MECHATRONICS

ACTUATION SYSTEMS FOR MECHATRONICS

By;- Mr. Belete A. ( Msc.)

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Objectives of the chapter;-
 At the end of this chapter you will be able to
understand about;-
 Actuation systems for mechatronics.
 The definitions
 Types of actuation techniques.
 Types of motion that each actuation
techniques performs.
 Types of valves used in actuators.

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ACTUATION SYSTEMS FOR MECHATRONICS
Actuation System:
•The actuation systems are the elements of the control system.
•They are responsible for transforming the output of a
microprocessor into a controlling action on a machine or device.
•Actuators produce physical changes such as linear and angular
displacement.
•Actuator is a device that converts energy to mechanical motion.
Four types of actuators.
1. Mechanical actuators.
2. Electrical actuators.
3. Hydraulic actuators.
4. Pneumatic actuators. 3
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 Lead-Screw and Ball-Screw Mechanisms
Most widely used precision motion conversion
mechanisms which transfer rotary motion to linear
motion.

(a) Lead screw mechanism (b) Ball screw mechanism

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Rack and Pinion Mechanism
The pinion is the small gear.
The rack is the translational (linear) component.

The advantage of the rack and pinion mechanism over the lead-
screw mechanism is that the translational motion range can be very
long.
The lead-screw length is limited by the torsional stiffness.
In rack and pinion mechanisms, since the translational part does
not rotate, it does not have the reduced torsional stiffness problem
due to the long length.
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 Belt and Pulley

Widely used in
low inertia,
low load force, and
high bandwidth applications

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HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS
Hydraulic Actuators
Linear movement
Big forces without gears
Actuators are simple
Weight to power ratio is least
Operating pressure 7 – 20 MPa

Advantages of Hydraulic Actuators

1. Compact size.
2. Weight to power ratio is least.
3. Less moving parts.
4. Less wear and tear & self lubricating.
5. Controlled motion.
6. Adaptability for automatic control.
Pneumatic Actuators
•Pneumatics – Systems using air or other gasses.
•Hydraulics – Systems involving liquids.
Pneumatic Actuators – applies force or creates
motion through the use of air pressure.
•No Leaking problems
•Faster than hydraulics
•Easy to use
•Durable
•Versatile
•Light weight
•Easy to Control
Main drawback is the compressibility of air
Operating pressure: 500 kPa – 1MPa
 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems
•Pneumatic signals are used to control elements even if the
control system is electrical, since these signals can actuate
large valves and other high power control devices and
accordingly move large loads.
•The main drawback of pneumatic devices is the
compressibility of air.
•Hydraulic signals can be used for even higher power control
devices but are more expensive.
•Pneumatic and hydraulic systems use directional control
systems to direct the flow of fluid through a system. Examples
include spool valves and poppet valves.
•Pneumatic and hydraulic systems use process control valves
that control the rate of fluid flow.
Elements used for the control of energy and other
control in fluid power system are generally called
“Valves”.
There are 3 basic types of valves.
1. Directional control valves
2. Pressure control valves
3. Flow control valves.
• Directional control valves are essentially used for
distribution of energy in a fluid power system.
• Pressure control valves protect the system against such
overpressure. Pressure relief valve, pressure reducing,
sequence, unloading and counterbalance valve are different
types of pressure control valves.
• Fluid flow rate control is accomplished through the use of
flow control valves.
Pressure Control Valves
Different types of pressure control valves:
Relief Valve
Sequence Valve
Unloading Valve
Pressure Reducing Valve
Counterbalance valve.
Pressure-Relief Valve Pressure-Reducing Valve

•Primary function
is to limit the system pressure

Used to limit its outlet Pr.

•Limit the pressure to a
specified maximum value Actuated by downstream
by diverting pump flow pressure and tends to close
back to the tank as this pressure reaches the
valve setting.
Sequence valve:

 A sequence valve’s primary

function is to divert flow in a
predetermined sequence.

 Similar in construction to a
relief valve and normally a
closed valve.

