
ff
erencesbet
weengr
oupsandt
eamsar
egi
veni
nTabl
e1.

Tabl
e1Di
ff
erencesbet
weengr
oupsandt
eams

Gr
oups

Leader
shi
p St
rong,
focusedl
eader

Account
abi
li
ty I
ndi
vi
dual
account
abi
l
ity
 Pur
pose I
dent
ical
tot
heor
gani
zat
ion’
smi
ssi
on

Wor
kpr
oduct
s I
ndi
vi
dual
swi
thi
nthegr
oupdel
i
veri
ndi
vi
dual
product
s

Communi
cat
ion Ef
fi
cient(
ti
mebound)meet
ings

Ef
fect
iveness I
ndi
rect
lyt
hrought
hei
rinf
luenceonot
her
s

Wor
kst
yle Gr
oupsdi
scuss,
del
egat
eandt
hendot
hewor
kindi
vi
dual
l
y

I
sat
eam orgr
oupr
eal
lyneeded?

Ther
emaybet
imeswhengr
oupwor
king–orsi
mpl
ywor
kingal
one–i
s
mor
eappr
opr
iat
eandmor
eef
fect
ive.Forexampl
e,deci
sion-
maki
ngi
n
gr
oupsandt
eamsi
susual
l
ysl
owert
hani
ndi
vi
dual
deci
sion-
maki
ng
becauseoft
heneedf
orcommuni
cat
ionandconsensus.I
naddi
ti
on,
groups
andt
eamsmaypr
oduceconv
ent
ional
rat
hert
hani
nnov
ati
ver
esponsest
o
pr
obl
ems,
becausedeci
sionsmayr
egr
esst
owar
dst
heav
erage,
wit
hthe
mor
einnov
ati
vedeci
sionopt
ionsbei
ngr
eject
ed(
Maki
n etal
.,
1989)
.

I
ngener
al,
thegr
eat
ert
he‘
taskuncer
tai
nty
’,t
hati
stosayt
hel
essobv
ious
andmor
ecompl
ext
het
askt
obeaddr
essed,
themor
eimpor
tanti
twi
l
lbe
t
owor
kinagr
ouport
eam r
athert
hani
ndi
vi
dual
l
y.Thi
sisbecauset
her
e
wi
l
lbeagr
eat
erneedf
ordi
ff
erentski
l
lsandper
spect
ives,
especi
all
yifi
tis
necessar
ytor
epr
esentt
hedi
ff
erentper
spect
ivesoft
hedi
ff
erent
st
akehol
der
sinv
olv
ed.

Tabl
e2l
i
stssomeoccasi
onswheni
twi
l
lbeappr
opr
iat
etowor
kint
eams,
i
ngr
oupsoral
one.
Tabl
e2

Whent
owor
kal
one,
ingr
oupsori
nteams
Whent
owor
kal
oneori
ngr
oups Whent
obui
ldt
eams

Forsi
mpl
etasksorpr
obl
ems Forhi
ghl
y-
compl
ext
asksor
pr
obl
ems

Whencooper
ati
oni
ssuf
fi
cient Whendeci
sionsbyconsensusar
e
essent
ial

Whenmi
nimum di
scr
eti
oni
s Whent
her
eisahi
ghl
evel
ofchoi
ce
r
equi
red anduncer
tai
nty

Whenf
astdeci
sionsar
eneeded Whenhi
ghcommi
tmenti
sneeded

Whenf
ewcompet
encesar
erequi
red Whenabr
oadr
angeof
compet
encesand

di
ff
erentski
l
lsar
erequi
red

Whenmember
s’i
nter
est
sar
e Whenmember
s’obj
ect
ivescanbe
di
ff
erentori
nconf
li
ct br
ought

t
oget
hert
owar
dsacommon
pur
pose

Whenanor
gani
zat
ioncr
edi
ts Whenanor
gani
zat
ionr
ewar
dst
eam
i
ndi
vi
dual
sforoper
ati
onal
out
put
s r
esul
ts

f
orst
rat
egyandv
isi
onbui
l
ding

Wheni
nnov
ati
ver
esponsesar
e Whenbal
ancedv
iewsar
esought
sought

1.
4Ty
pesoft
eam

I
fyouhav
echosent
obui
l
dat
eam t
oper
for
m at
ask,
thesecondquest
ion
i
s:‘
Whatt
ypeoft
eam doIneed?
’.Onewayofappr
oachi
ngt
hisi
sto
consi
dert
het
ypeoft
askt
obeper
for
medandi
tsl
evel
,fr
om r
out
inet
o
st
rat
egi
c.Thesef
act
orsi
ntur
ninf
luencesev
eral
otherkeydi
mensi
onsof
t
eamsi
dent
if
iedbyWest(
2004)
:

 Degr
eeofper
manence.At
eam’
sli
fet
imecanr
angef
rom weekst
o
y
ear
sdependi
ngont
het
ask

 Ski
l
l/compet
encer
equi
red.Thi
sdependsonwhatl
evel
sofski
l
lar
e
neededt
oper
for
mthet
ask

 Aut
onomyandi
nfl
uence.Thi
smaydependonwhet
hert
het
aski
s
r
out
ineorst
rat
egi
candatwhatl
evel
int
heor
gani
zat
iont
het
eam i
s
f
ormed.

Peckham (
1999)suggest
sfourpossi
blet
ypesofpr
obl
em r
elat
ingt
ohow
wel
li
tisal
readyknownandunder
stoodandt
owhatext
entt
her
eisal
ready
asol
uti
ont
othi
spr
obl
em.Thesear
esetouti
nFi
gur
e1.Fourt
ypesof
t
eamsar
eident
if
iedt
otackl
ethesedi
ff
erentpr
obl
ems:
namel
y,pr
obl
em-
sol
vi
ngt
eams,
creat
ivet
eams,
tact
ical
teamsandpr
obl
em-
fi
ndi
ngt
eams.

Thus,
eacht
ypeoft
eam needsadi
ff
erentmi
xofi
ndi
vi
dual
swi
thspeci
fi
c
ski
l
lsandknowl
edge.Themi
xandbal
anceofski
l
lsmustbeappr
opr
iat
eto
t
henat
ureoft
het
ask.
1.
5Howmanypeopl
e?

Doest
het
askneedal
otofpeopl
edoi
ngt
hesamet
ask(
forexampl
e,acal
l
cent
re)orasmal
l
,exper
tteam addr
essi
ngdi
ff
erentpar
tsoft
het
ask(
for
exampl
e,wr
it
ingat
ext
book)
?Thesi
zeoft
het
eam neededwi
l
lbean
i
mpor
tantconsi
der
ati
on.Thel
argert
het
eam,
thegr
eat
ert
hepot
ent
ial
v
ari
etyofski
l
lsandknowl
edge,
butast
hesi
zeoft
het
eam i
ncr
easeseach
i
ndi
vi
dual
wil
lhav
efeweroppor
tuni
ti
est
opar
ti
cipat
eandi
nfl
uence
pr
oceedi
ngs.Thesi
zeofat
eam i
sther
efor
eat
rade-
offorbal
ancebet
ween
v
ari
etyandi
ndi
vi
dual
input
.At
eam ofbet
weenf
iveandsev
enpeopl
eis
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 CHAPTER 5

Special Cases in Supervision and Evaluation

5.1 Supervision and Evaluation of the Pre-service Teachers

5.2 Supervision and Evaluation of the Novice Teachers
5.3 Supervision and Evaluation of the In-service Teachers

5.1 Supervision and Evaluation of the Pre-service Teachers

Before entering into a pre-service education program, most students will have
obtained a previous academic degree, either a general or honors, in a subject of
their choice, (e.g. English, math, science, religion). The alternative to this is that
students may work simultaneously on an undergraduate bachelor's degree and a
pre-service education program. The latter route incorporates education courses
throughout the program's 4 or 5 years, and culminates in a final year of specific
pre-service training. Students who complete a bachelor's degree before returning to
a university to complete the pre-service education program are in
a consecutive pre-service program, while students who complete their pre-service
training at the same time as their undergraduate degree are in a concurrent"
program.
Australia
In Australia, pre-service teachers generally undergo an online course for
qualification into pre-service teacher education. these courses are designed to
enhance teachers' knowledge, skills and confidence
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, a teaching qualification in further education (TQFE) is
offered at many universities and can be used as a qualification in pre-service
teacher education.
United States
In the US, students are often required to take a test prior to acceptance into an
accredited program, and/or upon graduation in order to earn certification.
Commonly, the PRAXIS I or PRAXIS II are required for this purpose. Common
topics include classroom management, lesson plans, and professional development.
There are a number of places to study pre service teacher education in the US. The
Michigan State University offers courses in elementary and secondary teacher
preparation, as well as a master's degree in teaching and curriculum.
Foundational thinking on pre-service education programs
The practical nature of pre-service education training programs aligns with
American philosopher John Dewey's theory of experience. In his book Experience
and Education Dewey prescribes that learning must be based upon the actual life
experiences of an individual that are interactive, experimental, and purposive in
nature. Donald Schon expanded upon Dewey's model by focusing further upon the
importance of reflective practice in the learning process. Schon was a proponent of
using reflection in teacher education and other professions to guide learning
through reflection on past experiences to guide future learning and practice, as
evidenced in his 1996 work, Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new
design for teaching and learning in the professions.

Major foci of pre-service teacher education program

The universities and colleges that offer pre-service education recognize unique
factors about the student populations they serve, and in response have created
unique programs to meet those needs That being said, there are two major
components that are common to pre-service education programs.
Practicum
A major focus in the pre-service education program is the practicum - the pre-
service teacher is placed within a school setting (either elementary or senior) and
shadows an experienced teacher. All faculties of education in Canada include a
practicum component in their pre-service programs the pre-service teacher will be
given opportunities to develop skills through observing their associate teacher,
creating lesson plans, teaching lessons and experiential learning about classroom
management
Course work
To complement the practicum, pre-service programs offer academic based courses,
designed to expose teacher candidates to collaborative inquiry, current research,
educational philosophy, theory, pedagogy and practical resources to provide a
foundation for their work as educators. This, combined with the experience gained
through the practicum prepare the next generation of teachers for the challenges of
the classroom.
 CHAPTER NO 6

SUPERVISING IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

Supervising In a Change Environment

Supervisor must compete with all factors that affect their organizations. The
following lists internal and external environment that can encourage organizational
changes:

The external environment is political, social, technological, and economic

stimuli outside of the organization that cause changes.

Although some elements affect the organization as a whole, others affect only the
manager. A manager's philosophical or leadership style directly impacts
employees. Traditional managers give explicit instructions to employees, while
progressive managers empower employees to make many of their own decisions.
Changes in philosophy and/or leadership style are under the control of the
manager. The following sections describe some of the elements that make up the
internal environment.

The internal environment is the organization's management policies and styles,

systems, and procedures, as well as employee attitudes.

An organization's mission statement describes what the organization stands for

and why it exists. It explains the overall purpose of the organization and includes
the attributes that distinguish it from other organizations of its type.

A mission statement should be more than words on a piece of paper; it should

reveal a organization philosophy, as well as its purpose. This declaration should be
a living, breathing document that provides information and inspiration for the
members of the organization. A mission statement should answer the questions,
“What are our values?” and “What do we stand for?” This statement provides
focus for an organization by rallying its members to work together to achieve its
common goals.

Effective mission statements lead to effective efforts. In today's quality‐conscious

and highly competitive environments, an effective mission statement's purpose is
centered on serving the needs of customers. A good mission statement is precise in
identifying the following intents of a company:

Customers — who will be served

Products/services — what will be produced

Location — where the products/services will be produced

Philosophy — what ideology will be followed

Company policies are guidelines that govern how certain organizational situations
are addressed. Just as colleges maintain policies about admittance, grade appeals,
prerequisites, and waivers, companies establish policies to provide guidance to
managers who must make decisions about circumstances that occur frequently
within their organization. Company policies are an indication of an organization's
personality and should coincide with its mission statement.

The formal structure of an organization is the hierarchical arrangement of tasks

and people. This structure determines how information flows within the
organization, which departments are responsible for which activities, and where
the decision‐making power rests.
Some organizations use a chart to simplify the breakdown of its formal structure.
This organizational chart is a pictorial display of the official lines of authority
and communication within an organization.

The organizational culture is an organization's personality. Just as each person

has a distinct personality, so does each organization. The culture of an organization
distinguishes it from others and shapes the actions of its members.

Four main components make up an organization's culture:

Values

Heroes

Rites and rituals

Social network

Values are the basic beliefs that define employees' successes in an organization.
For example, many universities place high values on professors being published. If
a faculty member is published in a professional journal, for example, his or her
chances of receiving tenure may be enhanced. The university wants to ensure that a
published professor stays with the university for the duration of his or her
academic career — and this professor's ability to write for publications is a value.

The second component is heroes. A hero is an exemplary person who reflects the
image, attitudes, or values of the organization and serves as a role model to other
employees. A hero is sometimes the founder of the organization. However, the
hero of a company doesn't have to be the founder; it can be an everyday worker,
such as hard‐working paralegal Erin Brockovich, who had a tremendous impact on
the organization.

Rites and rituals, the third component, are routines or ceremonies that the company
uses to recognize high‐performing employees. Awards banquets, company
gatherings, and quarterly meetings can acknowledge distinguished employees for
outstanding service. The honorees are meant to exemplify and inspire all
employees of the company during the rest of the year.

