NoN Destructive testing

Subject Code: KME 061

Class- 3rd Year --- B.Tech (Mechanical Engineering) -- Semester – VI

Credits: 3

Department of Mechanical Engineering

UNITED COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH,
PRAYAGRAJ, 211010, UTTAR PRADESH

Subject Teacher

Er. Naveen Kumar

Assistant Professor
M.Tech (Production Engineering-MNNIT, ALLAHABAD)
PhD. (Pur.)-Mechanical Engineering-NIT PATNA
 Index
1. Mission & Vision of College
2. Mission & Vision of Department
3. Course Overview
4. Prerequisite(s)
5. Course objectives:
6. Course outcomes
7. How program outcomes are assessed
8. PO/PEO/PSO statements
9. CO/CO-PO Matrix/CO-PSO Matrix
10. CO attainment (last 3 years)
11. AKTU syllabus
12. Notes
13. Assignments (minimum last 3 years)
14. Quiz + Solution (minimum last 3 Years)
15. Sessional Papers (all three session papers for minimum last 3 years)
16. Semester papers (minimum last 5 years)
 Vision of the institute: To be an institute known for its Values, Academic Excellence & Research
and Nurturing Professionals for their “Career” and “Life”

Mission of the institute:

1. To establish and provide state-of-the-art environment for real and lifelong learning
2. To provide education focused for deep knowledge, interpersonal skills and leadership.
3.To conduct impactful research for addressing challenges of the society
4.To establish and strengthen collaboration between academia and industry
5.To develop competent professionals with ethical and social responsibility.

Vision of Department

The Department of Mechanical Engineering endeavours to be recognized globally for imparting

outstanding education and conducting research leading to motivated, environment-friendly, self-
esteemed, creative, skilled and oriented mechanical engineers; who are ready to implement their
innovative thoughts to meet the ever changing Industrial & Social needs and demands by utilizing
their technical managerial, and entrepreneurial skills specifically in the field of Mechanical
Engineering.

Mission of the Department

 To impart highest quality technical education to the students for their capacity building, skill
enhancement, professional competency, research orientation and entrepreneurial ability to make
them globally competitive mechanical engineers ready to serve the society and the industry in
particular.
 To create and develop a conducive and collaborative ecosystem by appropriate utilization of state of
the art research facilities and hence forth stimulate faculty, staff, students and alumni with
opportunities of industry interactions enabling them to synthesize, analyze, apply and disseminate
knowledge culture.
 To develop global linkages with allied educational and R&D organizations, industries and
consultancies creating opportunities for the students and staff to acquire career skills such as
academics, research, communication, personality, leadership and interpersonal skills.
 To encourage and educate the manpower to understand professionalism, ethical responsibilities and
values leading to a life-long learning and a productive career in the field of Mechanical Engineering.
 NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (KME 061)
COURSE PLANER
I. COURSE OVERVIEW:
The aim is to introduce students the overview of the non destructive testing methods of materials. The
course covers NDE, Ultrasonic, MPI testing of metal parts. It gives an idea about selection of the testing
criteria. It briefly describe the thermo-graph and radio graph methods of testing and provide selection
properties for different tests.
02. PREREQUISITE(S):
Basic fundamental knowledge at undergraduate level on following subjects is necessary:
 Metallurgy And Material Science
 Mechanics Of Solids
 Destructive Testing Methods
 Production Technology
03. COURSE OBJECTIVES:
This course is recommended for undergraduate students of engineering program who are interested in
gaining the awareness in various aspects of the Non Destructive Testing Methods. The objectives of this
course are for
 Identify the basic methods of testing.
 Understand the concept of non destructive testing
 Describe the various types of NDT tests carried out on components.
 Describe ultrasonic method of testing the materials.
 Analyze the different types of test carried out on components and surfaces.
 Understand the properties of materials suitable for NDT test.
 Understand the radiography uses in engineering.
04. COURSE OUTCOMES

Bloom’s
Sl.NO Description Taxonomy level
Identify the requirements of testing criteria as per material
CO1 L2: Understand
composition
CO2 Understand the theory of non destructive testing methods is used L2: Understand
CO3 Determine the type of requirement of non destructive test L4: Analyze
Distinguish between the various NDT test as Ultrasonic and Eddy
CO4 L4: Analyze
current methods
Understand the properties of radiation used in engineering.
CO5 L4: Analyze
Describe the various types of non destructive test used to determine
CO6 the surface cracks L2: Understand
05. HOW PROGRAM OUTCOMES ARE ASSESSED:
Proficiency
Program Outcomes (POs) Level
assessed by
PO1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
Assignment/
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution 3
Exam
of complex engineering problems.
PO2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and
Assignment/
analyze engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first 2
Exam
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex
engineering problems and design system components that meet the Assignment/
2
specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and Exam
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.