 When main system

pressure overcomes the
spring setting, the valve
spool moves up allowing flow
from the secondary port.
Counterbalance Valve:
A Counterbalance valve is used to maintain back pressure to
prevent a load from failing. One can find application in
vertical presses, lift trucks, loaders and other machine tool
that must position or hold suspended loads. This valve can be
used as a “braking valve” for decelerating heavy inertia
load.
Unloading Valves
Unloading valves are pressure-control devices that
are used to dump excess fluid to the tank at little or
no pressure.
FLOW-CONTROL VALVES
Control the rate of flow of a fluid through a hydraulic circuit.
Function is to provide velocity control of linear actuators, or
speed control of rotary actuators.

Needle-type flow-control valve

Flow-control valve
with an integrated
check valve
HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS
Hydraulic actuators are classified as follows:
1. Linear actuator: For linear actuation (hydraulic
cylinders).
2. Rotary actuator: For rotary actuation (hydraulic motor).
3. Semi-rotary actuator: For limited angle of actuation
(semi-rotary actuator).
HYDRAULIC MOTORS
Hydraulic motors are Rotary actuators.
Hydraulic motors can be classified as follows:
1. Gear motors.
2. Vane motors.
3. Piston motors:
• Axial piston-type motors.
• Radial piston-type motors.
Semi-Rotary Actuators
Vane-Type Semi-Rotary Actuator (Single Vane)
Two-Vane-Type Semi-Rotary Actuator
Chain and Sprocket Semi-Rotary Actuator
Rack and Pinion Rotary Actuator
Hydraulic linear actuators

Provide motion in a straight line

Types of Hydraulic Cylinders

•Single-acting cylinders.
•Double-acting cylinders.
•Telescopic cylinders.
•Tandem cylinders.
Single-Acting Cylinders
Spring-Return Single-Acting Cylinder

Gravity-Return Single-Acting Cylinder Push Type

Pull Type
 Double-Acting Cylinder
Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side.

Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on both sides

Telescopic Cylinder
Tandem Cylinder
A typical hydraulic system

1 – pump
2 – oil tank
3 – flow control valve
4 – pressure relief valve
5 – hydraulic cylinder
6 – directional control valve
7 – throttle valve

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ROTARY ACTUATORS - Hydraulic Motors

Swash Plate Piston Motor

Gear Motor

Incline Piston Motor Radial Piston Motor

Semi-Rotary Actuators Vane-Type Semi-Rotary
Linear cylinder to Actuator (Single Vane)
produce rotation

Two-Vane-Type Semi-Rotary Rack and Pinion Rotary Actuator

Actuator
 ELECTRICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS

1. Switching devices such as mechanical switches.

e.g. relays, or solid-state switches, e.g. diodes,
thyristors, and transistors.

2. Solenoid type devices where a current through a

solenoid is used to actuate a soft iron core.

3. Drive systems, such as D.C. and A.C. motors,

Stepper motors where a current through a motor is
used to produce rotation.
1. Mechanical switches
Mechanical switches are elements which are often used
as sensors to give inputs to systems. e.g. keyboards.
Electrical Relays
Armature

There are only four main parts in a relay. They are

•Electromagnet
•Movable Armature
•Switch point contacts
•Spring
 (a) Relays

Electrical relay offers

a simple on/off
switching action in
response to a control
Driver circuit signal

Current flows through the coil of wire a magnetic field is produced

This pulls a movable arm, the armature that forces the contacts to
open or close
Two sets of contacts with one being opened and the other closed by
the action
Application of Relays
Sequence by this
system is A+ and B+,
then C+, followed by
A- and B-
concurrently and
finally C-.

1. When the start switch is closed, current is applied to the A and B

solenoids and results in both A and B extending, i.e. A+ and B+.
2.The limit switches a+ and b+ are then closed, the a+ closure results in
a current flowing through relay coil 1 which then closes its contacts and
so supplies current to the C solenoid and results in it extending, i.e. C+.
3. Its extension causes limit switch c+ to close and so current to switch
the A and B control valves and hence retraction of cylinders A and B, i.e.
A- and B-.
4. Closing limit switch a- passes a current through relay coil 2; its
contacts close and allows a current to valve C and cylinder C to retract,
i.e. C-.
 2. SOLENOID
•A solenoid consists of a coil and a movable iron core called the
armature.
•Coil is energized with current, the core moves .
•The movable core is spring-loaded to allow the core to retract
when the current is switched off.