The final component, the social network, is the informal means of communication
within an organization. This network, sometimes referred to as the company
grapevine, carries the stories of both heroes and those who have failed. It is
through this network that employees really learn about the organization's culture
and values.

A byproduct of the company's culture is the organizational climate. The overall

tone of the workplace and the morale of its workers are elements of daily climate.
Worker attitudes dictate the positive or negative “atmosphere” of the workplace.
The daily relationships and interactions of employees are indicative of an
organization's climate.

Resources are the people, information, facilities, infrastructure, machinery,

equipment, supplies, and finances at an organization's disposal. People are the
paramount resource of all organizations. Information, facilities, machinery
equipment, materials, supplies, and finances are supporting, nonhuman resources
that complement workers in their quests to accomplish the organization's mission
statement. The availability of resources and the way that managers value the
human and nonhuman resources impact the organization's environment.
Philosophy of management is the manager's set of personal beliefs and values
about people and work and as such, is something that the manager can control.
McGregor emphasized that a manager's philosophy creates a self‐fulfilling
prophecy.

A self-fulfilling prophecy is the sociopsychological phenomenon of someone

"predicting" or expecting something, and this "prediction" or expectation coming
true simply because the person believes it will and the person's resulting behaviors
align to fulfill the belief.

This suggests that people's beliefs influence their actions. The principle behind this
phenomenon is that people create consequences regarding people or events, based
on previous knowledge of the subject. Theory X managers treat employees almost
as children who need constant direction, while Theory Y managers treat employees
as competent adults capable of participating in work‐related decisions. These
managerial philosophies then have a subsequent effect on employee behavior,
leading to the self‐fulfilling prophecy.

The supervisor’s role in the organization

Supervisors are expected to understand and be able to assume many roles. The five
key supervisory roles include Educator, Sponsor, Coach, Counselor, and Director.
Each is described below. Note that in your role as a supervisor, you will be using
these five roles, in some combination, simultaneously, depending on the needs of
the team members.
Educator: You will act as an educator when employees and team members are
new, when you are new to a team, when processes or conditions change, and
when discussing performance expectations with your direct reports. Additionally,
you will most likely educate when you hold or attend meetings, write and
distribute policies, manuals, or other documents, and provide cross-training
opportunities.
Sponsor: When acting as a sponsor, you assume your employees have the skills
they need to perform their current jobs and work to provide opportunities for them
to showcase their talents and strengths. Additionally, you are expected to support
employee career development, even if it means that the employee will move to
position outside your team.
Coach: You will be coaching an employee when you are explaining, encouraging,
planning, correcting, or just checking in with your employees.
Example: You should take ten minutes a week to check in with each of
your employees. During those ten minutes, ask the following three questions and
document the result of your conversation:
• How do you think the team is doing?
• How can things be improved?
• How are you doing?
Counsel: Counseling is used when an employee’s problems impact performance
and is intended to mitigate any further action, including formal disciplinary
action. The employee should solve the problem and your role is to be positive,
supportive, and encouraging in that process.
Example: One of your classified staff employees is habitually 15-20
minutes late and provides no explanation for her behavior. As soon as you notice
her repetitive behavior, you should counsel her, seeking her ownership of the issue,
and hopefully avoid any further action.
Director: Directing is used when performance problems continue and assumes you
have educated, coached, and counseled. During “directing” conversations, you
should make recommended alternatives and consequences clear, be calm and
serious, get your school or department HR involved and make sure the meeting is
thoroughly documented.
Example:
You should have a meeting with the employee clearly outlining the problem, the
desired result, and the consequences of not correcting the problem. Additionally,
you should document your conversation with the employee and forward it to HR.
Managers and supervisors are both positions of leadership in an organization. Managers
typically play a more strategic role in a company, making decisions, setting goals and
overseeing the success of a team while supervisors are responsible for administering
tasks and ensuring they are done properly and on time.

What is a manager?

A manager is an individual who makes essential decisions that affect all areas of
business operations. They outline the purpose of their decision, along with
identifying employees and the duties they need to perform to ensure the
completion of tasks. They choose the amount they need to spend on resources and
allocate them to each department so they can reach their goals.

Job duties for managers may include:

• Organizing the company's management structure to streamline workflow,

communication and performance
• Collaborating with the human resources department to identify, interview and
hire employees
• Instructing employees while following company guidelines in the employee
handbook
 • Organizing training and professional development opportunities for all
employees to participate in
• Evaluating employee performance by using a performance management
system and set goals for employees during each quarter
• Delegating tasks to employees and give feedback regularly on their
performance
• Providing work schedules to employees and make adjustments regarding
vacation, paid time off and emergencies
• Communicating department information to employees via one-on-one and
team meetings

What is a supervisor?

A supervisor is an individual who makes decisions approved by the manager. They

work alongside employees to ensure if they perform tasks that align with the goals
managers set. These individuals are the first point of contact if a problem occurs
with employees or customers. They can report it to the manager if they believe the
problem deserves their attention. Supervisors decide if conflicts deserve the
manager's attention if they believe their actions affect the completion of their goals.

Job duties for supervisors may include:

• Creating performance goals and set deadlines that match with the company's
plans
• Overseeing workflow to assist employees in knowing their job
responsibilities and delegated duties
• Coaching employees by giving them constructive feedback to help perform
certain tasks
 • Addressing inquiries and complaints from customers
• Keeping track of employee's schedules and maintain personnel records
• Gathering and submitting performance reports to the department manager
• Choosing employees who are eligible for promotions and bonuses
• Helping to train new employees while adhering to company policies

What are the differences between managers and supervisors?

The main differences between managers and supervisors are their level of
authority, responsibilities, objectives and pay. Typically, managers are higher-
level, higher-paid leaders in an organization responsible for strategic planning,
goal setting and team management. Supervisors, on the other hand, are closer to
the day-to-day tasks of their teams to ensure the manager's goals are achieved.

Below, we'll explore the main differences between managers and supervisors in
each of these four categories:

Level of authority

A manager is a higher-ranking employee within a company. A supervisor reports

to the manager about developments related to products, services and employees
working under their direction. A company might have several supervisors reporting
to a manager depending on its size, and they can promote an employee to become a
supervisor if they excel in their current role.

A manager reports to a department's director, vice president or a board of directors.

For example, the director of a department within a grocery store might speak with
the manager to get an update on the status of operations during a snowstorm.

Responsibilities
Supervisors work on the day-to-day tasks to advance the production of their
employees and position the department for success. Supervisors understand the
duties of the employees they work with, the amount of work they've completed and
the impact their performance has on the organization. Managers might instruct
supervisors to give performance reviews to each employee once they have given
feedback on their performance.

Managers meet with supervisors to discuss the general performance of the

department and its employees. They conduct the performance review of
supervisors that work for them. They expect supervisors to highlight the
department's status by meeting their goals and note problems that may alter the
department's performance. Managers attend meetings for their company's senior
leadership team and oversee the budget.

Objectives

Managers and supervisors have different goals they need to meet. A supervisor's
goals have an internal focus, meaning they coordinate with employees within their
department to make sure they're finishing their present tasks.

The supervisor facilitates the training of employees, so they know how to perform
their job correctly and decrease the amount of time spent on tasks. For example, a
supervisor working in an IT department can work with an employee on an issue
with their computer. Once the supervisor fixes their computer, they ask them what
tasks they're working and note shortcuts to help them complete their projects
quickly.

A manager's goals have an external focus because they're accountable for the
company's performance outside of one department. An external focus allows them
to understand the progress of their department without getting involved with the
completion of individual tasks. They set aside time to design a strategy to achieve
long-term profits and sustainability for the company. Manager’s overview the
benefits and risks of the strategy before sending it to their senior management team
for approval.

The changing environment and managing diversity

What is Diversity in the Workplace?

For an organization looking to cultivate a more diverse and inclusive workplace, it

is important to understand what constitutes workplace diversity.

Workplace diversity refers to the variety of differences between individuals in an

organization. Diversity not only includes how individuals identify themselves but
also how others perceive them. Diversity within a workplace encompasses race,
gender, ethnic groups, age, religion, sexual orientation, citizenship status, military
service and mental and physical conditions, as well as other distinct differences
between people.

What are the Benefits of Diversity in the Workplace?

There are many benefits to having a diverse workplace. For starters, organizations
that commit to recruiting a diverse workforce have a larger pool of applicants to
choose from, which can lead to finding more qualified candidates and reducing the
time it takes to fill vacant positions. Businesses that do not recruit from diverse
talent pools run the risk of missing out on qualified candidates and may have a
more difficult time filling key roles, which increases recruitment costs.
According to a survey conducted by Glassdoor, 67 percent of job seekers said a
diverse workforce is important when considering job offers and 57 percent of
employees think their companies should be more diverse. These numbers are
telling. Not only can organizations fill positions with qualified candidates more
quickly by recruiting from different talent pools, but a diverse workforce also
benefits their employer brand which is crucial when it comes to getting the right
talent.

Having a diverse workforce with multi-lingual employees and employees from

varying ethnic backgrounds can also be helpful for organizations who want to
expand or improve operations in international, national, regional and local markets.

Managing diversity in the workplace presents a set of unique challenges for HR

professionals. These challenges can be mitigated if an organization makes a
concerted effort to encourage a more heterogeneous environment through
promoting a culture of tolerance, open communication and creating conflict
management strategies to address issues that may arise.

For leadership to effectively manage diversity in the workplace, they need to

understand their backgrounds and how their behavior and beliefs can affect their
decision-making within a diverse environment.

Tips for managing workplace diversity:

Prioritize Communication
To manage a diverse workplace, organizations need to ensure that they effectively
communicate with employees. Policies, procedures, safety rules and other
important information should be designed to overcome language and cultural
barriers by translating materials and using pictures and symbols whenever
applicable.

Treat Each Employee as an Individual

Avoid making assumptions about employees from different backgrounds. Instead,
look at each employee as an individual and judge successes and failures on the
individual’s merit rather than attributing actions to their background.

Encourage Employees to Work in Diverse Groups

Diverse work teams let employees get to know and value one another on an
individual basis and can help break down preconceived notions and cultural
misunderstandings.

Base Standards on Objective Criteria

Set one standard of rules for all groups of employees regardless of background.
Ensure that all employment actions, including discipline, follow this standardized
criteria to make sure each employee is treated the same.

Be Open-Minded
Recognize, and encourage employees to recognize, that one’s own experience,
background, and culture are not the only with value to the organization. Look for
ways to incorporate a diverse range of perspectives and talents into efforts to
achieve organizational goals.

Hiring
To build a diverse workplace, it is crucial to recruit and hire talent from a variety
of backgrounds. This requires leadership and others who make hiring decisions to
overcome bias in interviewing and assessing talent. If organizations can break
through bias and hire the most qualified people, those with the right education,
credentials, experience and skill sets, a diverse workplace should be the natural
result.

Tips for hiring a diverse workforce:

• Incorporate a diverse interview panel to ensure candidates are chosen solely

based on suitability for the position.
• Managers should be trained on what can and cannot be asked in an
interview. For example, questions about an applicant’s personal life, such as
which church they attend, their romantic life and political beliefs, are off-
limits.
• Get creative when recruiting. For example, if an organization would like to
hire more women in the engineering department, they could reach out to
professional groups that cater to women in engineering and ask to advertise
open positions in their newsletter or member communications.
 CHAPTER 7

SUPERVISION, EVALUATION AND RENEWAL

Teacher supervision and evaluation is an important focus for principals and other
administrators. Since the 1960s, our body of professional knowledge on this topic
has grown, supported by the work of Acheson and Gall (1997), Gold hammer,
Anderson, and Krawjewski (1993), Mc Greal (1983), Manatt and Manatt (1984),
Peterson (2000), Stanley and Popham (1998), Hunter (1976), Eisner (2002),
Scriven (1981), Stufflebeam (1991), and other pioneers. We have come to
understand more clearly the nature and importance of specific aspects of quality
teaching, such as building on prior learning, effective questioning techniques,
productive and intellectually challenging activities, and reinforcement of lesson
objectives (Marzano, 2003). We can identify student engagement, self- and peer
assessment, and the opportunity for children to work collaboratively as important
components of effective classrooms. Most classroom teachers believe that both
children and adults need to take an active role in their own learning. And our
professional vocabulary has embraced terms such as “constructivist learning,”
“discovery learning,” “cooperative learning,” “differentiated instruction,” and
“multiple intelligences.”
Given the historical focus on instructional processes, it is understandable that many
current supervisory practices look primarily at curriculum and instruction: what the
students are learning and how they are learning it. This focus is evident in the
typical pattern of supervision and evaluation: a new goal at the start of the school
year; periodic classroom observation, with formal and informal feedback; mid-year
and end-of-year meetings to discuss progress toward the goal; and the supervisor's
end-of-year evaluation report that comments on the teacher's accomplishments and
perhaps lays the groundwork for next year's focus.
This traditional process is not without merit. One-on-one goal discussions with a
supervisor help teachers understand what school leaders believe to be important for
professional growth. The traditional process also provides performance feedback
and underscores that teachers are accountable for the work they do with students.
In addition, the process acknowledges teachers' professionalism by giving them
some latitude in choosing what they want to work on for the year and asking them
to develop learning experiences related to that professional focus.