PO4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based

knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis Assignment/
1
and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid Exams
conclusions.

PO5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
- -
modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.

PO6 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
- -
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering
practice.

PO7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the

professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, - -
and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
- -

PO9 Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a Assignment/
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
3
Exams
PO10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering
activities with the engineering community and with society at large, such
Assignment/
as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design 2
Exams
documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear
instructions.
PO11 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply
- -
these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage
projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12 Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and Assignment/
ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest 2
Exams
context of technological change.
06. HOW PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES ARE ASSESSED:

Proficiency
Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs) Level assessed by
PSO1 The student will be able to apply the knowledge of Mathematics,
Sciences and engineering fundamentals to formulate, analyze and Lectures,
2
provide solutions for the problems related to Mechanical Assignments
engineering and communicate them effectively to the concerned.
PSO2 Design mechanical systems in various fields such as machine
elements, thermal, manufacturing, industrial and inter-disciplinary Lectures,
2
fields by using various engineering/technological tools to meet Assignments
the mercurial needs of the industry and society at large.
PSO3 The ability to grasp the latest development, methodologies of
mechanical engineering and posses competent knowledge of Lectures,
2
design process, practical proficiencies, skills and knowledge of Assignments
programme and developing ideas towards research.

07. MAPPING COURSE OUTCOMES LEADING TO THE ACHIEVEMENT OF PROGRAM

OUTCOMES AND PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES:

Program Outcomes
CO’s (PO’s)
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12

CO.1 3 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 3 2 -- 2

CO.2 3 2 2 -- -- -- -- -- 3 2 -- 2

CO.3 3 2 3 1 -- -- -- -- 3 2 -- 2

CO.4 3 1 3 1 -- -- -- -- 3 2 -- 2

CO.5 2 3 3 1 -- -- -- -- 3 2 -- 2

Average 3 2 2 1 -- -- -- -- 3 2 -- 2

Program Specific Outcomes (PSO’s)

CO’s PSO1 PSO2 PSO3
CO1. -- 2 3
CO2. -- 2 3
CO3. 2 2 3
CO4. 2 2 1
CO5. 3 2 1
Average 2 2 2
08. -SYLLABUS:

Unit‐I:
Introduction to NDT, DT, advantages & limitations of NDT, classification of NDT methods,
Comparison with DT, Terminology, Flaws and Defects. Scope of NDT. Codes, Standards and
Certifications in NDT.
Visual Inspection– Equipment used for visual inspection, Borescopes, Application of visual
inspection tests in detecting surface defects and their interpretation, advantages & limitations of
visual inspection, Visual Inspection in Welding.

Unit‐II:
Liquid Penetrant Testing – Principle, Scope, Testing equipment, Advantages, Limitations, types of
penetrants and developers, standard testing procedure, Zyglo test, Illustrative examples and
interpretation of defects.
Magnetic Particle Inspection – Principle, Scope, Testing equipment, Advantages, Limitations,
Application of MPI & standard testing procedure, DC & AC magnetization, Skin Effect, different
methods to generate magnetic fields, Illustrative examples and interpretation of defects.

Unit‐III:
Radiographic Testing – Introduction to electromagnetic waves and radioactivity, various decays,
Attenuation of electromagnetic radiations, Photoelectric effect, coherent scattering and Incoherent
scattering, Beam geometry.
X‐ray Radiography – Principle, equipment & methodology, applications, source, types of radiations
and limitations; γ‐ray Radiography – Principle, equipment, γ‐ray source & technique; Radiography
Image Quality Indicators, Film Processing, advantages of γ‐ray radiography over X‐ray radiography.
Precautions against radiation hazards.

Unit‐IV:
Ultrasonic Testing – Introduction, Principle, Piezoelectricity and Piezoelectric Transducers, Wave
propagation, Ultrasonic probes, selection of angle probes, Acoustic Impedance, Reflection and
transmission coefficient, Snell’s law, standard testing procedure & calibration, advantages &
limitations. Data representation ‐ A‐scan, B‐scan, C‐scan. Applications in inspection of welded
joints, castings, forgings and dimensional measurements. Introduction to TOFD & Phased Array
Ultrasonic Testing.