Solenoids are inexpensive and their use is limited

primarily to on-off applications such as latching, locking,
and triggering.
 Solenoid operated direction control valve
They are frequently used in
1. Home appliances (e.g., washing machine valves),
2. Automobiles (e.g., door latches and the starter
solenoid),
3. Pinball machines (e.g., plungers and bumpers), and
4. Factory automation.
 Electrical Motors
Electric motors are used as the final control
element in positional or speed-control systems.

Electrical Motors

D.C. Motors A.C. Motors Stepper Motors

D.C. motors are used in most of the applications.

Stepper Motors are used where Positional Accuracy is of

prime importance
 D.C Motor
I. Yoke:
Construction of D.C. motor (a)It is the outermost covering
of the machine
(b)It provides mechanical
support for the poles
(c)It is a stationary part
(d)It carries magnetic flux
produced by the poles
(e)It is made of cast iron.
II. Field System:-
(a)Pole core – laminated to avoid Eddy current losses.
(b)Pole shoe - act as a mechanical support to the field coil.
(c)Field coil - When current is passed through this coil, they become
electromagnetic.
 III. Inter poles: - They are used for spark less commutation.
IV Armature:
(a) It is the rotating part of the machine.
(b) It is laminated to avoid the eddy current loss.
(c) The periphery of the armature is cut into slots and teeth's.
(d) The conductors are placed in the slots.
(e) Due to loss, heat is developed --to dissipate heat a fan is
provided at one end of the armature.
V. Commutator:
(a) It is used to convert bi-directional current to unidirectional
current.

VI. Brushes:
(a)These are made of carbon.
(b)The brush holders are kept passed against the Commutator.
 Armature Armature coil

Fan

Commutator ring

Shaft

Brush

Field coil
 Armature
Armature coil

Spring holding Brush

brush tightly
Commutator
Resultant torque output as function of the angle
(a) single-coil and (b) three-coil segments

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Advantages of brushed DC motor:

• The design of the brushed DC motor is quite simple.

• Controlling the speed of a Brush DC Motor is easy.
• Very cost effective.

Disadvantages of brushed DC motor:

• High maintenance.
• Performance decreases with dust particles.
• Less reliable in control at lower speeds.
• The brushes wear off with usage.
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Types of D.C. motor
1. Series-wound DC motor
2. Shunt-wound DC motor
3. Compound-wound DC motor
4. Separately-wound DC motor

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 Types of D.C. motor

Series wound motor Shunt wound motor

•Armature and field coils are in parallel.
•Armature and fields coils are in
• Lowest starling toque, lower no-load
series
speed and has good speed regulation.
•Highest starting toque and has the
• Motor has constant speed regardless of
greatest no-load speed
load.
•With light loads, motor might run
•To reverse the direction of rotation,
at too high a speed
either the armature or field supplied
•Reversing the polarity of the
must be reversed.
supply to the coils has no effect on
•For this reason, the separately excited
the direction of rotation of the
windings are preferable for such a
motor
situation.
 Compound motor Separately excited motor
It has two field windings, one in
series with the armature and The separately excited motor has
another in parallel. separate control of the armature and
It has the best features of the field currents and can be considered
series and shunt wound motors, to be a special case of the shunt
namely a high starting torque and wound motor.
good sped regulation.
Control of D.C. Motor:
1. The speed of the permanent magnet motor depends upon the
current through the armature coil.
2. In a D.C motor, the speed can be changed by varying the
armature current or the field current.
3. Generally it is the armature current that is varied.
4. To obtain a variable voltage at the armature an electric circuit is
used.
5. Usually the D.C motors are controlled by the signals coming from
microprocessors.
6. In such cases the technique known as pulse width modulation
(PWM) is used, to obtain a variable voltage.
7. This PWM can be obtained by means of a basic transistor circuit.
8. This technique can be used to drive the motor in one direction
only.
9. By involving four transistors which is known as H - circuit, the
direction change in rotation of motor can be obtained
In a closed loop control system, the feedback signals are used to
modify the motor speed. There are three methods for doing it. 100
Control of D.C. Motor:
Method – I