The Call for an Alternative Model

So why revisit supervisory practices? Why do we need a different paradigm for
teacher evaluation? Here are some reasons to consider.
1. The focus in education has shifted from the centrality of teaching to the
importance of student learning. Over the past 10 years, this idea has been
embraced not only by educators, but also by parents, communities, and
legislators. The now-widespread use of content standards as benchmarks for
student learning is a prime indicator. National professional organizations, state
departments of education, and many local school districts have identified and
publicized what students should know and be able to do at each grade and
within grade clusters for many of the content areas.
2. We live in an age of ever-greater accountability. There is near-ubiquitous
sentiment that educators need to demonstrate through performance that their
efforts are resulting in student learning. Educators are expected to be able to
prove that students are learning what they need to know at challenging levels of
understanding and as a result of what and how teachers are teaching.
3. Education literature and professional development initiatives are increasingly
focused on data-based decision making. For the classroom teacher, data-based
decision making means looking at student work carefully and analytically and
using the findings to inform instructional planning. Yet, many teachers have not
received the training they need to confidently examine student work from an
analytical perspective.
4. Traditional models of supervision and evaluation focus on the process of
teachers' work rather than its outcome. During traditional classroom
observations, supervisors are the persons collecting data: they take notes,
analyze those notes, give feedback and direction, and write up a report. Outside
of any pre- and post-observation conferencing, teachers rarely participate in
analyzing and drawing conclusions from these data or, more importantly, from
student performance data.
5. The traditional emphasis on instructional processes delimits teachers'
professional growth. Once classroom teachers become familiar with and even
expert in effective teaching strategies, they usually maintain their proficiency
but are less likely to continue refining their practices and striving for further
improvement. It's certainly true that many master teachers use their
considerable instructional skills to great effect in their classrooms, and perhaps
even mentor colleagues new to the profession, but their own professional
growth curve often flattens. Then there are the cases of teachers whose
knowledge of classroom pedagogy has surpassed that of their supervisors' and
who must determine future professional challenges on their own.
6. Traditional teacher supervision and evaluation may not explicitly link
instruction and student learning or provide for differentiated instructional
contexts. As in our opening scenario, teachers' intentions are typically laudable
when it comes to selecting a worthy focus for professional growth. However, to
 make a real difference in student learning, supervisors and teachers must follow
a more strategic and contextualized process. Even when a teacher's plan
involves collecting verbal student feedback, the relative lack of performance
data makes it difficult to gauge how much of an impact those efforts really have
on student learning. In addition, a more traditional protocol for supervision and
evaluation is basically a “one size fits all” approach; the supervisor's similar
pattern of involvement and interaction with all members of the teaching staff—
meet, observe, comment, evaluate—limits the opportunities to help each
teacher achieve maximum growth.
7. Traditional methods of teacher evaluation rarely help teachers make a direct
link between their professional growth and what the standardized test results
and school improvement plan indicate are the real student learning needs. A
teacher's draft goal may be appropriate for her curriculum area, but is it
appropriate for her particular group of students and their learning needs? Will it
benefit them when they encounter standards-based assessments? Will it help the
school achieve its overall improvement goals? Linking the work of many
faculty members through the focused goals of the school improvement plan
helps create a sense of professional community in which members from diverse
curriculum areas can contribute to the growth of all students. When all teachers
are working on meaningful and connected goals—goals that are measurable and
directly linked to the overall mission of the school—then real progress will be
possible for all students, not just those fortunate enough to be in a specific
teacher's classroom.

An Overview of Performance-Based Supervision and Evaluation

The process of supervision presents both teachers and their supervisors the
opportunity to work together to improve student learning. It draws on assessment
 research (Darling-Hammond, 1996; Iwanicki, 1998; Peterson, 2000; Stiggins,
1989) and extends best practices in teacher supervision and evaluation in the
following ways:
• It focuses more on instructional results than instructional processes.
• It emphasizes setting meaningful and achievable professional goals, measured in
terms of improved student performance.
• It asks educators to individually and collectively analyze student work, and use
these data to address learning needs in areas of essential knowledge and skill
throughout the curriculum.
• It asks teachers to design focused interventions to strengthen and enhance student
learning in the target area.
• It asks teachers to develop a plan for continuing professional growth that is related
to the focus for improved student performance and that further establishes them as
role models of lifelong learning.
• It requires teachers to use evidence of student performance to demonstrate that
learning has taken place.
• It marshals the power of mutual collaboration and commitment by the teacher, the
supervisor, and additional “expert resources.”
• It links the work of classroom teachers with the goals of the school improvement
plan.
An Introduction to the Criteria of Excellence
Fundamental to Performance-Based Supervision and Evaluation are the “Criteria
of Excellence.” These Criteria identify key processes, competencies, and
achievements that the teacher and supervisor will accomplish through their work
together. They are organized into six phases, or distinct components, of a full cycle
of teacher growth.
Teacher Preparation
This is the process by which the teacher begins to collect information about
student learning needs and to develop an emerging idea for a clear, narrow, and
standards-based area of essential learning as an appropriate focus for an
improvement objective.
Initial Collaboration
The teacher and supervisor analyze student data more deeply and finalize the
focus and details of the improvement objective and the professional development
plan.
Initial Monitoring
The teacher begins to participate in professional development and to implement
strategies that support student learning, making necessary adjustments as the
process unfolds.
Mid-Cycle Review. At mid-year, or another appropriate midpoint, the teacher and
supervisor review progress to date, examining artifacts related to teacher initiatives
and, if possible, student work, and modifying the plan as needed.
Secondary Monitoring. The teacher continues to carry out the professional
development plan and deepens learning related to student needs by using more
refined assessment methods to inform instructional decisions.
Summative Review. At the end of each cycle, the teacher and supervisor review
evidence linking teaching strategies to student learning outcomes, and develop
written reflections that detail teacher growth and suggest ideas for further
development in the next cycle.
At first glance, the Criteria of Excellence resemble a traditional cycle of teacher
supervision and evaluation: a professional development objective is established
and the teacher and supervisor meet at a midpoint and end point to review the
teacher's progress. That said, they are distinguished by two important purposes:
1. The Criteria of Excellence establish a clear process for supervision and
evaluation, offering a generally sequential roadmap for the teacher and
supervisor to follow throughout their work together. Significantly, this process
mirrors the full cycle of what may be termed “applied action research,” with the
overarching intent to bring about improved teaching practice as evidenced by
improved student performance.
2. The Criteria of Excellence make explicit the knowledge and skills associated
with teacher development to improve student learning, establishing a set of
standards that can be used to assess and track a teacher's growing expertise.
Each phase of the Criteria outlines several associated competencies or
accomplishments (called indicators); supervisors and teachers may judge a
teacher's competency with each indicator as “competent,” “emerging,” or “just
beginning.” Underlying this purpose of the Criteria is the assumption that an
effective teacher is one who judiciously and systematically uses pupil
performance data to inform modifications and improvements in practice.
The Initial Monitoring Phase, Mid-Cycle Review Phase, and Secondary
Monitoring Phase, while less fully detailed in this text, contribute to the cycle of
professional growth by providing an opportunity for the teacher to acquire and
apply new learning, collect and analyze student performance data, and receive
formative feedback from the supervisor and perhaps other resource personnel as
well.
Because each teacher's professional maturity is unique, the Criteria necessarily
offer some flexibility. They are a clear guide for the work of the teacher and
supervisor, but they are not prescriptive. While working within any phase of the
Criteria, the teacher and supervisor may decide that the teacher needs additional
professional learning to achieve full competence for any specific indicator.
However, it may not be necessary for the teacher to be fully competent with every
indicator in sequence before she participates in other activities outlined in the
Criteria of Excellence. For example, although a teacher may be working on the
preliminary skills of identifying essential areas of learning and analyzing student
performance data (associated with indicators in the Teacher Preparation Phase),
she will still create a plan for professional development (associated with indicators
in the Initial Collaboration Phase) and go on to review new learning and
accomplishments with her supervisor at mid-cycle and end-of-cycle conferences
(associated, respectively, with indicators in the Mid-Cycle and Summative Review
Phases).
Typically, a building-level administrator, such as the principal, assistant principal,
“house” principal, and the like, will serve as a teacher's primary supervisor within
the process. Proximity suggests that this administrator will be in a strong position
to communicate easily with the teacher, observe her work firsthand, and offer
appropriate guidance. However, an administrator who is more of a “generalist”
educator may not have the specific content knowledge to effectively coach all
faculty members, particularly those working in music, art, special education,
school psychology, and other specialized areas of professional responsibility. In
these cases, a district administrator with expertise in the targeted content area may
well serve as the primary supervisor. When this is the case, collaboration between
the off-site primary supervisor and the building-level contributing administrator is
a crucial factor in supporting the teacher's growth in content knowledge and
general pedagogy, and in arriving at a balanced judgment of the teacher's work

Standards for Instructional Supervision

Standards For instructional Supervision will serve as a guide to the entire

developmental process of supervision, the instructional leaders and the teacher who
will get the support. The standards comprehensively cover both the culture and the
process of supervision in the context of Education. It has considered global
perspectives as well as local cultural uniqueness which is truly linked to the
National Competency – Based Standards for Teachers (NCBTS). The standards
approached the historical development of supervision from inspectorial focus to
the current standard – based perspectives. Instructional supervision is guided by
ten standards with specific indicators.

1. Democratic Supervision

2. Collegiality and Collaboration

3. Professional Development and Teacher Support

4. Ethical Teaching

5. Inquiry and Reflective Teaching

6. Diversity of Teachers and Learners

7. Clinical Supervision

8. Formative Teacher Evaluation

9. Curriculum Supervision

10. Teacher Action Research

Supervision as Professional Development and Renewal

1. Neither in-service nor professional development is expansive and

penetrating enough to tap the full potential for teachers to grow personally
and professionally (Bollin, Falk and colleagues). More recent means of
 improvement: professional development in which teachers play a key role in
deciding the direction and nature of their professional improvement
Traditional means of improvement: in-service in which supervisors choose
programs .To inquire into his or her own practice . Be a better problem
solver. Teacher’s ability to make more informed professional decisions. The
development of teaching skills.
2. Teachers commit to sharing their practice and to helping each other create
collaborative communities of practice. Supervision as renewal is more fully
integrated into the everyday life of the school. When supervision shifts away
from providing improvement experiences and opportunities, renewal begins
to dominate (Bolin).
3. How does this relate to teaching? What would have happened if you
didn’t pursue the knowledge or skill? What drove you to do something
about the fact that you didn’t have the knowledge or skill. Think about a
time that you wanted to learn how to do something (i.e. play an instrument,
learn a language, perfect a hobby, etc.). Capacity as Personal and
Professional
4. Program activities selected and developed for uniform dissemination without
giving serious consideration to the purposes of such activities or the needs of
individual teachers Serves less to provide growth and more to meet legal
requirements. Assumed that teachers have limited capacity or will to figure
things out for themselves.
5. Emphasis on the development of job-related skills through the provision of
training and practice experiences. Responsibility in hands of someone other
than teacher .Directive and structured In-service Training
6. By planning and delivering training.
7. Through training and practice. Build individual teacher’s skills. Emphasize
technical competence.
8. Practices
Principal is an expert. Teacher is consumer of knowledge.
9. Roles
Mastery of skills is important. Teaching is a job and teachers are
technicians. Knowledge is instrumental. It tells the teacher what to do.
Knowledge stands above the teacher.
10.Provides teachers with the opportunity to reflect on their practice and share
with others. Focus is much less on training than on puzzling, inquiring, and
solving problems. Teachers and supervisors share responsibility for
planning, development and provision of staff development activities 
Develops professional expertise by involving teachers in problem solving
and action research
11.Professional Development by emphasizing inquiry, problem solving and
research. Through problem solving and inquiry. Build professional
community. Emphasize clinical competence. Practices Principal is a
colleague. Teacher is constructor of knowledge. Roles Development of
expertise is important. Teaching is a profession and teachers are experts.
Knowledge is conceptual. It informs the teacher’s decisions. The teacher
stands above knowledge.
Professional Development
12. Less of a function of polishing existing skills or of keeping up with the l
Assumes a need for teachers to grow and develop on the job Teacher
engages in the process for himself or herself Renewal implies doing over
again, revising, making new yet restoring, reestablishing, and revaluing
(Bolin).
13.Renewal developments and more a function of solving problems and of
changing as individuals.
14. By encouraging reflection, conversation, and discourse
Through reflection and re evaluation
Build caring community. Emphasize personal and critical competencies
Practices. Teacher is internalizer of knowledge .
15.Roles
Development of personal and professional self is important.  Teaching is a
calling and teachers are servants. Knowledge is personal. It connects
teachers to themselves and others. Knowledge is in the teacher.
Renewal
16. Prepare teachers to employ the techniques and perspectives of inquiry in an
effort to increase their capacity to generate knowledge and to assess the
knowledge claimed by others. Provide teachers with ways they can see and
act upon the connections among students’ experience, classroom practice,
and school wide structures and cultures. Place classroom practice in the
larger context of purposes and practices of schooling. Offer support for
informed dissent as a means to evaluate alternatives and to scrutinize
underlying assumptions for what is being proposed or done. Take account
of the context of teaching and the experience of other teachers. Offer
meaningful intellectual, social, and emotional engagement with ideas, with
materials, and with colleagues.
17.Designing Professional Development Opportunities
Participation in a professional community of like-minded colleagues has a
significant effect on their ability to know better what to do in the classroom
and to adapt their teaching strategies to more effectively meet student needs.
(Milbrey McLaughlin).
 More control is needed for teachers to make the changes in their practices
that are necessary for them to teach more effectively. Enable teachers to
exercise more control over their classrooms. Empowering Teachers
18. Interdependence promotes an atmosphere of joint responsibility, mutual
respect, and a sense of personal and group identity. Collaborative learning is
not just nice but necessary for survival.
Members of the community are critically dependent on each other .
Learning and teaching depend heavily upon creating, sustaining, and
expanding a community of research practice. It needs ideal setting for
teacher learning and for providing the professional development
opportunities which enhance this learning.
19.Professional Community
What must change in the current system to encourage the development of a
professional community?
20.Building a Professional Community
View teachers as supervisors of learning communities in their own classrooms.
Call for teachers to respond morally to their work.
Emphasize caring relationships and felt interdependencies.
Provide for collaborative learning among teachers. Give high priority to
conversation and dialogue among teachers. Acknowledge that teachers have
different talents and interests. Acknowledge that teachers develop at different
rates and at any given time are more ready to learn some things than others
Encourage teachers to reflect on their own practice
Clinical Supervision