Unit‐V:
Special NDT Techniques:
Eddy Current Inspection– Introduction, Principle, Methods, scope, Equipment, types of probes,
Sensitivity, standard testing procedure, advanced ECT methods, advantages and limitations.
Acoustic Emission Technique– Introduction, Types of AE signal, Principle, Advantages &
Limitations, Interpretation of Results, Applications. Holography, Thermography– Introduction,
Principle, advantages, limitations and applications.
09. Books and References:
1. Non‐Destructive Testing and Evaluation of Materials, by‐ Prasad, McGraw Hill Education.
2. Practical Non‐destructive Testing, by‐ Baldev Raj, T. Jayakumar, M. Thavasimuthu, Woodhead
Publishing.
3. Non‐Destructive Testing Techniques, by‐ Ravi Prakash, New Age International.
4. Non destructive Testing Handbook, by Robert C. McMaster, American Society for Nondestructive.
5. Introduction to Non destructive Testing: A Training Guide, by‐ Paul E. Mix, wiley.
6. Electrical and Magnetic Methods of Non‐destructive Testing, by‐ J. Blitz, springer.
7. Practical non destructive testing by Raj, Baldev.
8. Basics of Non‐Destructive Testing, by Lari& Kumar, KATSON Books.
9. ASME Sec. V, boiler and pressure vessel code
10. Additional Reading:
NPTEL Web Course: https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112105182/.

NPTEL Video Course: https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112105182/1

11. GATE SYLLABUS: Applicable

12. IES SYLLABUS: Not Applicable
 Lecture Note
Unit‐I
Introduction to NDT, DT, advantages & limitations of NDT, classification of NDT methods,
Comparison with DT, Terminology, Flaws and Defects. Scope of NDT. Codes, Standards and
Certifications in NDT.
Visual Inspection– Equipment used for visual inspection, Borescopes, Application of visual
inspection tests in detecting surface defects and their interpretation, advantages & limitations of
visual inspection, Visual Inspection in Welding.

Non-destructive testing (NDT) - NDT is an acronym that stands for Nondestructive Testing.
“NDT is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating materials, components or assemblies
for discontinuities, or differences in characteristics without destroying the serviceability of
the part or system. In other words, when the inspection or test is completed the part can still
be used”.
In contrast to NDT, other tests are destructive in nature and are therefore done on a limited number
of samples ("lot sampling"), rather than on the materials, components or assemblies actually being
put into service. These destructive tests are often used to determine the physical properties of
materials such as impact resistance, ductility, yield and ultimate tensile strength, fracture toughness
and fatigue strength, but discontinuities and differences in material characteristics are more
effectively found by NDT. Today modern non destructive tests are used in manufacturing,
fabrication and in-service inspections to ensure product integrity and reliability, to control
manufacturing processes, lower production costs and to maintain a uniform quality level. During
construction, NDT is used to ensure the quality of materials and joining processes during the
fabrication and erection phases, and in-service NDT inspections are used to ensure that the
products in use continue to have the integrity necessary to ensure their usefulness and the safety of
the public.
NDT is a highly valuable technique that cab save both money and time in product evaluation,
trouble shooting and research.
It is a commonly used in tool in fields like:
(i) Aeronautical Engineering
(j) Medicine
(k) System Engineering
(l) Electrical Engineering
(m) Forensic Engineering
(n) Mechanical Engineering
(o) Civil Engineering
 Destructive Testing: Destructive testing is undertaken in order to understand a specimen’s
performance or material behaviour, these procedures are carried out to the test specimen’s failure.
Destructive testing procedures can either follow specific standards or can be tailored to reproduce set
service conditions.

Destructive testing methods are commonly used for materials characterisation, fabrication validation,
failure investigation, and can form a key part of engineering critical assessments, which also involves
non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques such as digital radiography.

Types of Destructive testing- Different properties like elasticity, stiffness, resilience, ductility,
hardness and toughness are desired for different utilities. Some common mechanical destructive tests
are discussed below-

1. Tensile Test
2. Compressive Test
3. Shear and Bending Test
4. Torsion Test
5. Impact Test
Advantages of Non-Destructive Testing

1. Analysis of parts can be done without breaking it.

2. Cost saving procedure.
3. Improves the quality of production.
4. Saves time in product evaluation.
5. Evaluation can be done at manufacturing stage or in service state.
6. Portable mode of inspection.
7. Surface defects and inside defects can be easily evaluated.