1. Here the feedback signal is provided by a tachometer.

2. The analogue signal from the tachometer is converted into
digital signal by using ADC.
3. This digital signal is given as input to the microprocessor is
converted into analogue by using DAC.
4. This signal is used to vary the voltage applied to the armature of
the D.C. motor.
 Method – II

1. The feed back signal is coded using a encoder.

2. In the code converter, the digital output is obtained.
3. This digital signal is given as an input to the microprocessor.
 Method – III

1. The system is completely digital.

2. PWM is used to control the average voltage applied to the
armature.
 A.C. MOTOR

AC current/ Electrical energy

Mechanical energy/Rotation of
mechanical element

Construction of AC motor is similar to that of DC motor

Main limitation of AC motors over DC motors is that speed

is more difficult to control in AC motors
AC motors are equipped with variable frequency drives for
speed control but the improved speed control comes
together with a reduced power quality.
AC motor working principle

Consider the rotor to be a permanent magnet.

Current flowing through conductors energizes the magnets and
develops N and S poles.
The strength of electromagnets depends on current.
First half cycle current flows in one direction and in the second
half cycle it flows in opposite direction.
As AC voltage changes the poles alternate.
Hence the rotor rotates.
Synchronous Motor
A.C. MOTOR Induction Motor
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SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Runs at constant speed
fixed by frequency of the
system
Requires direct current
(DC) for excitation
has low starting torque
Suited for applications
that start with a low load
Stator produces a rotating magnetic field that is proportional to the
frequency supplied.
Stator is given a three phase supply and as the polarity of the stator
progressively change the magnetic field rotates, the rotor will follow and
rotate with the magnetic field of the stator.
If a synchronous motor loses lock with the line frequency it will stall.
It cannot start by itself, hence has to be started by an auxiliary motor.
Synchronous speed of an AC motor N= 120 F/P
Where, N = speed in rpm, F = frequency, P = no. of poles. 106
Induction motor

Used in industrial automation

Stator is similar to
synchronous motor with
windings but the rotors’
construction is different.

Rotor of an induction motor can be of two types:

• A squirrel-cage rotor consists of thick conducting bars embedded in
parallel slots
• A wound rotor has a three-phase, double-layer, distributed winding.
The rotor is wound for as many numbers of poles as the stator. The
three phases are wired internally and the other ends are connected to
slip-rings mounted on a shaft with brushes resting on them. 107
In an induction motor there is no external power supply to rotor.
It works on the principle of induction.
When a conductor is moved through an existing magnetic field the
relative motion of the two causes an electric current to flow in the
conductor.
In an induction motor the current flow in the rotor is not caused
by any direct connection of the conductors to a voltage source, but
rather by the influence of the rotor conductors cutting across the
lines of flux produced by the stator magnetic fields.
The induced current which is produced in the rotor results in a
magnetic field around the rotor.
The magnetic field around each rotor conductor will cause the
rotor conductor to act like the permanent magnet.
As the magnetic field of the stator rotates, due to the effect of the
three-phase AC power supply, the induced magnetic field of the
rotor will be attracted and will follow the rotation.
Speed Control of A.C Motor:
1. The speed control of A.C motor is more complex than the D.C
motors.
2. The speed of the A.C motor is determined by the frequency
of supply.
N= 120 F/P Where, N = speed in rpm, F = frequency, P
= no. of poles.
3. Therefore the control of A.C motor is based on the variable
frequency supply.
4. The change in the frequency can be achieved by two
methods. a) Using a converter and an inverter. b) Using Cyclo
converter.
Advantages of AC motor over DC motor
1. Cheaper
2. More rugged
3. More reliable
4. Maintenance-free
Speed control of AC motors are generally more complex than DC motors.
Speed control of Dc motor is cheaper than speed control of AC motor.109
Typical torque–speed characteristics of a
single-phase AC induction motor