Clinical Supervision has been identified as a process for improving educational

practice and reducing the emotional burden of teachers. It is an accepted
strategy to identify solutions to problems, improve practice, and increase
understanding of professional issues. Its relevance in teaching is in the
potential benefits it can add to patient care and nurses as well, both individually
and as a professional group. Not only does it help to prevent stress and burnout,
it also contributes to job satisfaction. According to Proctor’s model, the
functions of Clinical Supervision are "normative" (assess and assure quality),
"restorative" (e.g. encourage emotional processing; support and assistance with
coping; alleviate stress) and "formative" (e.g. maintaining and facilitating
supervisees' competence, capability and general effectiveness).

1. Clinical Supervision is a formal, systematic and continuous process of

professional support and learning, for practicing teachers, in which teachers
are assisted in developing their practice through regular discussion with
experienced colleagues with whom they can share clinical, organizational,
developmental and emotional experiences.

2. Clinical Supervision aims to promote autonomous decision-making, valuing

the individual’s protection and safe care provision through reflective
processes and clinical practice analysis, with the ultimate goal of improving
professional practice. The supervision process can also establish positive
working relationships and cooperation with other colleagues. The focus of
the supervision process is the progressive autonomy of the supervised.
 3. The supervisor should be qualified and expert who acts both as a model and
a reference in a secure confidential environment in order to enhance
knowledge and professional skills. A supervisor should encourage the
supervisee to become an active and engaged actor in the learning process
toward positive change. The supervisor should take on the mission of
helping and guiding the supervised, providing continuous and regular
feedback on their performance. The supervisor is expected to listen,
motivate, facilitate and stimulate, while developing a joint process with the
supervised. Clinical supervision may refer to a process, a formal role in the
institution as well as a theory-based concept. They may aim at qualified
teachers.

Supervisory options for teachers

Different approaches of instructional supervision, determine which model best

suits their academic area, and decide to what extent the model is appropriate for
stakeholders involved. Fritz and Miller (2004) developed the Supervisory Options
for Instructional Leaders (SOIL) Framework to provide such information. In the
SOIL Framework two features directly apply to stakeholders: risk and reward. Risk
is defined as the capability “to expose oneself to a significant chance of injury or
loss” (Hardaker, Huirne, & Anderson, 1997, p. 10 ). Fritz and Miller (2004)
suggested that some examples of risks applicable to the instructional leader as a
result of engaging teachers in relatively unstructured levels of supervision could
be: (a) colleagues criticizing work ethic, (b) losing identity of a job title, (c)
teachers’ not fulfilling their responsibilities, and (d) accountability for teaching
performance. Reward is defined as “something given or offered for some service or
attainment” (Mish, 2007). Fritz and Miller (2004) suggested rewards that could be
gained by the instructional leader engaging in more teacher–driven types of
supervision could be: (a) reflection opportunities for the teacher to measure growth
over time; (b) flexibility for the instructional leader; (c) collaboration opportunities
for the instructional leader and teacher; and (d) job satisfaction. Both risk/reward
factors apply to teacher’s developmental levels such as teaching experience,
teaching skills, leadership ability, professional development, and should be
evaluated when choosing supervisory options (Fritz & Miller, 2003). In addition,
the SOIL Framework (Figure 1) is divided into three levels: structured, moderately
structured, and relatively unstructured models of supervision.

Structured Level

The clinical supervisory model was chosen to represent the category of structured
supervision in this study. Goldhammer, Anderson and Krajewski (1993) and
Cogan (1973) identified clinical supervision as being divided into five stages: (a)
pre–observation conference, (b) observation, (c) analysis and strategy, (d)
supervision conference, and (e) post–conference analysis

Structured lesson plans and activities will first be presented in order to identify
proposed teaching objectives, thus maximizing a synthesis of knowledge for
students (Clifford, Macy, Albi, Bricker, & Rahn, 2005). Classroom observation
allows the instructional supervisor to evaluate and analyze pedagogy in order to
later assess comprehension efficiency with the student teacher (Cogan, 1973;
Goldhammer et al., 1993). A written synthesis is recorded, based on problems
associated with stage one on emerging concerns evaluated during the observation
stage. The analysis/strategy stage serves to be highly effective in two general areas
of purpose. The first purpose is to process observational data through synthesis and
strategy. The second purpose is to organize the conference and to determine what
issues will facilitate individual teacher growth (Cogan, 1973; Goldhammer et al.,
1993). The supervision conference allows the central theme of clinical supervision
to occur (Goldhammer et al., 1993). Feedback is provided to evaluate student
performance and to help guide the student into forming his or her individual style
of teaching (Kent, 2001). Post– conference analysis provides the supervisor
reflection opportunities to assess effectiveness, both professionally and with the
student (Goldhammer et al., 1993). Moderately Structured Level With foundations
laid in the clinical supervision model, contextual supervision, the model chosen to
represent the moderately structured level of supervision in this study, furthers
professional development through a mentorship with the supervisor (Ralph, 2003).
Contextual supervision provides a model for the supervisor to link situational
behavior of the teacher to physical and psychological environments in the school, i.
e. social, organizational, political, cultural, and economic variables (Ralph, 2003).
The focus of contextual supervision is the ability of the person in the mentorship
role to vary his/her supervisory style according to the person being supervised. As
the person being supervised progresses in his/her level of development, the
supervisor will then adjust accordingly based on four dimensions of the situational
leadership style: telling/directing, selling/coaching, participating/supporting,
delegating/observing (Hersey & Blanchard, 2007; Ralph, 2003). Telling/directing
phase targets supervision techniques applying to individuals with low competence
and commitment to self, or to those unable to properly perform in the classroom
(Hersey & Blanchard, 2007; Ralph, 2003). Selling/coaching phase applies to
individuals with some competence and variable commitment, but to those who lack
in motivation (Hersey & Blanchard, 2007; Ralph, 2003). Participating/selling
phase is geared towards individuals which exhibit high competence and variable
commitment to teaching; however, they might be distracted or insecure once in the
classroom. Finally, the delegating/observing phase incorporates relatively
unstructured models of instructional supervision to those with high competence,
commitment and motivation (Hersey & Blanchard, 2007; Ralph, 2003). If the
individual is capable, and highly motivated to do his or her job, the supervisor will
then allow them to be fully engaged with limited direct supervision (Hersey &
Blanchard, 2007; Ralph, 2003). Relatively Unstructured Level Differentiated
supervision served as the model chosen to represent the relatively unstructured
style of supervision. This model provides an opportunity for the teacher to select
the type of supervision model he/she will receive and to evaluate services received
from the teacher educator (Glatthorn, 1997). In addition, the teacher may choose to
select one model of supervision best fitted to the teacher’s personal style of
development. Glatthorn (1997) suggested four supervisory options: intensive
development, cooperative professional development, self–directed development,
and administrative monitoring. Intensive development follows the same procedures
as clinical supervision; however, one objective and/or goal is selected by the
supervisor. This objective or goal is focused on until it is perfected. Cooperative
professional development strengthens the linkage between instructional
improvement in the school and teacher growth (Glatthorn, 1997.

The participants would observe each other’s classes then provide feedback on each
other’s methods of teaching. Self–directed development enhances the opportunity
for professional growth as a result of reflection on teaching skills and techniques
(Glatthorn, 1997). Although interacting occasionally with supervisors, the teacher
works toward developing individual initiatives. The teacher will set goals at the
beginning of the year, develop a plan to achieve set goals, carry out the plan, and
assess progress in order to be evaluated on performance (Glatthorn, 1997).
Glatthorn (1997) suggested these goals should pertain to professional roles, skills
of teaching, subject specific skills, and goals based on mixed sources.
Administrative monitoring requires the supervisor to establish certain criteria for
performance and growth of teachers in the classroom. These criteria are evaluated
by the supervisor during an unannounced supervisory conference. The evaluation
would last approximately 10–15 minutes and be conducted a variety of times
during the academic year.
 CHAPTER 8

PROVIDING LEADERSHIP

The term employee motivation is a complex and difficult term to define; therefore
a precise definition of this concept is elusive as the notion comprises the
characteristics of individual and situation as well as the perception of that situation
by the individual (Ifinedo 2003; Rosenfeld & Wilson 1999). An organization’s
liveliness, whether public or private, comes from the motivation of its employees,
although their abilities play just as crucial a role in determining their work
performance their motivation (Lewis, Goodman & Fandt 1995). Golembiewski
(1973, p. 597) refers to motivation as the degree of readiness of an organization to
pursue some designated goal and implies the determination of the nature and locus
of the forces inducing the degree of readiness. To Kelly (1974, p. 279), motivation
has to do with the forces that maintain and alter the direction, quality and intensity
of behavior. According to Hoy and Miskel (1987, p. 176), employee motivation is
the complex forces, drives, needs, tension states, or other mechanisms that start
and maintain voluntary activity directed towards the achievement of personal
goals. In short, Dessler (2001) defined motivation as the intensity of a person’s
desire to engage in some activity. From the above definitions some issues are
brought to mind that deal with what starts and energizes human behavior, how
those forces are directed and sustained as well as the outcomes they bring about
(performance). It follows therefore that there is a relationship between motivation
and job satisfaction, which is paramount in any organization’s existence. However,
the concepts of motivation and job satisfaction are often confused with one
another. Peretomode (1991) citing Gibson, et al. pointed out that the two terms are
related but are not synonymous. They acknowledged that job satisfaction is one
part of the motivational process. While motivation is primarily concerned with
goal-directed behavior, job satisfaction refers to the fulfillment acquired by
experiencing various job activities and rewards. It is possible that an employee
may display low motivation from the organization’s perspective yet enjoy every
aspect of the job. This state represents high job satisfaction. Peretomode (1991, p.
113) also argued that a highly motivated employee might also be dissatisfied with
every aspect of his or her job. Ifinedo (2003) demonstrated that a motivated worker
is easy to spot by his or her agility, dedication, enthusiasm, focus, zeal, and
general. Significantly, job satisfaction and motivation are very essential to the
continuing growth of educational systems around the world and they rank
alongside professional knowledge and skills, center competencies, educational
resources as well as strategies, in genuinely determining educational success and
performance.

The relevance of job satisfaction and motivation are very crucial to the long-term
growth of any educational system around the world. They probably rank alongside
professional knowledge and skills, center competencies, educational resources and
strategies as the veritable determinants of educational success and performance.
Professional knowledge, skills and center competencies occur when one feels
effective in one’s behavior. In other words, professional knowledge, skills and
competencies can be seen when one is taking on and mastering challenging tasks
directed at educational success and performance (Filak & Sheldon, 2003). The
above factors are closely similar to efficacy, and, of course, it is well known that
many teachers lose or fail to develop self-efficacy within educational settings
(Dweck, 1999). In addition, needs satisfaction and motivation to work are very
essential in the lives of teachers because they form the fundamental reason for
working in life. While almost every teacher works in order to satisfy his or her
needs in life, he or she constantly agitates for need satisfaction. Job satisfaction in
this context is the ability of the teaching job to meet teachers’ needs and improve
their job/teaching performance.