The Disadvantages of Non-destructive Testing

The disadvantages of non-destructive testing are few and far between. Depending on the type of
non-destructive testing used on a component minor issues can crop up. These can include simple
factors like:

1. Components needing to be cleaned before and after inspection

2. Sensitivity of inspection can sometimes be affected by the finish of a component.
3. Sometimes there might be a lack of depth sizing
4. On some non-destructive test methods, only relatively non-porous surfaces can be inspected
5. Some test methods require electricity

6. Some can also be affected by variations in magnetic permeability

7. Some tests are only effective on materials that are conductive
Classification of NDT-
Some common NDT methods used since ages

There are number of NDT methods through which inspection and measurement of components can be made.
Inspite of these applications, it provides a huge platform of research and development. However, there are
six common NDT methods which are used most often. Which includes-

1. Visual and Optical Testing (VT): It may be performed manually by an inspector or by special
automated techniques like magnifying glasses, mirrors, or boroscope to gain access and more closely
inspect the component.
2. Penetrant Testing (PT): In this method, test specimen is coated with liquid or flourescent dye
solution. Then excess penetrant is removed very carefully and developers are applied. These
developer’s acts as blotter and draw’s out the trapped penetrant from defect to open surface. These
penetrants are now easily visible because of colour contrast between penetrant and developer with
flourosecent dyes, ultraviolet lights are used which make the bleed out penetrant readily seen.
3. Magnetic Particle Testing (MT): This method employs the role of magnetic field which may be
produced by any of the magnetizing technique. Then a powdered magnet or liquid magnet called as
magnetic ink is spreaded over the surface to be inspected a new magnetic pole, at the defect point.
This concentrates the iron particles near imperfection or defect giving a clear visualization of defect.
4. Eddy current testing: When an electrical current is generated in a conductive material by inducing
an alternating magnetic field. The electrical currents are called eddy currents because they flow in
circles at and just below the surface of the material. When these eddy currents are interrupted by any
defect, dimensional change or conductivity change or conductivity change, an indication is produced.
5. Radiography testing (RT): it involves the use of X-rays or gamma rays for inspection of
components. When X-rays from X-rays generator is directed through a part and onto film or other
imaging media. The resulting imagine or shadow shows the dimensional details of part. This method
is same as X-ray of human body used in medicals.
6. Ultrasonic testing: It uses transmission of high-frequency sound waves into a material to detect and
locate the defect. It generally uses pulse echo technique, where in sound is introduced into a test
specimen and its reflections or echos are recived by reciver.
7. Acoustic emission testing (AE): when a solid material is stressed, then imperfection emits shorts
bursts of acoustic energy called emissions. As in ultrasonic testing, acoustic emissions can be
detected by receivers. Source of emission can be evaluated by the study of their intensity, rate and
location.
A part from these above testing methods, some more specified methods are used like:
 Ellipsomety
 Guided wave testing (GWT)
 Impulse excitation technique
 Infrared and thermal testing
 Laser testing.
 Electronic speckle pattern interferometry
 Holographic interferometry
 Profilemetry
 Shearography
 Leak testing (LT)
 Absolute pressure leak testing
 Bubble testing
  Halogen diode leak testing
 Hydrogen leak testing
 Mass spectrometer leak testing
 Tracer gas leak testing method.
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and NMR spectroscopy.
 Optical microscopy.
 Positive material identification.
 Scanning electron microscopy.
 Hardness testing.

COMPARISON BETWEEN DESTRUCTIVE AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Destructive Testing Non- Destructive Testing

1. Destructive testing includes measuring various 1. The use of non invasive technique to
mechanical or chemical properties such as tensile determine the integrity of a material or
strength or chemical composition. component.
2. Destructive testing deals in physical testing. 2. Non destructive testing is mostly deals in
modern technologies to identify the fault of
the specimen.
3. Destructive testing will render the part unusable for 3. Non-destructive testing will, after testing,
its intended purpose (e.g. it is cut up for analysis, or allow the part to be used for its intended
fatigue tested for life.) purpose (e.g. test for leakage, flow, or
resistance).
4. Destructive testing is generally performed when the 4. Non- destructive testing can be performed
component or material sample can no longer be used on component which is in service.
in service or is readily replaceable.

5. Examples of destructive test: Tensile test, 5. Examples of non-destructive test: Visual

Compressive test, Shear and Bending test Torsion and optical testing, penetrant testing,
test impact test, creep test, Fatigue test, Hardness Magnetic particle testing, Eddy current
test. testing, Radiography testing, Ultrasonic
testing, Acoustic emission test.
6. Result interpretation is easy. 6. Result interpretation is difficult.
7. Can be performed without very high skilled 7. Skilled personnel’s are required.
personnel.
8. No environmental hazards associated 8. Some methods involve environmental
hazards.
9. Equipments are less costly. 9. Equipments are expensive.
10. Equipments are not portable. 10. Equipments are portable.
FLAWS AND DEFECTS
Many flaws and defects can be avoided by using good part and tool design techniques. As a part designer it
is very good idea to be aware of options in tooling and to consider those while designing part. In strict term,
a defect is reported when discounting indications are judged unacceptable to specification criteria, other
indications are not affect the performance of the part in its intended service, should be referred to
discontinuities.