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STEPPER MOTORS:
Stepper motors provide a means for precise
positioning and speed control without the use of
feedback sensors.
Stepper motor is a special type of electric motor that
moves in precisely defined increments of rotor
position (Steps).
Size of the increment is measured in degrees.
Commonly used in medical, satellites, robotic and
control applications.
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which
converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical
movements.
The spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step
increments when electrical command pulses are
applied to it in the proper sequence.
Features of stepper motors
High accuracy: Operate under open loop.

Reliability: Stepper motors are brushless.

Load independent: Stepper motors rotate at a set

speed under different load, provided the rated
torque is maintained.

Holding torque: For each and every step, the

motor holds its position without brakes.
Construction and working principle:

1. Stepper motor is a special type synchronous motor.

2. It converts electrical pulses applied to it into discrete
rotor movements called steps.
3. A 30° per step motor will require 12 pulses to move
through one revolution.
4. From diagram, A, B and C are the three stator coils placed
at 120° apart around the circumference of the stator.
5. A four pole rotor made of soft iron is placed in between
stator coils so as to rotate.
6. When coil A is excited, the rotor teeth 1 & 3 are aligned
along 'A' axis as shown in figure (i).
7. When excitation of coil A is removed and if coil B is
excited, the rotor teeth 2 is attracted by coil B and thus rotor
teeth2 and 4 are aligned 'B' axis as shown in figure (ii).
8. Now when the coil C is excited after removing the
excitation of coil B, the rotor teeth 3 gets aligned along 'C'
axis as shown in figure (iii).
9. Hence a clockwise motion of the motor is produced when
pulses are given in the order of A, B, C, A, B, C.... etc.
10. For each pulse, the rotor moves 30° per step.
11. If no coil is excited, then the rotor stands at any position.
12. When pulses are given for the coils in the order A, C, B, A,
C, B.... etc., the rotor rotates in anticlockwise direction.
Types of stepper motor
1. Variable reluctance stepper motor

2. Permanent magnet stepper motor

3. Hybrid stepper motor

 1. Variable reluctance stepper motor

1. The rotor is made of soft steel and is cylindrical in the

four poles.
2. The rotor will rotate until rotor and stator poles line up.
3. This is termed as position of minimum reluctance.
4. This form of stepper gives step angle of 7.5o (or) 15o.
2. Permanent magnet stepper motor

1.The rotor - permanent magnet.

2.The motor has stator with 4 poles.
3.Each pole is wound with a field
winding.
4.The coils in position pair of poles
are connected in series.

5. When the current is supplied to the stator windings, the

rotor which is a permanent magnet will move to line up with
the stator poles.
6. The rotor will move to the 45o position.
7. When the polarity is reversed - current supply to stator coil,-
the rotor will move on the reversed side to 45o positions.
8. By switching through the coils the rotor rotates in 45o steps
9. The usual step angles are 1.8o, 7.5o, 15o, 30o or 90o.
3. Hybrid stepper motor

1. It combines feature of both the variable reluctance and

permanent magnet motor.
2. It has a permanent magnet encased in iron caps.
3. The iron caps are cut to have teeth.
4. The typical steps angles are 0.90 to 1.80.
5. Used in high accuracy positioning application.
Stepper Motor Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
1. The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
2. The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized)
3. Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper
motors have an accuracy of 3 – 5% of a step and this error is non
cumulative from one step to the next.
4. Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.
5. Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Hence
the life of the motor is simply dependant on the life of the bearing.
6. The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control,
making the motor simpler and less costly to control.
7. It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a
load that is directly coupled to the shaft.
8. A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is
proportional to the frequency of the input pulses.

Disadvantages
1. Resonances can occur if not properly controlled.
2. Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.
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