Teachers are expected to render a very high job performance, and the Ministry of
Education is always curious regarding the job performance of its teachers. Also,
the Ministry of Education demands a very high measure of loyalty, patriotism,
dedication, hard work and commitment from its teachers (Ubom & Joshua, 2004).
Similarly, the roles and contexts of educations’ motivational methods and tools
cannot be underemphasized because high motivation enhances productivity which
is naturally in the interests of all educational systems (Ololube 2004, 2005)

Need-based Approach or Content theory

Several factors are believed to influence a person’s desire to perform work or

behave in a certain way. The need-based theories explained these desires; they
explained motivation primarily as a phenomenon that occurs intrinsically, or within
an individual. We can widely recognize two need-based theorists and their
theories: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Herzberg et al.’s two factor theory.
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow’s (1943, 1970) need-
based theory of motivation is the most widely recognized theory of motivation and
perhaps the most referenced of the content theories. According to this theory, a
person has five fundamental needs: physiological, security, affiliation, esteem, and
self-actualization. The physiological needs include pay, food, shelter and clothing,
good and comfortable work conditions etc. The security needs include the need for
safety, fair treatment, protection against threats, job security etc. Affiliation needs
include the needs of being loved, accepted, part of a group etc. whereas esteem
needs include the need for recognition, respect, achievement, autonomy,
independence etc. Finally, self-actualization needs, which are the highest in the
level of Maslow’s need theory, include realizing one’s full potential or self
development; I call it the pinnacle of one’s calling. According to Maslow, once a
need is satisfied it is no longer a need. It ceases to motivate employees’ behavior
and they are motivated by the need at the next level up the hierarchy. However, in
spite of Maslow’s effort and insights into the theories of motivation, replicate
studies failed to offer strong support of the need-based theories. Also, studies
aimed at validating Maslow’s theory failed to find substantiation in support of the
needs hierarchy (Ifinedo 2003; Lawler & Suttle 1972), although many continue to
find the hierarchy model very attractive (Naylor, 1999). Herzberg et al.’s Two
Factor Theory Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman’s (1959) two-factor theory is
heavily based on need fulfillment because of their interest in how best to satisfy
workers. They carried out several studies to explore those things that cause
workers in white-collar jobs to be satisfied and dissatisfied. The outcome of their
study showed that the factors that lead to job satisfaction when present are not the
same factors that lead to dissatisfaction when absent. Thus, they saw job
satisfaction and dissatisfaction as independent. They referred to those
environmental factors that cause workers to be dissatisfied as Hygiene Factors. The
presence of these factors according to Herzberg et al. does not cause satisfaction
and consequently failed to increase performance of workers in white-collar jobs.
The hygiene factors are company policy and administration, technical supervision,
salary, interpersonal relationship with supervisors and work conditions; they are
associated with job content: Herzberg et al. indicated that these factors are
perceived as necessary but not sufficient conditions for the satisfaction of workers.
They further identified motivating factors as those factors that make workers work
harder. They posited that these factors are associated with job context or what
people actually do in their work and classified them as follows: achievement,
recognition, work itself, responsibility and advancement. Achievement is
represented by the drive to excel, accomplish challenging tasks and achieve a
standard of excellence. The individuals’ need for advancement, growth, increased
responsibility and work itself are said to be the motivating factors (see Figure 2).
Physiological Needs: The desire for basic necessities of life Security Needs: The
desire for protection against threats and unsafe work conditions Esteem-Needs:
The desire for status, recognition, achievement, confidence Self-Actualization
Needs: Full potentials; self development and the pinnacle of one’s calling
Affiliation Needs: The desire for to be loved and wanted in group Fig. 1: Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs Herzberg et al., (1959) pointed out that the opposite of
dissatisfaction is not satisfaction but no dissatisfaction. Both hygiene factors and
motivators are important but in different ways (Naylor 1999: 542). Applying these
concepts to education for example, if school improvement depends, fundamentally,
on the improvement of teaching, ways to increase teacher motivation and
capabilities should be the core processes upon which efforts to make schools more
effective focus. In addition, highly motivated and need satisfied teachers can create
a good social, psychological and physical climate in the classroom. Exemplary
teachers appear able to integrate professional knowledge (subject matter and
pedagogy), interpersonal knowledge (human relationships), and intrapersonal
knowledge (ethics and reflective capacity) when he or she is satisfied with the job
(Collinson, 1996; Connell & Ryan, 1984; Rosenholtz, 1989). Nonetheless,
commitment to teaching and the workplace have been found to be enhanced by
psychic rewards (acknowledgement of teaching competence), meaningful and
varied work, task autonomy and participatory decision-making, positive feedback,
collaboration, administrative support, reasonable work load, adequate resources
and pay, and learning opportunities providing challenge and accomplishment
(Firestone & Pennel, 1993; Johnson, 1990; Rosenholtz, 1989). In contrast, extrinsic
incentives, such as merit pay or effective teaching rewards have not been found to
affect teacher job satisfaction and effectiveness among Nigerian teachers (Ubom,
2001). The extrinsic factors evolve from the working environment while the actual
satisfiers are intrinsic and encourage a greater effectiveness by designing and
developing teachers higher level needs. That is giving teachers greater opportunity,
responsibility, authority and autonomy (Whawo, 1993). Conversely, Ukeje et al.
(1992: 269) are of the opinion that however highly motivated to perform a teacher
may be, he or she needs to posses the necessary ability to attain the expected level
of performance. Nevertheless, it is hoped that if educational administrators and
education policy makers can understand teachers’ job satisfaction needs, they can
design a reward system both to satisfy teachers and meet the educational goals.
Percentage of frequency of Percentage of frequency of reported items associated
reported items associated with dissatisfaction with satisfaction Low High 40 30 20
10 0 10 20 30 40 Figure 2: Summary of Herzberg et al.’s (1959) research Findings.
Source: Schoderbek et al. (1988 : 270) Process Theories What all process theories
have in common is an emphasis on the cognitive processes in determining
employee level of motivation and need satisfaction. Equity theory matches the
notions of “a fair day’s work for a fair day’s pay”. It really focuses on perceptions
of inequality in the output ratio whose effect may be similar to the hygiene factors
of Herzberg et al. (Naylor, 1999). Equity and fairness in the workplace has been
found to be a major factor in determining employee motivation and job satisfaction
(Lewis et al. 1995: 502). As such, equity theory assumes that one important
cognitive process involves people looking around and observing what effort other
people are putting into their work and what rewards follow that effort. This
Achievement Recognition Work itself Responsibility Advancement Company
policy and Administration Technical Supervision Salary Interpersonal relationship
with Supervisor Work condition Working Condi social comparison process is
driven by our concern for fairness and equity. Research by McKenna (2000, p.
112) and Sweeney (1990) confirms equity theory as one of the most useful
frameworks for understanding and has a role to play in the study of work
motivation. According to Lewis et al. (1995), expectancy theory is the most
comprehensive motivational model that seeks to predict or explain task-related
effort. The theory suggests that work motivation is determined by two factors: (1)
the relationship between effort and performance and (2) the desirability of various
work outcomes that are associated with different performance levels. Simply put,
the theory suggests that the motivation that will lead to job satisfaction is a
function of the perceived relationship between an individual’s effort, performance,
and the desirability of consequences associated with job performance (Lawler,
1973; Vroom, 1964). That is, employees are influenced by the expected outcomes
of their behaviors and motivation at work or the perceptible link between effort and
reward. The most important attribute of both types of process theory has been to
draw attention to the effects of cognitive and perceptual processes on objective
teachers’ work conditions. It suggests that educational administrators and policy
makers need to pay attention to the expectancy values that is the link between
effort and teachers’ needs satisfaction and job performance, determine what
outcome teachers value, link the reward that teachers value to their job
performance, and ensure that teachers wages and salary rates are not perceived as
unfair. Reinforcement Theories Reinforcement theories relate to the idea of operant
conditioning. They concentrate attention on the link between behavior and
consequences. Reinforcement is defined as any effect that that causes behavior to
be repeated or inhibited which can be positive or negative (Naylor, 1999, p. 549).
Skinner (1939, 1971) carried out several studies and came up with a conditioning
model which proposes that if pleasant consequences follow a behavior, the
behavior will tend to continue whereas, if unpleasant consequences follow a
behavior, the behavior tends to stop (Luthans & Kreitner, 1985). This theory of
motivation suggests that internal states of the mind such as needs are misleading,
scientifically immeasurable, and in any case hypothetical. Therefore, reinforcement
theory rests on two underlying assumptions: first, human behavior is determined
by the environment, and second, human behavior is subject to observable laws and
can be predicted and changed. Hence, the foundation of the reinforcement theory is
the ‘law of effect’, which states that behavior will be repeated or not depending on
whether the consequences are positive or negative (Lewis et al., 1995). Job
Satisfaction Job satisfaction has been the most frequently investigated variable in
organizational behavior (Spector, 1997). Job satisfaction varies and researchers, for
example Peretomode (1991) and Whawo (1993), have suggested that the higher the
prestige of the job, the greater the job satisfaction. Many workers, however, are
satisfied in even the least prestigious jobs. That is, they simply like what they do.
In any case, job satisfaction is as individual as one’s feelings or state of mind. Job
satisfaction can be influenced by a variety of factors, for example, the quality of
one’s relationship with their supervisor, the quality of the physical environment in
which they work, the degree of fulfillment in their work, etc. However, there is no
strong acceptance among researchers, consultants, etc., that increased job
satisfaction produces improved job performance. In fact, improved job satisfaction
can sometimes decrease job performance (McNamara & War, 1998).

Hackman and Oldham (1975) suggested that jobs differ in the extent to which they
involve five core dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and task feedback. They further suggested that if jobs are designed in a
way that increases the presence of these core characteristics, three critical
psychological states can occur in employees:

(1) experienced meaningfulness of work,

 (2) experienced responsibility for work outcomes

(3) knowledge of the results of work activities.

According to Hackman and Oldham, when these critical psychological states are
experienced, work motivation and job satisfaction will be high.

School climate culture and change

School culture refers to the way teachers and other staff members work together
and the set of beliefs, values, and assumptions they share. A positive school
climate and school culture promotes students' ability to learn. School culture is the
way things are done in the school (the personality of a school), the underlying
norms and values that shape patterns of behavior, attitudes and expectations
between stakeholders in the school.

Culture is a pervasive element of schools, yet it is elusive and difficult to

define. Understanding school culture is an essential factor in any reform initiative.
Any type of change introduced to schools is often met with resistance and is
doomed to failure as a result of the reform being counter to this nebulous, yet all-
encompassing facet – school culture. This article defines culture as it applies to
schools and examines the effects of school culture on teachers and schools in
general. Underlying assumptions held by school personnel that articulate the
culture of schools is also examined. The reasons for change to be accepted or
rejected are also discussed
• Deal and Peterson (1998) define school culture as “norms, values, beliefs,
traditions, and rituals built up over time.”
• A school’s culture is always at work, either helping or hindering learning.
It influences every decision and action in a school, from the leadership
 style of the principal to the way teachers choose curriculum materials and
interact with students.

School climate refers to the school's effects on students, including teaching

practices; diversity; and the relationships among administrators, teachers, parents,
and students. Freiberg and Stein (1999) describe school climate as “the heart and
soul of the school,” the feeling that either encourages teachers and students to
engage, love the school, and to want to be a part of it, or to reject the school and
disengage from it. It is the outcome of the school’s norms and values, the way in
which people at the school relate to and interact with one another, and the way
systems and policies manifest.

• According to the National School Climate Center, “school climate

includes major spheres of school life such as safety, relationships, teaching
and learning, and the environment as well as larger organizational patterns
(e.g. from fragmented to shared; healthy or unhealthy).” These dimensions
not only shape how students feel about being in school, but “these larger
group trends shape learning and student development” (National School
Climate Center, 2013).

Here are 5 ways you can change and improve your school climate and culture.

Use school data to set a goal

Effective leadership practices are driven by data that informs policies and practices
within the school. The more a leadership team knows about the students’ needs and
current performance, the better they can create structures and implement plans that
build the desired school climate.
To plan for school culture change, leaders can analyze data on school attendance,
discipline, academic performance and perceptions of the school community. This
information can help determine areas where leadership could use different tactics
to address students. School leaders and teachers can use these data points to
provide additional supports that could ensure high engagement for students and
their families. Identify the key datasets and set an explicit, measurable goal for the
culture change you want to achieve.

Engage teachers and administrators

Teacher buy-in is critical for school culture change. Allow teachers to have input
into school decisions. This is a way for teachers to increase their leadership
capacity as well as inform their instruction. They are innovative in their practices
and invigorate excitement amongst the students. The relationship between teacher
and administrator is important for communicating within the school. It is evident
that having involved leadership influences how others in the school building are
able to connect and relate to the culture change being implemented.

Advocate for parental involvement

Parents are essential to the learning process. Recognizing that not every student
will have a traditional parent or family structure, it is important to welcome
guardians and other student advocates to be a valued part of the school community.
Leadership can leverage parental ideas that could help inform school culture.
Parental involvement speaks volumes about the relationship between the school
and the community. It is an inclusive way to show students how much they are
valued.
Involve students

Students are very important stakeholders in the school community. Their voice is
critical to the decisions and plans of the school. There are a number of ways to
involve students in shaping the school culture. Students may have ideas about
community norms, incentives for positive behaviors, expectations about their
learning and ways to advance their learning experiences. Leadership teams must be
willing to listen and actively respond to the ideas and concerns that students
contribute. Not only is this a way to build relationships but allows for students to
have agency over their learning.

Clear expectations

Leadership should identify clear expectations about the school environment. Being
able to articulate policies and procedures to ensure high quality learning is
important in developing a positive culture. Expectations should be clear for
students and staff. This holds each person accountable to making progress and
learning possible. Policies around behavior, instruction, and additional
expectations are important for students and families. These clear expectations keep
everyone aligned to the overall mission and vision of the school.