A defect can occur at almost any time in the history of piece of metal. If it is introduced at the
production stage, it is termed as inherent defect. If caused during, further processing, fabrication or
finishing, it is called as processing defect. Finally, defect can arise during the use of the end product due
either to environment of load perhaps both, these defects are called as service defects.

1- Casting Defects
2- Fabrication and Processing Discontinuities
3- Welding Defects
4- Miscellaneous

Inherent Discontinuities
1. Scar: it is shallow blow which is generally found
on the flat surface after casting.

2. Porostiy: it arises due to reduction in solubility

of gases during solidification.

3. Gas Holes: is a result from entrapped gases of

spherical shapes

4. Drop: is a irregular shape projections on cope

5. Dross: are light weight impurities appearing on

the top surface of casted product.

6. Dirt: is a female projection on the surface of

casting when some embedded sand particles are
removed
7. Buckle: is a long, fairly shallow, broad, v-shaped
depression on casted surface.

8. Wash: is a low projection near the gate on drag

surface of casted product.

9. Misrun: is incomplete filling of molten fluid on

the mould cavity.

10. Cold shut: is a type of misrun, occurs at the

center of the casting having gates at its two sides.

11. Scab: it is a high projection of mould face lifts

and metal flows underneath in a thin layer.

12. Rat tails: these are the streaks on large flat

surfaces.

13. Swell: occurs due to enlargement of the mould

cavity after pouring.

14. Run out: occurs when molten metal leaks out

from the mould cavity.

15. Hot tear: is a form of rupture produced by

tensile stresses on the casting when it is near the
solidus temperature.

Fabrication and Processing Discontinuities

1. Seams: these are surface discontinuities and
appears as longitudinal scratches or folds in the
material.
2. Stringers: these are non metallic inclusions in
slabs or billets that are thinned and lengthened in
the direction of rolling.

3. Laps: are the discontinuous irregular contours

caused by the folding of metal in a thin plate on
the surface at forged product.

4. Forging burst or cracks: it occurs when a

material is forged at a temperature at which it
can’t withstand at high internal stress.

Welding defects

1. Crater Crack: When a welding arc is broken,

a crater will form if adequate molten metal is
available to fill the arc cavity.

2. Slag inclusion: occurs when compound such

as oxides, fluxes and electrode coating
material that are trapped in the weld zone.

3. Incomplete fusion: when the depth of welded

joints is insufficient.

4. Under filling: occurs when joints are not

filled properly.

5. Undercutting: occurs due to melting away of

the base metal.

6. Lamellar tears: occurs due to shrinkage of

the restrained members in the structure during
cooling.

7. Distortion and wrapping: occurs due to

differential thermal expansion and contraction
of different regions of the welded assembly
 Miscellaneous
1. Blush: causes due to shear stress between
molecules during injection and may be due to
small gate of fast injection speed.

2. Burn: is a discoloration usually black, brown or

dark, yellow/brown depending upon the severity.
Feels rough and crunchy. Frequently accompanied
by short shot in burn area.

3. Cold flow: is a wavy or streaked appearance on

part surface. Looks like a fingerprint or small
waves like waves on the surface of water.

4. Contamination: foreign particles embedded in

the part.

5. Delamination: is the surface of metal surface

layer giving a flaking or onion skin effect.

6. Jetting: is a squiggly line in part pointing to gate.

Looks like a worm in the part. Occurred due to
incorrect gate placement or size.

7. Short Shot: it is a missing corners or features

having a smooth, rounded appearance.

SCOPE OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

It is the corner stone of all activities in all engineering industries as it provides perfection, no-risk factor and
flawless performance. Suppose a bridge is about to break with the effects of excessive weight of vehicles or
corroded railway tracks making it dangerous for trains to pass, no matter what is but both the cases are of
high concern. Non-destructive testing techniques help a lot in monitoring before hand or during service
period performance of engineering products and services.

Objects may be casted, machined or forged doesn’t carries a 100% guarantee, whether they carry the
guarantee tags, unless these are subjected for inspection during their service as well as during manufacturing
stage. These inspections lead to raise the quality of product. With quality of products, quality of NDT
equipments are also very important i.e., whether the equipment being used is of high quality or not. Quality
matters a lot so that you get precise measurements of products, adjudging them in the top quality category.
 Well all it depends upon the quality of NDT equipments used and testing process followed during the
manufacturing process and in service. Below are the few factors which shows why non-destructive testing
holds so much of significance.

i. Cracks in skin of aircraft.

ii. Cracks in pressure vessels.
iii. Stress corrosion cracking in underground pipelines.
iv. Erosion and corrosion of pipes in industrial components during service life.
v. Availability of porous bubbles inside the welds.
vi. Presence of cracks in wheels of locomotives.
vii. Presence of cracks in wheels of locomotives.
viii. Missing pieces in assembled finished machined parts.
ix. Corrosion of inner reinforcing steel in reinforced concrete structure.
x. Broken wires and other damage in wire ropes in suspension bridges.
The scope of non destructive testing and the usage of non-destructive testing equipment applies in
various sectors ranging from automotive, aviation, aerospace, construction, maintenance, manufacturing
and more.