Think about where your school is on their culture journey. How are you using data
to inform practices? Are there ways you are involving students or advocating for
parental involvement? If so, take note of those and continue to develop ways to
improve the culture and climate of the school. As you are adjusting your practice,
really look at the data to see how changes in your school structure impact
outcomes. Administration is responsible for aligning any new instruction or
practices to the vision of the school. Be collaborative in your efforts so that all of
the school community can speak to the evolving culture of the building.

School renewal and evaluation

School renewal recreates the organization from within—through changes that

support continuous examination and improvement of the education process at
every level.
School improvement is moving away from highly targeted innovations intended to
solve specific problems toward a fluid inquiry into how to make education better
day to day. The intent is to make all schools learning communities for faculties as
well as students—making use of the most powerful models of learning with both
groups.
For many years and through many different reform movements, our schools have
been hampered by structural characteristics that make innovation laborious: no
time in the workday for collegial inquiry, no structures for democratic decision
making, a shortage of information, and the absence of a pervasive staff
development system. Essentially, we have tried to engage in school improvement
with a series of Catch-22's designed into our organization.
Often, when a problem area has been identified by a faculty—modernizes the
science curriculum, help at-risk students, or teach more students to read
effectively—the usual solution has been to generate a special program staffed
separately with new cadres of specialists. New curriculums are “put in place,” with
limited training or involvement by the teachers.
What is now envisioned is a quantum leap toward the creation of a setting where
inquiry is normal and the conditions of the workplace support continuous, collegial
inquiry. The vision is of a “school as a center of inquiry” (Schaefer 1967), where
faculties continuously examine and improve teaching and learning, and where
students study not only what they are learning in the curricular sense, but also their
own capability as learners.
In this changed culture, school improvement plans are viewed as hypotheses to be
tested, not panaceas. The process is school-based, involves the total faculty, builds
community, serves to increase student learning through the study of instruction and
curriculum, and seeks to provide a nurturing organization through collective study
of the health of the school (Joyce et al. 1993).
How do faculties get started? We suggest that they explore promising changes and
test them as hypotheses, with commitment following a study of the results.
 CHAPTER 9

APPRAISING PERFORMANCE

Performance Appraisal System

Performance appraisals are one of the most important and often one of the most
mishandled aspects of management. Typically, we think of performance appraisals
as involving a boss evaluating a subordinate. However, performance appraisals
increasingly involve subordinates appraising bosses through a feedback process
known as 360 degree feedback,customers appraising providers, and peers
evaluating coworkers.

Whether appraisals are done by subordinates, peers, customers, or superiors, the

process itself is vital to the lifeblood of the organization. Performance appraisal
systems provide a means of systematically evaluating employees across various
performance dimensions to ensure that organizations are getting what they pay for.
They provide valuable feedback to employees and managers, and they assist in
identifying promotable people as well as problems. However, such appraisals are
meaningless unless they are accompanied by an effective feedback system that
ensures that the employee gets the right messages concerning performance.

Reward systems represent a powerful motivational force in organizations, but this

is true only when the system is fair and tied to performance. Because a variety of
approaches to appraising performance exists, managers should be aware of the
advantages and disadvantages of each. In turn, an understanding of reward systems
will help managers select the system best suited to the needs and goals of the
organization.
Performance appraisal systems serve a variety of functions of central importance to
employees. Appraisal techniques practiced today are not without problems, though.
Managers should keep abreast of recent developments in compensation and reward
systems so they can modify existing systems when more appropriate alternatives
become available.

A key management responsibility has always been to oversee and develop

subordinates. In fact, it has been said that every manager is a human resource
manager. Nowhere is this truer than with regard to evaluating and rewarding
subordinates. Managers are consistently involved with employee training and
development, monitoring employee performance, providing job-related feedback,
and administering rewards.

In this chapter, we examine three interrelated aspects of the performance appraisal

and reward process. This process moves from evaluating employee performance to
providing adequate and constructive feedback to determining discretionary
rewards. Where effort and performance are properly evaluated and rewarded, we
would expect to see more stable and consistent job performance. On the other
hand, where such performance is only evaluated intermittently or where the
appraisal and review process is poorly done, we would generally see less consistent
performance. We begin our discussion with a look at the nature of appraisals.

We begin by examining three aspects of performance appraisal systems:

(1) the uses of performance appraisals

(2) problems found in performance appraisals

(3) methods for reducing errors in the appraisal system.

This overview will provide a foundation for studying specific techniques of
performance appraisal. Those interested in more detailed information on
performance appraisal systems may wish to consult books on personnel
administration or compensation.

Uses of Performance Appraisals

In most work organizations, performance appraisals are used for a variety of

reasons. These reasons range from improving employee productivity to developing
the employees themselves. This diversity of uses is well documented in a study of
why companies use performance appraisals.

Traditionally, compensation and performance feedback have been the most

prominent reasons organizations use performance appraisals.

Feedback to employees

Performance appraisals provide feedback to employees about quantity and quality

of job performance. Without this information, employees have little knowledge of
how well they are doing their jobs and how they might improve their work.

Self-development

Performance appraisals can also serve as an aid to employee self-development.

Individuals learn about their strengths and weaknesses as seen by others and can
initiate self-improvement programs (see discussion on behavioral self-management
programs).
Reward systems

In addition, appraisals may form the bases of organizational reward systems—

particularly merit-based compensation plans.

Personnel decisions

Performance appraisals serve personnel-related functions as well. In making

personnel decisions, such as those relating to promotions, transfers, and
terminations, they can be quite useful. Employers can make choices on the basis of
information about individual talents and shortcomings. In addition, appraisal
systems help management evaluate the effectiveness of its selection and placement
functions. If newly hired employees generally perform poorly, managers should
consider whether the right kind of people is being hired in the first place.

Training and development

Finally, appraisals can help managers identify areas in which employees lack
critical skills for either immediate or future performance. In these situations, new
or revised training programs can be established to further develop the company’s
human resources.

It is apparent that performance appraisal systems serve a variety of functions in

organizations. In light of the importance of these functions, it is imperative that the
accuracy and fairness of the appraisal be paramount considerations in the
evaluation of a system. Many performance appraisal systems exist. It is the
manager’s job to select the technique or combination of techniques that best serves
the particular needs (and constraints) of the organization. Before considering these
various techniques, let us look at some of the more prominent problems and
sources of error that are common to several of them.
Problems with Performance Appraisals

A number of problems can be identified that pose a threat to the value of appraisal
techniques. Most of these problems deal with the related issues of the validity and
reliability of the instruments or techniques themselves. Validity is the extent to
which an instrument actually measures what it intends to measure,
whereas reliability is the extent to which the instrument consistently yields the
same results each time it is used. Ideally, a good performance appraisal system will
exhibit high levels of both validity and reliability. If not, serious questions must be
raised concerning the utility (and possibly the legality) of the system.

It is possible to identify several common sources of error in performance appraisal

systems. These include:

(1) Central tendency error

(2) Strictness or leniency error

(3) Halo effect

(4) Recency error

(5) Personal biases.

Central Tendency Error

It has often been found that supervisors rate most of their employees within a
narrow range. Regardless of how people actually perform, the rater fails to
distinguish significant differences among group members and lumps everyone
together in an “average” category. This is called central tendency error . In short,
the central tendency error is the failure to recognize either very good or very poor
performers.

Strictness or Leniency Error

A related rating problem exists when a supervisor is overly strict or overly lenient
in evaluations in college classrooms, we hear of professors who are “tough
graders” or, conversely, “easy A’s.” Similar situations exist in the workplace,
where some supervisors see most subordinates as not measuring up to their high
standards, whereas other supervisors see most subordinates as deserving of a high
rating. As with central tendency error, strictness error and leniency error fail to
distinguish adequately between good and bad performers and instead relegate
almost everyone to the same or related categories.

Halo Effect

The halo effect exists where a supervisor assigns the same rating to each factor
being evaluated for an individual. For example, an employee rated above average
on quantity of performance may also be rated above average on quality of
performance, interpersonal competence, attendance, and promotion readiness. In
other words, the supervisor cannot effectively differentiate between relatively
discrete categories and instead gives a global rating.

These types of bias are based on our perceptions of others. The halo effect occurs
when managers have an overly positive view of a particular employee. This can
impact the objectivity of reviews, with managers consistently giving an employee
high ratings and failing to recognize areas for improvement.
Whether positive or negative, we also have a natural tendency to confirm our
preconceived beliefs about people in the way we interpret or recall performance,
which is known as confirmatory bias.

For example, a manager may have a preconception that her male report is more
assertive. This could cause her to recall instances more easily in which her report
asserted his position during a meeting. On the other hand, she may perceive her
female report to be less assertive, predisposing her to forget when the report
suggested an effective strategy or was successful in a tough negotiation.

The halo effect is often a consequence of people having a similarity bias for certain
types of people. We naturally tend to favor and trust people who are similar to us.
Whether it’s people who also have a penchant for golf or people who remind us of
a younger version of ourselves, favoritism that results from a similarity bias can
give certain employees an unfair advantage over others. This can impact a team to
the point that those employees may receive more coaching, better reviews and, as a
result, more opportunities for advancement.

Recency Error

Oftentimes evaluators focus on an employee’s most recent behavior in the

evaluation process. This is known as the recency error. That is, in an annual
evaluation, a supervisor may give undue emphasis to performance during the past
months—or even weeks—and ignore performance levels prior to this. This
practice, if known to employees, leads to a situation where employees may “float”
for the initial months of the evaluation period and then overexert themselves in the
last few months or weeks prior to evaluation. This practice leads to uneven
performance and contributes to the attitude of “playing the game.”
Personal Biases

Finally, it is not uncommon to find situations in which supervisors allow their own
personal biases to influence their appraisals. Such biases include like or dislike for
someone, as well as racial and sexual biases. Personal biases can interfere with the
fairness and accuracy of an evaluation and are illegal in many situations.
Steps in Performance Appraisal Process – 6 Steps Process
Performance appraisal can be undertaken either on informal basis or on formal and
systematic basis. In comparatively smaller organizations, appraisal, either based on
traits or performance or a combination of both, is done informally through the
observation of concerned employees.
In larger organizations, appraisal has to be more systematic and formal as it reveals
various types of information which can be used for variety of purposes. A
systematic performance appraisal goes through different steps.
Step # 1 Defining Objectives of Appraisal:
Performance appraisal can be undertaken either on informal basis or on formal and
systematic basis. In comparatively smaller organizations, appraisal, either based on
traits or performance or a combination of both, is done informally through the
observation of concerned employees.
In larger organizations, appraisal has to be more systematic and formal as it reveals
various types of information which can be used for variety of purposes. A
systematic performance appraisal goes through different steps.
Step # 1. Defining Objectives of Appraisal:

The first basic step in effective and systematic appraisal system is to define the
objectives of the appraisal itself. Appraisal is used for different purposes ranging
from motivating the appraisees to controlling their behavior. In each case, the
emphasis on different aspects of appraisal differs. For example, reward- providing
appraisal such as salary revision or promotion differs from appraisal for training
and development.
Step # 2. Defining Appraisal Norms:
When we evaluate anything in terms of good or bad, we always have some norms
in our mind against which we say whether the thing is good or bad. In the same
way, appraisal is done in the context of certain norms or standards. These may be
in the form of various traits of the appraisees or their expected work performance
results.
Since one of the basic long-term objectives is to improve performance, appraisal is
more performance oriented. Therefore, performance norms are to be specified in
the beginning of the period for which appraisal is concerned. As we shall see later,
when performance is taken as the basis of appraisal, the performance standards
should be determined jointly by appraiser and appraisee.
Further, since performance of an employee in the organization is affected by a
number of factors, and many of these may not be within the control of the
employee, there should be provisions of revision of performance norms mid-way
to take into account the impact of uncontrollable factors. For example, Pepsi India
evaluates performance norms for its various managers twice or thrice in a year to
make these more meaningful.
Step # 3. Designing Appraisal Programme:
In designing performance appraisal programme, there are several issues which
require attention- the types of personnel to be appraised, types of personnel to act
as appraisers, appraisal methodology, and timing of appraisal. The first basic issue
is the determination of personnel who will be included in the formal appraisal
system. Ideally speaking, all personnel of the organization should be covered by
the appraisal system.
However, various organizations keep lower-level employees out of the purview of
formal appraisal system and adopt informal system for them. The second issue is
the determination of personnel who will conduct performance appraisal. Most
often, the superior concerned appraises his subordinates.
However, the present trend in appraisal suggests the concept of 360-degree
appraisal which involves appraisal by the appraisee himself known as self-
appraisal, appraisal by superior concerned, HR personnel, and outside personnel
with whom the appraisee interacts in performing his jobs.
The next issue in designing appraisal programme is the methodology to be used in
appraisal whether through structured forms and questionnaires or personal
interview of appraisee or a combination of both.
Usually, a combination of both in preferable because structured forms may not
give full relevant information. The last issue in designing of appraisal programme
is the determination of time period and timing of appraisal. Most of the
organizations which link appraisal with reward system follow annual system and
undertake appraisal after the end of the year.
Others which link appraisal with promotion and identification of training needs do
not follow annual system but devise the time period on the basis of appraisal needs.
Step # 4. Implementing Appraisal Programme:
In implementing appraisal programme, the appraisal is conducted by the appraisers
and they may also conduct interview if it is provided in the appraisal system. The
results of the appraisal are communicated to HR department for follow-up actions
which should be oriented towards the objectives of the appraisal.
Step # 5. Appraisal Feedback:
Perhaps appraisal feedback is the most crucial stage in appraisal process, specially
when the superior’s rating is not as per the expectations of the appraisee, even
though such expectations may be based on false premise. For example, Larry
Cipolla has observed that most people want feedback as long, of course, as it
mirrors their self perception.
When it does, they tend to like it. When it doesn’t, they don’t. There is an ethical
consideration is giving feedback of performance if it is against the employees.
Many managers feel that employees often experience a profound face-saving issue
they hear that their actual performance is not as good as they had perceived it to be.
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Upon hearing this, some become stoic and quiet, others cry, and a few become
overtly angry, hostile, and verbally abusive. The managers put question- Is it
ethical for them to share their honest perceptions of employee performance at the
risk of hurting them? To some extent, this problem may be overcome by objective
appraisal and feedback.
Step # 6. Post-Appraisal Actions:
Performance appraisal is not an end in itself, but it is a means for improving long-
term performance of personnel by taking appropriate actions based on the
information as revealed by the appraisal. These actions may be in the form of
suitable rewards to outperformers, counselling and guiding underperformers and
providing training to them for better performance, and identifying and removing
those organizational factors which hinder effective performance.
In fact, in the systems approach, appraisal aims at improving performance, instead
of merely assessing it. Towards this end, appraisal system seeks to evaluate
opportunity factors. Opportunity factors include the physical environment and
social processes at the work. These opportunity variables are more important than
individual abilities in determining work performance.
Steps in Performance Appraisal Process – Definition and Stages of
Performance Appraisal
Performance appraisal is the process of evaluating a manager’s performance on the
job in terms of the requirement of the job. In other words, it is the systematic
assessment of an employee in terms of the performance, aptitudes and other
qualities necessary for successfully carrying out his job. It is often linked with the
compensation and development plans of the organisation.
Performance appraisal has been a subject of criticism for many years. No doubt, it
has not fallen apart in spite of the general apathy shown to it. The fact that it is still
in vogue does not mean that all is well. Many noted authors and management
experts speak highly of the importance of performance appraisal.