APPLICATIONS
Some of the basic uses of N.D.T. methods are:

 Flaw detection and evaluation

 Leak detection
 Location determination
 Dimensional measurements
 Structure and microstructure characterization
 Estimation of mechanical and physical properties
 Stress (strain) and Dynamic response.
Apart from basic objectives, it find’s its application in fields like:
1. Automatibe
(a) Engine parts (b) Frame
2. Aviation/Aerospace.
(a) Air frames
 Space frame
(b) Power plants
 Propellers
 Reciprocating engines
 Gas turbine engines
(c) Rocketry
3. Construction
(a) Structure (b) Bridge
(c) Cover meter
4. Maintenance, repair and operations
(a) Bridges
5. Manufacturing
(a) Machine part (b) Casting and forgins
6. Industrial plants such as nuclear, petrochemical, power, refineries, pulp and paper, fabrication shops,
mine processing and their risk-based inspection programs.
(a) Pressure vessels (b) Storage tanks
(c) Welds (d) Boilers
(e) Heat exchangers (f) Turbine bores
(g) In-plant pipping
7. Miscellaneous
(a) Pipelines
 In-line inspection using “pigs”
 Pipeline integrity management
 Leak detection
(b) Railways
 Rail inspection
 Wheel inspection
(c) Tubular NDT, for tubing material
(d) Corrosion under insulation (CUI)
(e) Amusement park rides
(f) Submarines and other Naval warships
(g) Medical imaging applications

NDT Certification Systems

There are multiple NDT certification systems worldwide, but they can generally be divided into two main
types: “employer-based” and “central” certification systems.
Employer-based certification systems- are systems in which the employers are responsible for the
administration of the training and the qualification examinations of their own employees, as well as the
documentation of the required training, examinations and experience in accordance with an employer-
based standard or recommended practice. Most employer-based systems do allow the employer to accept
training and examination services provided by outside agencies provided it is properly documented and
the employer has determined that the content of those services meet their own company requirements as
described in the employer's
Upon proof of qualification, the employer may issue a certificate, which can be a formal certificate or in
letter format, and can authorize their personnel to perform NDT tasks. In all employer-based systems, the
employer is responsible for authorizing their personnel to perform such work. Because employer-based
certification is usually tailored to an employer's specific needs, the resulting certifications expire when an
employee leaves the company that issued the certification.
Central certification systems- are systems in which the qualification examinations are administered by
an independent third-party certification body based on a central certification standard. To be eligible to sit
for these examinations, prospective candidates must provide acceptable documentation of their training
and experience to the certification body. Upon successful completion of the third-party examinations, the
certification body will issue a certificate attesting to the fact that the named certificate holder has met the
requirements and passed the examinations described in the third-party certification system. The employer
can then choose to accept the third-party certificate(s) as proof of qualification. As with employer-based
systems, the employer has the ultimate responsibility to certify (authorize) the certificate holder to
perform NDT tasks.
Codes, Standards in NDT-
Some of the more commonly used ASTM NDT standards are as follows. Additional standards can be
found in the ASTM Annual Book of Standards,.

ASTM E709: Standard Guide for Magnetic Particle Testing

ASTM E1444: Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle Testing
ASTM E165: Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Examination for General Industry
ASTM E1417: Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Testing
Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Testing using the Lipophilic Post-Emulsifiable
ASTM E1208:
Process
ASTM E1209: Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Testing using the Water-Washable Process
Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Testing using the Hydrophilic Post-
ASTM E1210:
Emulsifiable Process
ASTM E1219: Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Testing using the Solvent-Removable Process
ASTM E114: Practice for Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Straight-Beam Examination by the Contact Method
ASTM E164: Standard Practice for Contact Ultrasonic Testing of Weldments
ASTM E213: Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Testing of Metal Pipe and Tubing
ASTM E2375: Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Testing of Wrought Products
ASTM E94: Guide for Radiographic Examination
ASTM E1742: Practice for Radiographic Examination
ASTM E1000: Guide for Radioscopy
ASTM E1255: Practice for Radioscopy
ASTM E1030: Test Method for Radiographic Examination of Metallic Castings
ASTM E1032: Test Method for Radiographic Examination of Weldments
ASTM E999: Guide for Controlling the Quality of Industrial Radiographic Film Processing
ASTM E142: Method for Controlling Quality of Radiographic Testing
ASTM E2007: Standard Guide for Computed Radiography
Standard Practice for Digital Imaging and Communication Nondestructive Evaluation
ASTM E2738:
(DICONDE) for Computed Radiography (CR) Test methods
ASTM E268: Electromagnetic testing
ASTM E426: Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Examination of Seamless and Welded
 Tubular Products, Austenitic Stainless Steel and Similar Alloys
Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Surface Testing using Electromagnetic Acoustic
ASTM E1962:
Transducer (EMAT) Techniques