The proponents of the performance appraisal system feel that the principle reason
for the “uneasy” feeling about it may be due to the fact that judgement may not be
particularly well-founded. Indeed, it is fair to say that most top executives consider
the evidence on which the compensation based, to be inadequate with the
minimum of objective facts and maximum of subjective opinions.
This however, is only one side of the story. Academic leaders like Douglas
McGregor in his article. “An Uneasy Look at Performance Appraisal” have
questioned the desirability of such a system. According to McGregor- “The
conventional approach, unless handled with consummate skill and delicacy,
constitutes something dangerously close to violation of the integrity of personality.
Managers are uncomfortable when they are put in the position of a ‘Playing God’.
The respect we hold for the inherent value of the individual leaves us distressed
when we must take responsibility for judging the personal work of a fellowman.”
Arch Potton, the noted management consultant in his book- What is Executive
Work, has also narrated an incident where a manager of 30 years’ experience wrote
to him expressing resentment that forces him “to play God”. He must make
decisions that discriminate between long-time friends and associates where it hurts
most their pockets.
Again Rensis Likert, the famous social scientist, in his article “Motivational
Approach to Management Development” is concerned about the impact of
performance appraisal on the employees and the manager. “The fundamental flaw
in the current review procedure is that they compel the superior to behave in a
threatening, rejecting and ego-deflating manner with a sizable proportion of its
staff. This pattern of relationship between the superior and the subordinate does not
only affect the subordinate but also impairs the capacity of the superior to function
effectively”.
According to the experience of GEC, “…There were indications of reluctance on
the part of many managers to conduct appraisals.”
To sum up the argument, we can say that though performance appraisal has today
become a necessary part of a manager’s work, it is yet to find “all-welcome” sign
quarters of business.
 CHAPTER 10

EVALUATION IN THE IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM

What is evaluation?

Evaluation is a process that critically examines a program. It involves collecting

and analyzing information about a program’s activities, characteristics, and
outcomes. Its purpose is to make judgments about a program, to improve its
effectiveness, and/or to inform programming decisions (Patton, 1987).

Should I evaluate my program?

Experts stress that evaluation can:

Improve program design and implementation.

It is important to periodically assess and adapt your activities to ensure they are as
effective as they can be. Evaluation can help you identify areas for improvement
and ultimately help you realize your goals more efficiently. Additionally, when
you share your results about what was more and less effective, you help advance
environmental education.

Demonstrate program impact.

Evaluation enables you to demonstrate your program’s success or progress. The

information you collect allows you to better communicate your program's impact
to others, which is critical for public relations, staff morale, and attracting and
retaining support from current and potential funders.
Why conduct evaluations?
There are some situations where evaluation may not be a good idea
What type of evaluation should I conduct and when?
Evaluations fall into one of two broad categories: formative and summative.
Formative evaluations are conducted during program development and
implementation and are useful if you want direction on how to best achieve your
goals or improve your program. Summative evaluations should be completed once
your programs are well established and will tell you to what extent the program is
achieving its goals. Within the categories of formative and summative, there are
different types of evaluation. Which of these evaluations is most appropriate
depends on the stage of your program:
 TYPE OF
PURPOSE
EVALUATION

Formative

Determines who needs the program, how great the need is, and what can be done to
best meet the need. An EE needs assessment can help determine what audiences are
not currently served by programs and provide insight into what characteristics new
1. Needs Assessment programs should have to meet these audiences’ needs.

For more information, Needs Assessment Training uses a practical training module
to lead you through a series of interactive pages about needs assessment.

Examines the process of implementing the program and determines whether the
2. Process or program is operating as planned. Can be done continuously or as a one-time
Implementation assessment. Results are used to improve the program. A process evaluation of an EE
Evaluation program may focus on the number and type of participants reached and/or
determining how satisfied these individuals are with the program.

Summative

Investigates to what extent the program is achieving its outcomes. These outcomes
1. Outcome are the short-term and medium-term changes in program participants that result
Evaluation directly from the program. For example, EE outcome evaluations may examine
improvements in participants’ knowledge, skills, attitudes, intentions, or behaviors.

Determines any broader, longer-term changes that have occurred as a result of the
program. These impacts are the net effects, typically on the entire school,
2. Impact Evaluation
community, organization, society, or environment. EE impact evaluations may focus
on the educational, environmental quality, or human health impacts of EE programs.
 What is evaluation of teaching and why is it needed?

Sources of evaluation

Evaluation can be sought from a number of different sources, notably:

1. Students, usually by questionnaire and often supplemented by interview and

focus groups. Students are uniquely qualified to offer a "learner's eye view"
(Hounsell, 2003). This form of evaluation is usually referred to as student
evaluation of teaching (SET).
2. Other teachers, for example through peer observation of a class.
3. The teacher him or herself reflecting on his or her own work, perhaps writing a
statement on a particular module, or keeping a diary to note particular teaching
episodes as their relevance strikes.
Evaluation can be divided into two camps: summative and formative. Note that the
examples below are mainly for an institution's internal purposes: it should not be
forgotten that in an age of quality assurance, funding bodies may need to see an
evaluation system in practice as an assurance that standards are being maintained.

Summative evaluation

Summative evaluation usually comprises a post-course questionnaire looking at

student satisfaction. Its major use is to evaluate and compare faculty, and make
decisions about rank, salary and tenure.

This type of evaluation, however, has received criticism on a number of grounds. It

measures students' satisfaction with the course and the tutor, rather than their
learning. In addition, teachers find themselves judged mainly on one aspect of their
teaching, their class presentation and instructional delivery, rather than their course
planning and design, supervision of research, visits to students on placement,
mentoring, etc. For that reason, many argue (for example, Hounsell, 2003) that
evaluation needs to be approached with a "wide-angle lens", to capture all of
teaching's complex facets.

Formative evaluation

Formative evaluation may be better at giving this broader perspective. It is usually

done mid-course, with detailed questions designed to shed light on pedagogy and
teaching strategy. It may then be repeated to see whether any resulting changes
have had an effect. Its objective is not to judge the worth of the faculty member,
but to provide a developmental appraisal of their teaching skills. Any resulting
issues can therefore be tackled at both an institution and individual level by courses
or mentoring.
 EVALUATING THE TOTAL TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS

1 No one instrument on its own can account for the multidimensional aspect of
teaching and learning. It is necessary to find information from more than one
source, and to triangulate with a number of different methods (Abrami, 1993
and Marsh 1995, quoted by the Center for Excellence in Teaching and
Learning, 2010; Nuhfer, 2003; and Pounder, 2007). According to Fox
(2008), " ... the reason that many studies of student evaluations of teaching
so far have produced conflicting results is that too few of them account for
multiple dimensions of teaching and learning".
2 Formative as well as summative evaluation should be used. Nuhfer (2003)
quotes studies that show formative evaluation, with a follow-up consultation
with the students, is more effective than summative evaluation on its own. Just
obtaining quantitative information and analyzing the numbers will not give
sufficient clarity or depth.
3 Know at the start what you are evaluating. According to Johnstone (2005: p. 2),
"the purpose of the teaching innovation and the expected outcomes in terms of
student learning and attitude changes must be specified". And as no one
instrument is suitable for all evaluation purposes (Nuhfer, 2003), design the tool
carefully to measure what you have decided is important.
4 Evaluation should focus not merely on individual teachers and their
performance, but also on improving teaching and learning generally (Center for
Excellence in Teaching and Learning, 2010).
5 Avoid subjective questions about the personality or charisma of the teacher,
and focus on educational attainment (Nuhfer, 2003).
6 A range of variables can affect evaluation, such as student motivation to take the
course, grade anticipation, size of class, etc., and, arguably, the gender of the
instructor (Fox, 2008; Pounder, 2007).
7 Instructors receive different ratings on different courses, therefore reliable
judgements cannot be made on the basis of one course (Cashin, 1988, quoted in
Nuhfer, 2003).
8 There needs to be a common understanding between faculty and administrators
about the various purposes of evaluations, and mechanisms put in place, such as
a system of appeal, to ensure fairness and discourage abuse (Center for
Excellence in Teaching and Learning, 2010).

How to evaluate

Effective evaluation depends on knowing what you are evaluating, and designing
the instrument accordingly. A fit-for-purpose instrument will be valid; one that
measures consistently among students and over time will be reliable (Center for
Excellence in Teaching and Learning, 2010).

No one instrument is adequate for evaluation, and you may need to triangulate
using other instruments, for example questionnaires can be combined with
interviews or focus groups.

What to evaluate

If you are evaluating a particular course, you need to design an instrument that
reflects the totality of that course. This means not just the class element, but also
course design, organization, assessment, etc. You can then group the questions
according to factors.

For example, you will want to include questions about:

• Delivery of taught material: does the lecturer present things in a clear, organized
way? Does he or she make the material interesting?

• Assignments: are these appropriately paced, or too bunched? How helpful was
feedback?

• How helpful were resource materials, course websites, etc.?

• The overall organization of the course, for example pacing.

• Access to facilities, such as computing, and library.

• Interactivity and student-centred approaches, for example group work (learning

from students often gets overlooked in evaluation, focusing as it does on the
lecturer).

• The effect of the course on students' learning.

You may not want to evaluate the whole course, but particular aspects of it, for
example the use of Twitter. Or, you may want to measure the attitudes of the
students themselves, for example, how does their attitude towards learning change
over time? In which case, you will want several evaluations, each at different
stages.

Try and focus on the taught rather than the teacher: you should be more interested
in what the students learned, rather than the teacher's personality and its effect on
the students. Look particularly at your department and institution's criteria for
effective teaching, and use these as guidance on what to evaluate.

Consider who to ask. Students may have valid views on some issues, such as
whether or not the lecturer makes effective use of class time, but they cannot be
expected to know whether or not the lecturer is up to date with the latest research
(Gross Davis, 1993).
 There are some issues that your colleagues are in a better position to assess, such
as course aims, content, and material, possible assessment methods, and new
instructional methods. You may also want to ask yourself how something went,
perhaps writing a reflective statement at the end of a course or keeping a diary in
which you record your perceptions of a particular class interaction.

Methods of evaluation: The questionnaire

The questionnaire is not the only instrument which can be used for evaluation,
however, it is the most common. Here are some points to bear in mind when
designing it.

• Use both open and closed questions, so that you reveal both quantitative and
narrative data. The latter provides opportunity for the student to reflect and
elaborate on their experiences.

• For quantitative questions, avoid just using "yes/no" answers, which are very
easy to fill in mindlessly. Instead, use a Likert rating scale, either 5 or 7-point,
with 1 being the lowest rating and 5 or 7 the highest. These are useful for
calculating an average response from the class.

• You can also test the same dimension twice by using two different questions
which ask similar things in different ways (Johnstone, 2005). Note how this is
done in the example shown below in "Figure 1. Example of a questionnaire",
taken from the University of Glasgow Centre for Science Education (MacGuire,
1991, quoted in Johnstone, 2005).

• Group questions according to theme, and have a number of different questions in

each.
• Ask general questions about the teacher, but avoid the subjective. For
example not, "Do you respect this teacher", but something along the lines of,
"How high do you rate the teacher's overall effectiveness?".