“Visual inspection is the best buy in NDE, but it must take place prior to, during, after welding”.
By Charless Hayes

It is the most basic and most commonly employed NDT method and is applicable to a wide variety of
material types and product forms. Whose parameters like dimensional conformance, the presence of
discontinuities, general fit and wear and simple cosmetic compliance can be examined However, for
large defects it can be easily detected but for finer defects, devices having high degree of precision and
illumination are required.

Visual inspection is commonly defined as “the examination of material, component or product for
conditions of non-conformance using light and eyes, alone or in conjuction with various aids.”
Visual inspection often also involves, shaking, listening, feeling and sometimes even smelling the
component being inspected. It consists of major two processes.
(a) The first is search process.
(b) The second process is of combining relevant knowledge, sensory input and pertinent logical
processes to provide identification that some anomaly or pattern represents a flaw that posses a
risk to the performance of the part.

It can be performed by direct or indirect methods during various stages of manufacturing or after the
component has been placed in service. It can be done manually or by the help of digital detectors and
computer technology which is known as machine vision inspection.
The quality of an inspection are affected primarily by four factors:
 The quality of the detector (eye or camera)
 The lighting conditions
 Capability to process the visual data
 The level of training and attention to detail.

BASIC TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH VISUAL INSPECTION

i. The human eye: When light enters through the pupil, an image is projected on the retina. Retina is a
mosaic of two basic types of photoreceptors; rods and cones.
Rods are used for vision dark and dim environment and are sensitive to blue-green lights. Whereas
cones are used to get the shapest images and enable us to see colours. Cones are of three types; L-
Cones-red absorbing cones, M-cones-green absorbing cones, S-cones-blue absorbing cones.
 ii. Contrast: it is the difference in luminance that makes an object distinguishable from its
environment.
iii. Contrast ratio: Maximum contrast of an image is called as the contrast Ratio or Dynamic Range.
iv. Contrast Sensitivity: It is the measure of the ability to discern between the luminances of a object at
different levels in a uniform field. It varies from individual, reaching at maximum at age of 20 and
may decline with age. Contrast sensitivity varies with
(a) Special frequencies
(b) Condition of lighting
(c) Condition of Object, whether object is lighter or darker than the background.
v. Visual acuity: it is the acuteness or clearness of vision and is also called as 20/20 vision. Visual
processing system by a visual angle of one minute or 1/60 of a degree of arc, the metric equipment of
20/20 is 6/6 vision. i.e., at 20 feet or 6 meter, a human eye is able to separate lines that are one are
minute apart. 20/20 is normal visual acuity, where 20/40 is considered half good normal visual acuity
and 20/10 is considered as twice as good as normal visual acuity.
vi. Light intensity meter: It is a very useful device for anyone taking photos or recording videos as it
will make recording of professional quality videos much simpler. Illuminous is measured by light
intensity meter on the lux scale. Luminous intensity is measured in lumens per square meter or
lumens per square foor.
vii. Lux: It is the unit of illuminance and luminous emittance. Illuminance is a measure of luminous flux
over an area. Where luminous flux is measure of amount of visible light present.
One Lx=1 1m/m2
i.e., one lux is equal to one lumen (unit of luminous flux) per square meter (area).
viii. Magnifier: it is an optical glass which enlarges the realsize of an image.
ix. Direct visual inspection: Inspection carried out where the eye can be place within 24 of the area to
be inspected at angle of 30o.

EQUIPMENTS USED FOR VISUAL INSPECTION

A visual inspection can be accomplished by naked eye or by any optical instruments. These optical
instruments comprises of lighting devices and magnifying setups.

Following are the some of the devices used for visual inspection.

i. Optical microscope
ii. Boroscope
iii. Endoscope
iv. Flexiscope
v. Telescope
vi. Holography
vii. Closed circuit television
viii. Microprocessors and computers
 ix. Image processing and pattern recognition techniques
x. Precision measuring equipments
(a) Sliding calipers
(b) Micrometers
(c) Transferring gauges
(d) Telescoping gauges
(e) Spring type calipers
(f) Hole gauges
(g) Screw pitch gauges

MACHINE VISION
It is the technology and method which uses an imaging system and a computer to analyze an image and
provide imaging based automatic inspection and analysis for automatic inspection, process control and other
industries. Machine can eliminate the human effort and so error caused tat might result from doing complex
and patience tasks. It also allows process equipments to be utilized 24 hours a day. Following below given
are steps involved in inspection via machine.

i. Image acquisition: Image is gathered and converted into a digital formal and is then
stored into the memory of computer.
ii. Image processing: Element of images are enhanced by using various algorithms.
iii. Feature extraction: Critical features of images are qualified and extracted and are sended to
control program.
iv. Decision and control: on the basis of data received features of images various decisions are
made via control programs.

Application of Machine Vision

Machine vision is primarily used in production industry, where inspection of large number of
components are required.
i. Assembly verification
ii. Inspection of surfaces
iii. Verification of colours and patterns
iv. Coating inspection
v. Measurements of features
Recent projects in Machine Vision inspection includes
i. Large format lenses for solar and water cell inspection.
 ii. High precision telecentric lenses for pharmaceutical and semiconductor inspection.
iii. Micro video lenses for document reading and verification.
iv. High brightness lightining for assembly line food and beverage inspection.
v. Compact fixed focal length lenses for data matrix reading or optical character recognition.
vi. Micro video lens for dental intra-oral comeras or bar code scanning
vii. Harsh environment micro video lenses for automotive vision sustems.
viii. High resolution telecentric lenses for disk drive inspection
ix. Zoom lenses for material inspection and ballistics’ testing

Manual versus automated inspection

Manual inspection Automated inspection

i. It’s a traditional method i. It is a becoming more common now a days

ii. Work is performed by inspector itself. ii. Work is performed by computers and detectors.
iii. Primary advantage is the ability of inspector to iii. Primary advantage of a machine vision
quickly adapt to variety of lighting and other inspection system is their ability to make very
non-typical conditions and their ability to use consistent and rapid inspections of specific
other senses. details of a component.
iv. Used in very small production application. iv. Used in production application where a large
number of components require inspection and
the inspection conditions can be closely
controlled.

ATTRACTIVE USE OF VISUAL INSPECTION IN WELDING DEFECTS

1. (SMAW) stick welding

i. Incomplete penetration
ii. Lack of fusion
iii. Undercutting
iv. Slag inclusions
v. porosity
2. Oxy-fuel gas welding
3. Gas metal-arc welding (GMAW) with solid-core wire
i. Lack of penetration
ii. Excessive penetration
iii. Whiskers
iv. Vinods
v. Lack of fusion
vi. Porosity
vii. Spatter
viii. Irregular weld shape
ix. Undercutting
4. Gas metal-arc welding (GMAW) with fluxed cored wire.
i. Burn through
ii. Crown too high or too low
iii. Penetration two deep or too shallow
 iv. Porosity and gas pockets
v. Reinforcement narrow and steep-sloped
vi. Undercutting
vii. Voids and cracks.

PRACTICAL VISUAL INSPECTION TIPS IN WELDING

1. Know the code or codes that apply to the job you are working on. They go hand in hand with the
design specifications.
2. Review all of the applicable weld procedures.
3. Check each welder’s qualification to the welding procedure that they are currently working with.
4. Talk to the welders and fitters-not at them. Most of them already hate inspectors because of past bad
experiences. They are your best source of information for potential quality problems because they are
the ones actually doing the job. Be just as fast to tell welders when they have it right as you are when
they have it wrong.
5. Always carry a flashlight, magnifier glass, and inspection mirror. You will eventually need them all.
6. Always inspect each weld 100% on both sides if possible. Clearly mark any defects on the work piece.
7. Rejects welds professionally and not personally because you don’t like the welder or the boss.
8. If you run into procedural problems or catch a blatant procedure deviation and it isn’t corrected in a
timely manner, do write an NCR (Non Conformance Report). Both the owner and design engineer
have to sign it off. That relieves you of responsibility for the infraction if a failure should occur in the
future, in today’s finger pointing society you need to cover your butt.

ADVANTAGES OF VISUAL INSPECTION

i. Less costly.
ii. Can be automated easily.
iii. Results of inspection can be stored.
iv. Applicable to almost all material inspection
v. Operation is simple and quick

LIMITATIONS OF VISUAL INSPECTION

i. Inspection is limited to some surfaces.
ii. Skilled inspector is required.
iii. Health and eye sight of inspector is also an important issue.
iv. Indirect inspection is difficult to achieve.