• Make sure the questions are clear, and avoid anything ambiguous. For example,
"The instructor is well prepared and marks work fairly" confounds two issues
(Gross Davis, 1993).

• Make the form as short as possible. Questionnaire fatigue can easily set in.

Not all questionnaires are based on the one-time experience of a course: some are
instruments measuring attitude and are designed to be repeated several times.

Longitudinal measurement is necessary to give a series of snapshots at different

points in time. Students are presented with a series of statements to choose from
and have to select the one they agree with (Johnstone, 2005). The questionnaire is
supplemented by interviews as a way of providing richer data.

When it comes to administering the questionnaire, bear the following points in

mind (Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning, 2010; Gross Davis, 1993):

• Set aside a time for students to fill in the questionnaire – perhaps 15 minutes at
the end of the final session, or perhaps the week before the final session.

• Ensure that students understand the purpose of the exercise – that it is part of
your attempts at continuous course improvement.

• Assure them of anonymity.

• Get someone who is not the faculty member taking the course to collect up the
questionnaires, and take them to the faculty office.

• Do not look at the forms until you have finished grading the course.
 When carrying out the analysis of the questionnaires, the following are useful
guidelines (Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning, 2010; Gross Davis,
1993):

• Establish a unit of analysis, such as class average for a response to a particular

question.

• Keep courses separate: aggregating data will confuse trends.

• Check the number of students who completed the forms against the class
enrolment. Be cautious about a low completion rate, and do not attempt to
summarize data if there are fewer than ten forms.

• Prepare summary statistics for the quantifiable questions: frequency distribution,

average response, standard deviation, departmental or other norm for
comparison.

• Summarize narrative comments for each question. Group the summary under
headings, noting the number of comments under each heading. Bear in mind
course aims and objectives and departmental goals.

• For quantifiable questions, note your highest and lowest rated items. Do they
reveal strengths and weaknesses which cluster in patterns, say on organization of
material?

• From the narratives, identify particular problems. Are complaints justified?

• Look at factors that could influence the course – for example is it a large or small
class? Is it one you are used to teaching?

• Try and obtain the help of an experienced colleague, or perhaps someone in a

teaching support unit, to go through the questionnaires with you.

Other methods of evaluation

Other ways of obtaining feedback on teaching include more "conversational",
qualitative methods. For example, interviews with a small percentage from the
questionnaire population or structured focus groups are often used to supplement
questionnaires, which can yield rather bland data.

Narrative methods, too, are becoming popular. For example, a PhD student at
London University's Institute of Education used a biographical narrative
interpretive method to obtain rich accounts of student experience on an online
course. She found it particularly effective for probing students who were reluctant
to engage.

One student, for example, described how he did his coursework after he had
finished his bar shift at 1am in the morning, as it was the only time he could gain
access to a computer. Another, a refugee, used her first pay cheque to buy a
computer and then had to negotiate access with her family. This is not the sort of
data that you can easily obtain from a questionnaire.

There is only so much information that can be gleaned from students: one's peers
also provide a useful source. The standard form of peer evaluation is the observed
lesson, and observation has been built into quality assurance practices, for example
in the UK. However, as with other evaluation methods it is most valuable when it
is developmental, and is particularly useful for mentoring someone new to
teaching.

The observer should have a checklist for what to look for, which may for a lecture
include the clarity of the session, the aims and objectives, the delivery, the
engagement of students in the learning, and opportunities for interaction. For a
seminar or small group activity, the list should include facilitation skills,
 interaction, encouraging all students to participate, feedback, and helping students
with their learning goals (Fullerton, 2003).

Teachers can evaluate themselves through reflecting on the quality of their

teaching, either as a whole or as a result of a particular class or interview with a
student.

Some institutions or professional bodies may require teachers to submit a teaching

portfolio. This is a collection of documents which provides evidence of the work
done and skills developed in teaching. The following are some examples of what it
could include:

• Student ratings and peer ratings or observations.

• Examples of courses developed or re-designed.

• Instructional materials, course textbooks, etc.

• Examples of innovative teaching.

• Pedagogical research

SELF EVALUATION

is a process by which members of staff in a school reflect on their practice and

identify areas for action to stimulate improvement in the areas of pupil and
professional learning.
TEACHER SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST nev
er
some
times
alway
s
1. Lessons

I tell students why new information is important.

I prepare learners for new information, present the information and then check learners’
understanding.
I review information from previous lessons.
I write lesson plans to support my teaching.
I use examples to help students understand.
I use teaching aids (blackboard, posters, books) in every lesson.
I use individual, pair or small group work in every lesson.
I use a variety of activities to interest students in every lesson.
I use activities that engage all my students.

2. Relationships with Students and Parents

I know all my students’ names.

I understand the abilities of my students.
I encourage my students.
I communicate important information about learners’ progress to parents.

3. Professional Development

I always learn new information about my subject and teaching.

I work with colleagues to identify and solve teaching and school problems.
I observe colleagues to learn new teaching techniques.
I study English so that I can use it to teach my students.
I attend training and apply new information in my teaching.

4. Record Keeping

My lesson plans are up-to-date and ready for inspection.

I have a long-term plan.
I record learners’ marks.

5. I’m good at:

6. I need to improve:

7. I will use these strategies to improve my teaching:

Evaluation of the Improvement Process

Process Improvement and Evaluation builds on a detailed understanding of

processes identified and developed during the Process Assessment, particularly
processes to improve equity and outcomes for all students. Whereas Process
Assessment is focused on the “whys” of equity and outcomes, Process
Improvement and Evaluation is focused on the “what” of process change, and the
“how” of process implementation. The first step develops solutions to address
problems the team identified in the PTR process. These solutions are evaluated to
determine whether they support the desired outcome, taking into account
institutional support, cost, and feasibility. Individuals who directly support or who
are responsible for the identified processes are included to add their perspectives,
identify improvement opportunities, and build buy-in among other stakeholders.
The next step involves identifying opportunities to integrate assessment and
improvement plans into existing planning and accountability frameworks. Teams
are encouraged to use existing planning templates to guide implementation. In the
third step, an evaluation plan is drafted to track implementation and measure
results. Teams decide what data to collect to measure results and set the stage for
thinking about implications for future improvement. Outputs of this process are a
plan for implementation of the solutions recommended by the team and a plan for
evaluating the results. The fourth step involves implementing the solutions and
beginning to analyze results. Depending on the timing of implementation, the team
begins to evaluate implementation of the solutions. Eventually, the team returns to
this step to evaluate the impact of problems identified in the PTR process.
Pathways to results: process improvement & evaluation Purpose and Goals The
primary purpose of Process Improvement and Evaluation is to build on the work of
Process Assessment, with attention to parts of the process that impact quality and
student outcomes and equity. Through developing implementation and evaluation
plans, this process prepares participants to implement sustainable solutions that
lead to more equitable student outcomes. The goals of this process are to: 1. select
the solutions, 2. develop an implementation plan, 3. create an evaluation plan, and
4. implement and begin evaluation of the team’s solutions.

Evaluating instructional leadership

Effective leadership is vital to the success of a school. Research and practice

confirm that there is slim chance of creating and sustaining high-quality learning
environments without a skilled and committed leader to help shape teaching and
learning. That’s especially true in the most challenging schools. As pressure has
increased to have all children in every school succeed as learners, there is broad
acceptance that education leaders need to be more than building managers. The
challenges presented by “achievement gap” data and the federal No Child Left
Behind law have refocused the primary work of principals on leading the essential
teaching and learning activities in their schools. This shift from building managers
to learning leaders first and foremost is well documented, and is further backed by
research indicating that leadership is second only to teaching among school-based
factors in influencing learning.i While we know a great deal about what it takes to
lead the learning work of a school, education has been slower than many other
fields in developing and widely adopting well-crafted, reliable ways to assess the
performance of its leaders. In the military, there is a long tradition of rigorous,
uniform assessment to help produce and support leaders who can assume tough
tasks and achieve at high levels. Many top firms use “360-degree” assessments to
gather input about employees’ performance not only from their supervisors, but
from co-workers and the employees themselves. And in many fields, assessments
are used not only to make important career decisions about salaries or promotions,
but to pinpoint areas for individual improvement, shape training and continuing
development, and create a culture of learning and continuous improvement
throughout those organizations. Since 2000, The Wallace Foundation has
supported a range of efforts to strengthen leadership so that teaching and learning
are improved in every school, especially those most in need. Well-designed
assessment processes could be a powerful and constructive way to identify leaders’
strengths and weaknesses and encourage them to focus on the actions likeliest to
bring about better teaching and learning. While assessing school leaders isn’t a
new idea, research concludes that most assessments in use today are not as focused
on learning as they should be, nor are they effective in gathering reliable facts
about how leaders’ behaviors are or are not promoting the learning agendas of
schools and entire districts. In this Wallace Perspective, we discuss the elements of
a possible new direction in leader assessment – what should be assessed, and how.
We then highlight several newly developed instruments: one designed to assess
instructional leadership, and two others for more targeted purposes. Finally, we
discuss the potential, the challenges and the unknowns of using assessment as a
key means of promoting not only better leader performance but also systemwide
improvements that benefit children.

Assessing The Effectiveness Of School Leaders: New Directions And New

Processes

Research as well as experience in these and other fields suggest that high-quality
assessments exhibit a number of traits: ƒ They measure what they are designed to
measure; ƒ They are consistently applied and tested for fairness; ƒ They are seen as
an ongoing process for professional growth, not just a “tool” or an isolated event; ƒ
They are based on the best available evidence, often from multiple sources; ƒ They
reinforce the organization’s core goals; ƒ They provide actionable feedback on
what matters most; and ƒ They help build a culture of continuous improvement. In
the education arena, the recent widespread adoption of learning-based leadership
standards has been an important step in the right direction. More than 40 states
have adopted the “ISLLC” (Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium)
standards, or some version of them, as a uniform foundation for principal
assessment. Many have adopted the revised 2008 ISLLC standards that are
grounded in behaviors linked to improving student achievement and that are
intended to encourage principals to carry out needed changes in their schools.
Standards are meaningful only when brought to life, however, and in the area of
leadership assessment in public education, there has been a paucity of instruments
and processes that effectively apply the new standards. Some states – notably
Kentucky, Iowa and Delaware – have begun using the ISLLC standards as the
basis for assessing leaders, improving their performance, and redesigning the
training programs that prepare them for their jobs. (See text box on Delaware, p.
11). But a recent review of existing assessment instruments in use in 44 districts
and states for which there is sufficient documentation found that nearly half fail to
give leaders clear feedback on what they could be doing more or better to improve
teaching and learning, linked to a developmental growth plan.ii In addition, there
are often inconsistent connections between evaluation processes and the
professional development and mentoring necessary to help leaders improve once
weaknesses are identified. As recently as 2000, annual performance assessments of
principals were often not required. And when required, they often varied from
school to school. Even if they were consistent in a district, they were not based on
standards that reflected current understandings of the work of the principal as a
leader of learning, first and foremost. Why is assessment so challenging in the
education arena? It should be said, first of all, that there is no evidence that
education leaders are more resistant than those in other fields to the notion of
assessment. The likelier explanation lies in the distinctive history, decentralized
structure and widely-varying local politics of public education, along with the
aforementioned changes in the field’s understanding of what leaders should be
prioritizing in their schools. Unquestionably, the local control and varying contexts
that characterize public education have made it harder and more contentious to
arrive at field-wide agreement on what appropriate assessment should emphasize
most, whose input should be sought, etc. While acknowledging those challenges,
the scarcity of well-conceived assessment processes for education leaders
nonetheless raises this question: How can we expect school leaders to improve
their performance throughout their careers and meet the mounting challenges of
their 3 jobs if we aren’t gathering, and acting on, the right information about the
effectiveness of their behaviors and actions as leaders of learning? If we now
require principals to be not only leaders of buildings, but leaders of learning, we
know we can’t assess them only as building managers, as important as those tasks
undoubtedly are. We also have to find ways to assess whether their behaviors as
leaders of learning are effective.

General Principles of Evalution

As an evaluator one must keep in mind following principles:
 Systematic Inquiry: Evaluators conduct systematic, data-based inquiries about whatever is being
•
evaluated.
• Competence: Evaluators provide competent performance to stakeholders.
• Integrity / Honesty: Evaluators ensure the honesty and integrity of the entire evaluation process.
Respect for People: Evaluators respect the security, dignity and self-worth of the respondents,
•
program participants, clients, and other stakeholders with whom they interact.
Responsibilities for General and Public Welfare: Evaluators articulate and
• take into account the diversity of interests and values that may be related to the general and
public welfare.

1.Clearly specify what is to be evaluated. Are you interested in evaluating knowledge acquired o
attitudes developed?
2.Select an evaluation technique in terms of its relevance to the
characteristics or performance to be measured. The tools for evaluating knowledge will be
different from the tools for evaluating attitudes.
3.Comprehensive evaluation requires a variety of evaluation techniques. Even for evaluating
knowledge you will require variety of test items (such as multiple choice or short answer).
This is a written test. You may require an oral test or a open book
examination to evaluate the knowledge base.
4.Awareness of limitations of evaluation techniques improves their use.
The American Evaluation Association has created a set of Guiding Principles for evaluators.

The order of these principles does not imply priority among them; priority will vary by situation
evaluator role.

The principles run as follows: