Aaeb13 PT

PPT ON
Aircraft Stability and Control (R 18)

Course Code: AAEB13
B.Tech V Semester (2020-21)
Prepared By:
Dr. Yagya Dutta Dwivedi, Professor
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Institute of Aeronautical Engineering
Dundigal, Hyderabad, India -500043

MODULE – I
INTRODUCTION AND
LONGITUDINAL SATABILITY- I
MODULE I - SYLLABUS
Aircraft axes system, definition: equilibrium, stability,

controllability & maneuverability. Examples from simple
mechanical systems for stability. Longitudinal static stability and
dynamic stability for un accelerated flight. Criteria for longitudinal
static stability and trim condition. Contribution of Principle
components. Equations of equilibrium- stick fixed neutral point,
elevator angle required to trim. Definition-static margin. Equations
of motion in steady, symmetric pull-up maneuver, elevator
effectiveness, elevator hinge moment, neutral point, maneuver
point, static margin for stick fixed and stick free conditions, control
force and control gradient. Trim tabs and types of trim tabs,
aerodynamic and mass balancing of control surfaces, forward and
aft most limits of CG.
3
COURSE OUTCOMES MAPPED WITH MODULE - I
CO Course Outcomes Blooms

Taxonomy
CO 1 Recall the concept of static stability in longitudinal, Remember
lateral and directional modes to be used for
different aircrafts stability conditions.
CO 2 Describe the state of an equilibrium, control and Understand
trim inputs required for an aircraft in static
longitudinal and lateral directional stability.
CO 3 Recognize the aircraft components contributing to Understand
the stability of different aircraft models like
Military, Civil and transport aircrafts.
4
PROGRAM OUTCOMES AND PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES
MAPPED WITH MODULE - I
PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics,
science, engineering fundamentals, and an engineering
specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
PO 2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature,
and analyze complex engineering problems reaching
substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PSO 3 Make use of design, computational and experimental tools for
research and innovation in aerospace technologies and allied
streams, to become successful professional, entrepreneurs and
desire higher studies.
5
MAPPING OF COs WITH POs, PSOs FOR MODULE I
Program
Course Program Outcomes (POs) / No. of Key Specific
Outcom Competencies Matched Outcomes
es (COs) (PSOs)
/ Number
of key
competenci
es
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 1 √
CO 2
√
CO 3 √ √
6
INTRODUCTION
AIRCRAFT STABILITY AND CONTROL
First we should know about the three words in this course i.e
AIRCRAFT : An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by

gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by
using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil,
or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines.
Fig an airplane, helicopter, or other machine capable of flight”

7
Stability and Control - Definitions
Definition of stability
1: The quality, state, or degree of being stable: such as
 The strength to stand or endure : FIRMNESS
 The property of a body that causes it when disturbed from a
condition of equilibrium or steady motion to develop forces or
moments that restore the original condition
 resistance to chemical change or to physical disintegration
Definition of Control
a:Power or authority to guide or manage
b:a device or mechanism used to regulate or guide the operation of a
machine, apparatus, or system.
8
Aircraft Stability
History and Growth
Control and Stability of Aircraft
• Write Brother’s achievement was to find the masterly of the
three main areas, which required by functional airplane,
these are
1. Lift
2. Propulsion
3. Control
• First two had been studies by many researchers like Sir
George Cayley, Otto Lilienthal, Octave Chanute and Samuel
Langley
•The bigger innovation of Write Brother’s Flyer was control
system, they installed in their airplane.
9
Aircraft Stability and control- Aims of the Study
 Suppose an aircraft in some state of steady flight. If it is disturbed,

by a gust say, or by the pilot, it is regarded as stable if it returns to a
sensibly steady state within a finite time.
 We may be able to tolerate a small degree of instability. even
deliberately design an aircraft to be quite unstable; in the latter
case, however, a reliable automatic stabilization system will be
required. Aircraft Stability
 We normally require more than mere stability;
 the response to gusts must not make the pilot's task difficult,
produce an uncomfortable ride for passengers, impose excessive
loads on the aircraft, or make the aircraft unsuitable as an aiming
platform.
 The pilot must be able to control the aircraft accurately without
having to perform excessive feats of skill or strength.
10
Aims of this course
Our first aim then is to study the dynamics of the aircraft and its
interaction with the aerodynamics in order to be able to assess and
possibly improve the dynamic characteristics.
A further aim is to understand the physics of the processes
involved.
We make approximations for better numerical results can generally
be found using a computer, little real understanding follows its use
alone.
With a good understanding of the physics involved, solutions to
design problems can be put forward.
11
Aircraft Axes System
An Aircraft in flight is free to rotate in three dimensions:
 Yaw, nose left or right about an axis running up and down.
 Pitch, nose up or down about an axis running from wing to
wing.
 Roll, rotation about an axis running from nose to tail.
 The axes are alternatively designated
as vertical, transverse, and longitudinal respectively.
 These axes move with the vehicle and rotate relative to the
Earth along with the craft.
12
The position of all axes, with the
right hand rules for its rotations
13
Axes Representation
14
Heading Rotation and angle Representation
15
Pitch Rotation Representation
16
Representation of Roll
17
Control surfaces
These rotations are produced by torques (or Moments) about the

principal axes.
On an aircraft, these are intentionally produced by means of moving
control surfaces, which vary the distribution of the
net Aerodynamic force about the vehicle's CG.
a) Elevators (moving flaps on the horizontal tail) produce pitch,
b) rudder on the vertical tail produces yaw,
c) ailerons (flaps on the wings that move in opposing directions)
produce roll.
On a spacecraft, the moments are usually produced by a
a) Reaction control system consisting of small rocket thrusters used to
apply asymmetrical thrust on the vehicle.
18
Stability
OVER VIEW of the class
Definitions:
 Equilibrium
 Stability
 Controllability
 Maneuverability
 Examples of stability by simple mechanical system

 Types of stability
19
Definitions
Equilibrium:
 If a system in an equilibrium state, returns to equilibrium
following a small disturbance, the state is said to be stable
equilibrium Figure 1.
 On the other hand, if the system diverges from equilibrium when
slightly disturbed, the state is said to be an unstable equilibrium.
 Strictly speaking, Figure 1(d) is also a case of stable equilibrium,
because a very small disturbance from equilibrium would result
in a force and moment imbalance that would return the ball to its
original equilibrium state.
 But a little extra disturbance, towards right could cause the ball to
move past the apex, which would produce a force and moment
imbalance that would cause the ball to move away from its
original equilibrium state.
20
States of equilibrium
Fig. 1 (a), Shows the stable
equilibrium as disturbing force
removed, the ball will restore
its original position.
Fig 1. (b), Shows unstable
equilibrium as once the ball is
disturbed by some external
force, the ball will never come
back to original position again.
Fig. 1 (c), Shows Neutral
equilibrium as the ball is
disturbed it will remain in new
position.
Figure 1: States of equilibrium
Fig1. (d), is also a case of stable
equilibrium
21
Stability
There are two types of Stability as mentioned below
Static Stability:
If an airplane disturbed from equilibrium state has “Initial Tendency”
to return to its equilibrium state, then the aircraft is assumed to have
static stability.
Dynamic Stability:
Not only initial tendency, but also the amplitudes of the response
due to disturbance decay in finite time to attain the equilibrium
state.
22
Controllability
Controllability:
The response of an aircraft in steady flight, on pilot control inputs.
For instance deflecting the ailerons: a high resulting roll rate means
a fast response.
The relationship between stability and controllability has been that
greater stability means less controllability and vice versa.
An aircraft becomes less controllable, especially at slow flight
speeds, as the CG is moved further aft
23
Maneuverability
It is the ability to change the direction of motion of a body

(normally a vehicle, aircraft) without any loss in speed with which
the body moving.
Maneuver is nothing but when a body moving at certain speed,
which changes its direction and attains the same initial speed at
which the body was moving before changing the direction.
For example.
Consider an aircraft traveling at 500 kmph towards north which
change its direction towards south and again reaches 500 kmph
with in 10 sec have high maneuverability than an aircraft
traveling at 500 kmph towards north which change its direction
towards south and again reaches 500 kmph with in 30 sec.
24
Controllability
Controllability:
The response of an aircraft in steady flight, on pilot control
inputs. For instance deflecting the ailerons: a high resulting
roll rate means a fast response.
The relationship between stability and controllability has
been that greater stability means less controllability and vice
versa.
An aircraft becomes less controllable, especially at slow
flight speeds, as the CG is moved further aft
25
Stability and types
Stability is the ability of an aircraft to correct for conditions that act

on it, like turbulence or flight control inputs. For aircraft, there are
two general types of stability: static and dynamic.
Most aircraft are built with stability in mind, but that's not always
the case. Some aircraft, like training airplanes, are built to be very
stable. But others, like fighter jets, tend to be very unstable, and
can even be unflyable without the help of computer controlled fly-
by-wire systems.
Static Stability
Static stability is the initial tendency of an aircraft to return to its
original position when it's disturbed.
There are three kinds of static stability:
a) Positive Static stability
b) Neutral Static stability
c) Negative Static stability
26
Types of stability- Contd-----
Positive Static Stability
An aircraft that has positive static stability tends to return to its

original attitude when it's disturbed. Let's say you're flying an
aircraft, you hit some turbulence, and the nose pitches up.
Immediately after that happens, the nose lowers and returns to its
original attitude. That's an example positive static stability, and it's
something you'd see flying an airplane like a Cessna 172.
Positive Static Stability

27
Contd-----
Neutral static stability
An aircraft that has neutral static stability tends to stay in its new
attitude when it's disturbed. For example, if you hit turbulence and
your nose pitches up 5 degrees, and then immediately after that it
stays at 5 degrees nose up, your airplane has neutral static stability.
Neutral static stability

28
Contd---
Negative static stability
Finally, an aircraft that has negative static stability tends to continue

moving away from its original attitude when it's disturbed. For
example, if you hit turbulence and your nose pitches up, and then
immediately continues pitching up, you're airplane has negative
static stability. For most aircraft, this is a very undesirable thing.
Negative static stability

29
Simple Mechanical static stability
30
Dynamic Stability
Dynamic stability is how an airplane responds over time to a

disturbance. And it's probably no surprise that there are three kinds
of dynamic stability as well: They are
a)Positive Static stability
b)Neutral Static stability
c) Negative Static stability
31
Positive Dynamic Stability
Aircraft with positive dynamic stability have oscillations that dampen

out over time. The Cessna 172 is a great example. If your 172 is
trimmed for level flight, and you pull back on the yoke and then let
go, the nose will immediately start pitching down. Depending on
how much you pitched up initially, the nose will pitch down slightly
nose low, and then, over time, pitch nose up again, but less than
your initial control input. Over time, the pitching will stop, and your
172 will be back to its original attitude.
32
Neutral dynamic stability
Aircraft with neutral dynamic stability have oscillations that never

dampen out. As you can see in the diagram below, if you pitch up a
trimmed, neutrally dynamic stable aircraft, it will pitch nose low,
then nose high again, and the oscillations will continue, in theory,
forever.
33
Negative dynamic stability
Aircraft with negative dynamic stability have oscillations that get

worse over time. The diagram below pretty much sums it up. Over
time, the pitch oscillations get more and more amplified.
34
Negative dynamic stability illustration
35
Contd– dynamic stability
36
Dynamic stability contd---
37
Some confusions on longitudinal stability
38
Contribution of the wing
39
Contd– wing contribution
40
Contd---
Wing contribution- stability
41
Combination of static and dynamic stability
42
Stable and Unstable view
43
CRITERIA FOR LONGITUDINAL STATIC STABILITY
44
Thrust Forces and Moments
 Longitudinalforcesandmomentsresultingfromenginethrustm
ustalsobedefinedtocompletetheappliedforcesandmomentssi
deoftheaircraftequationsofmotion.
 Wewillonlyconsiderdirectthrusteffectsontheaircraft.Indirectt
hrusteffects,suchasjetexhaustimpingingonliftingsurfaces,will
beignored.
 Inaddition,theorientationofthethrustvectorproducedbythee
ngineorengineswillbeassumedtobeinthexzbodyaxisplane(no
side force components).
 Theseassumptionsleadtoasimplerepresentationofthethrustf
orcesandmomentsinthebodyandstabilityaxis
45
Longitudinal Static Stability
 Staticstabilityreferstotheinitialtendencyofanairplane,followi
ngadisturbancefromsteady-
stateflight,todevelopaerodynamicforcesandmomentsthatar
einadirectiontoreturntheaircrafttothesteady-
stateflightcondition.
 Forpurposesofthistext,longitudinalstaticstabilitywillprimarily
refertoaircraftpitchingmomentcharacteristicsandwillbeanaly
zedforthestickfixedcondition.
 Therequirementtotrimtheaircraftatusableanglesofattackisals
odiscussedwiththelongitudinalstabilityrequirementbecause
botharegenerallynecessarytoachieveacceptableflightcharact
eristics
46
Stability Requirements
47
Stability requirement Contd----
48
Neutral Point and Static Margin
 For neutral static stability, Cm(alpha )will be equal to zero.

This equates to a horizontal line on a Cm vs alpha graph.
 The condition for neutral static stability is important because
it represents the boundary between static stability and
instability.

 If the c.g. is located aft of the neutral point, the aircraft will
be statically unstable(longitudinally)and Cm(alpha)will be
positive.
49
Aerodynamic balancing
 The ways and means of reducing the magnitudes of Ch

α t and Ch δe are called aerodynamic balancing.
 The methods for aerodynamic balancing are:
 Setback hinge,
 Horn balance and
 Internal balance
50
Set back hinge or over hang balance
 In this case, the hinge line is shifted behind the leading edge of
the control.
 As the hinge line shifts, the area of the control surface ahead of
the hinge line increases.
51
Types of trailing edge
52
Horn balance
 In this method of aerodynamic balancing, apart of the

control surface near the tip, is ahead of the hinge line.
 There are two types of horn balances– shielded and

unshielded
53
Internal balance or internal seal
 In this case, the portion of the control surface ahead of

the hinge line, projects in the gap between the upper and
lower surfaces of the stabilizer.
 The upper and lower surfaces of the projected portion are
vented to the upper and lower surface pressures
respectively at a chosen chordwise position.
 A seal at the leading edge of the projecting portion
ensures that the pressures on the two sides of the
projection do not equalize.
 This method of aerodynamic balancing is complex but is
reliable
54
Tabs
 The methods of aerodynamic balancing described earlier

are sensitive to fabrication defects and surface curvature.
 Hence, tabs are used for finer adjustment to make the hinge
moment zero.
 Tabs are also used for other

Tabs
purposes.
 A brief description of different types of tabs is given in the

following subsections
55
Trim tab
 It is used to trim the stick or bring Ch to zero by tab

deflection.
 After the desired elevator deflection (δe) is achieved, the
tab is deflected in a direction opposite to that of the
elevator so that the hinge moment be comes zero.
 Since the tab is located far from the hinge line, a small
amount of tab deflection is adequate to bring Che to zero.
 As the lift due to the tab is in a direction opposite to that of
the elevator, a slight adjustment in elevator deflection
would be needed after application of tab.
 Though the pilot subsequently does not have to hold the
stick all the time, the initial effort to move the control is not
reduced when this tab is used
56
Link balance Tab
 In this case the tab is linked to the main control surface.

 As the main surface moves up the tab deflects in the opposite
direction in a certain proportion.
 This way the tab reduces the hinge moment and hence it is
called “Balancetab”
57
Servo tab
 In this case the pilot does not move the main surface which
is free to rotate about the hinge.
 Instead the pilot moves only the tab as a result of which the
pressure distribution is altered on the main control surface
and it attains a floating angle such that Ch is zero.
Servo tab
 The action of the tab is like a servo action and hence it is
called “Servotab”. This type of tab is used on the control
surfaces of large air planes
58
Mass balancing
 This ensures that the c.g. of the control surface lies ahead or on the
hinge line.
All movable tail
 In some military and large civil airplanes the entire horizontal tail is
hinged and rotated to obtain larger longitudinal control.
Elevons
 In a tailless configuration (e.g. concorde airplane) the functions of
the elevator and the aileron are combined in control surfaces called
elevons.
 Like ailerons they are located near the wingtip but the movable
surfaces on the two wing halves can move in the same direction or
in different directions.
 When they move in the same direction, they provide pitch control
and when they move indifferent directions they provide control in
roll 59
Contd----
V–tail
 In some older airplanes the functions of horizontal and vertical
tails were combined in a V-shaped tail.
 Though the area of the V-tail is less than the sum of the areas
of the horizontal and vertical tail, it leads to undesirable
coupling of lateral and longitudinal motions and is seldom used.
Configuration with two vertical tails

 At supersonic speeds the slope of the lift curve (dCL/dα) is
proportional to Mach square, where M∞ is the free stream
Mach number.
 Thus, CL α and intern the tail effectiveness decreases
significantly at high Mach numbers. Hence some military
airplanes have two moderate sized vertical tails instead of one
large tail
60
Definition of the longitudinal static stability
61
Contd-----
62
Flow field created by the Wing
63
Contribution to Stability
64
Static margin: Stability criteria
65
66
67
Wing contribution in moment
68
Wing contribution in moment
69
Contd---
70
Wing contribution: simplification
71
Other Approximations
72
Conclusions of wing contributions
73
About static stability
74
Static Longitudinal Stability: Conceptual Description
Equilibrium
75
Longitudinal Stability: Conceptual Description
Nose up Configuration
76
Longitudinal Stability: Conceptual Description
Stability of the Equilibrium
77
Numerical 1.2
solution
78
Slope of lift curve (CLα) and angle of
zero lift (α0L) of the airplane:
79
Stick fixed Neutral point
80
Indirect contributions of power plant to
Cmcg and Cmα
81
Angle of zero lift (α0L) for airplane:
82
MODULE – II
LATERAL-DIRECTIONAL
STATIC STABILITY
MODULE II - SYLLABUS
Introduction to lateral-direction stability- aerodynamic forces and

moments, aircraft side force due to side slip, aircraft rolling
moment due to side slip and aircraft yawing moment due to side
slip. Aircraft component contribution on directional static stability,
Aircraft component contribution for lateral-directional stability,
rudder requirements.
84
COURSE OUTCOMES MAPPED WITH MODULE - II

Taxonomy
CO 3 Recognize the aircraft components contributing to Understand
the stability of different aircraft models like
Military, Civil and transport aircrafts.
CO 4 Identify stick fixed and stick free conditions for Apply
neutral points with an appropriate static margin,
control force and CG limitation.
CO 5 Interpret the specific coupling between lateral and Understand
directional static stability of the aircraft and its
influence on other motion of a typical aircraft.
85
MAPPED WITH MODULE - II
PO 5 Modern Tool Usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate
techniques, resources, and modern Engineering and IT tools
including prediction and modelling to complex Engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
86
MAPPING OF COs WITH POs, PSOs FOR MODULE - II
Program
es (COs) (PSOs)
/ Number
of key
competenci
es
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 3 √ √ √
CO 4 √ √ √
CO 5 √ √ √ √
87
Introduction
88
Introduction contd----
89
90
Sideslip and yaw
91
Lateral-Directional Applied Forces and Moments
 Because we have assumed that longitudinal and lateral-

directional motion are independent of each other.
 Lateral-directional motion is assumed to consist of roll and
yaw rotation and y-axis translation.
 These two rotations and the translation are typically coupled
(that is, they occur together)
92
Aircraft Side Force
Aerodynamic side-force acts along the number two stability axis

(positive out the right wing) and may be expressed using the
side-force coefficient.
93
Aircraft Rolling Moment
Aircraft rolling moment acts about the x axis and may be

expressed using the rolling moment coefficient as
94
Aircraft Yawing Moment
Aircraft yawing moment acts about the z axis and may be

expressed using the yawing moment coefficient as
95
Lateral-Directional Static Stability
 Static stability refers to the initial tendency of an airplane,

following a disturbance from steady-state flight, to develop
aerodynamic forces and moments that are in a direction to
return the aircraft to the steady-state flight condition.
 For purposes of this text, lateral-directional static stability will
primarily refer to aircraft rolling moment and yawing
moment characteristics.
 Lateral and directional stability will be discussed separately,
but it should be realized that rolling and yawing motions are
inherently coupled.
 This highly coupled behavior necessitates consideration of
these motions together, especially when analyzing and
designing lateral-directional handling qualities.
96
Stability Requirements
Lateral motion: The requirement for lateral (roll) static stability is
97
Contd----
Directional motion: The requirement for directional (yaw)

static stability is
98
Illustration of static directional stability
99
Illustration of static roll stability
100
Wing and fuselage contribution to dihedral effect
101
Fuselage Contribution
102
Crosswind Landings
 Landing approaches with a component of the wind across

the runway can generally be handled in two ways by a
pilot.
 The first approach is to ‘‘crab in to the wind’’. The degree

of crab is adjusted until the aircraft ground track aligns
with the direction of the runway.
 This approach works well until the aircraft is at the point
of touch down on the runway.
 Then the aircraft must generally align the x-body axis with
the runway direction so that the landing gear wheels are
aligned with the direction of touch down
103
Crabing
104
Generation of the side wing
105
Engine-Out Analysis
 The lateral-directional force and moment equations can

be used to analyze the case of an engine failure in flight
that results in a yawing moment.
 Consider a twin-engine aircraft that has experienced a
right engine failure
106
Contd---
 The rolling moment resulting from an asymmetric

thrust configuration should also be considered.
 For a jet engine configuration with the engines
mounted forward and below the wing, a right engine
out configuration will probably result in a negative
rolling moment be cause at the lower pressure
generated below the left wing by the high velocity
exhaust from the operating engine.ne
107
Requirement for directional Control
108
Lateral and directional; stability
109
Definition of all stability
Lateral stability is roll stability: the tendency of the aircraft

to reduce its rolling and return to an upright position unless
continually maintained in position by e.g. the ailerons. (This
is usually only partial.)
Longitudinal stability is pitch stability: the tendency of the
aircraft to reduce its pitching and return to a level position
(relative to the direction it's traveling, at least) unless
countered by e.g. the elevators.
Directional stability (also known as vertical stability) is yaw
stability: the tendency of the aircraft to reduce its yawing and
return to a straight position (relative to the direction it's
traveling, at least) unless countered by e.g. the rudder.
110
Yawing stability due to vertical tail
111
Directional stability
112
Aircraft directional stability and vertical tail
113
Dihedral and sweep back effect
114
Formula Directional stability
115
Lateral Stability- Main Sources
116
Lateral-Directional Applied Forces and Moments
 Because we have assumed that longitudinal and lateral-

directional motion are independent of each other, lateral-
directional motion is assumed to consist of roll and yaw
rotation and y-axis translation.
 These two rotations and the translation are typically coupled
(that is, they occur together).
 We will now expand the applied lateral-directional aero force
and moment terms with conventional aerodynamic
coefficients
117
Determination of maneuver point
118
Aircraft Side Force
Aerodynamic side-force acts along the number two stability axis

(positive out the right wing) and may be expressed using the side-
force coefficient (Cy) as
Side force is a function of the angle of sideslip (beta or b), aileron

deflection (da), rudder deflection (dr), angle of attack (a), Mach
number, and Reynolds number.
A positive sideslip angle (b) is defined in Fig. below. It can be easily
remembered as positive b is ‘wind in the right ear’ for the pilot.
Our Taylor series expansion of the side-force coefficient will
include the first three terms.
119
Rolling moment because of sideslip with
an aft-swept wing
120
A method to estimate Cyb based on aircraft configuration begins
with the definition of the aero sideforce acting on the vertical
tail using the sideforce coefficient.
can be estimate
The contribution of the vertical tail to Cyb
The contribution of the vertical tail to Cyb can be estimated
where s is the sidewash angle

121
Side force resulting from differential
stabilator deflection
the aspect ratio of the vertical tail
The derivative Cydr

is positive because a
positive rudder
deflection (trailing
edge left) will generate
a side force along the
positive y axis.
122
Aircraft Rolling Moment
Aircraft rolling moment acts about the x axis and may be

expressed using the rolling moment coefficient as
The rolling moment coefficient is a function of the same

parameters we considered for side force; namely, sideslip angle,
aileron deflection, rudder deflection, angle of attack, Mach
number, and Reynolds number.
We will again use sideslip angle, aileron deflection, and rudder
deflection in our first-order Taylor series expansion
123
is the lateral (roll) static stability derivative. It is also sometimes
called the dihedral effect. the sign of Clb must be negative if an
aircraft has roll static stability.
A negative Clb simply implies that the aircraft generates a rolling
moment that rolls the aircraft away from the direction of sideslip.
Four aspects of an aircraft design primarily influence Clb : geometric
dihedral, wing position, wing sweep, and the contribution of the
vertical tail. In other words,
124
Geometric dihedral
Provides a significant negative contribution to Clb . The larger the

dihedral angle, the more negative rolling moment will result from
a positive sideslip angle and the more positive rolling moment
will result from a negative sideslip angle.
This occurs because the wing toward the relative wind (right
wing for positive sideslip and left wing for negative sideslip)
experiences a higher angle of attack than that experienced by the
opposite wing
125
Effect of Wing position
A high wing position will provide a negative contribution to Clb , a

low wing position will provide a positive contribution, and a mid-
wing position will provide a fairly neutral contribution.
126
Effects of Wing sweep angle
• A sideslip angle results in a side velocity that can be broken

into
• vector components normal and parallel to the leading edge of
each wing.
• With aft sweep, the wing toward the velocity vector (the
leading wing) has a larger normal velocity component than
the wing opposite the velocity vector (the trailing wing).
• As a result, the upstream wing will produce more lift than the
downstream wing (resulting in a rolling moment away from
the sideslip direction), and a negative contribution will result
for Clb
127
Effect of the vertical tail
• A positive sideslip angle will result in an aerodynamic force on

the vertical tail in the negative y-axis direction.
• Because the vertical tail is normally above the x (or rolling) axis
of the aircraft, this aerodynamic force produces a negative
rolling moment that results in a negative contribution to Clb .
• A similar analysis holds for negative sideslip angles. The larger
and higher the vertical tail, the more negative the contribution
to Clb.
zv may be estimated
128
Illustration of vertical tail moment arm
129
Effects of
• Ailerons are typically the primary control surface for producing

rolling moment in response to a pilot command.
• A positive aileron deflection results in a positive rolling moment
about the x axis.
• Ailerons are generally not deflected symmetrically so that
adverse yaw effects can be minimized. For example, in response
to a right stick input, the right aileron may have a larger trailing
edge up deflection that the left aileron has a trailing edge down
deflection.
• we define the magnitude of aileron deflection (using the
convention that trailing edge down is positive) as
130
Contd--- Clda
• The derivative Clda defines the change in rolling moment
that results from aileron deflection.
• It is also called the aileron control power.
• Clda is positive based on the definition of a positive aileron
deflection.
• The magnitude of Clda depends on several factors.
• The aileron chord to wing chord ratio is a measure of the
relative size of the aileron in terms of wing chord.
• The larger the ratio, the larger Clda becomes.
• The aileron span location on the wing determines the
moment arm and length of the ailerons.
• The larger the moment arm (the further outboard) and the
longer the length, the larger Clda becomes.
• The magnitude of aileron deflection is also a factor in
defining the magnitude of Clda
. 131
Rolling moment wind tunnel data
132
YF 17 view on Clda
Roll control power is generally an important requirement in high-

performance aircraft. As an example, the roll performance of the YF-
17 was found to be unacceptable during initial Air Force flight
evaluations because of the aeroelastic aileron reversal effect
Three-view
drawing of A-
7 corsair
133
Aileron control power
Clda is positive based on the definition of a positive aileron

deflection. The magnitude of Clda depends on several factors. The
aileron chord to wing chord ratio is a measure of the relative size of
the aileron in terms of wing chord. The larger the ratio, the larger
Clda becomes. The aileron span location on the wing determines the
moment arm and length of the ailerons. The larger the moment arm
(the further outboard) and the longer the length, the larger Clda
becomes. The magnitude of aileron deflection is also a factor in
defining the magnitude of Clda
.
134
Aircraft Yawing Moment
Aircraft yawing moment acts about the z axis and may be

expressed using the yawing moment coefficient as
These parameters are again sideslip angle, aileron deflection,

rudder deflection, angle of attack, Mach number, Reynolds
number, and center of gravity location. Sideslip angle, aileron
deflection, and rudder deflection will again be used in our
first-order Taylor series expansion
135
Directional (yaw) static stability derivative
 It is sometimes called the weathercock stability derivative.

 The sign of Cnb must be positive if the aircraft has yaw static
stability. A positive Cnb implies that in response to a sideslip
angle, the aircraft will generate an aerodynamic yawing moment,
which tends to reduce or zero-out the sideslip.
 For example, a positive Cnb will result in a positive yawing
moment being generated in response to a positive sideslip angle.
 This yawing moment will tend to yaw the aircraft toward the
relative wind and reduce the sideslip angle. We can also think of
this as the weathervane effect
136
Effect of aircraft components on yawing moment
Vertical tail
The vertical tail is the primary aircraft component that drives the
magnitude of Cnb.
The larger the vertical tail, the more positive Cnb will be.
The x-axis distance between the c.g. and the a.c. of the tail is
another design feature that influences Cnb .
The larger this distance, the more positive Cnb will be. Cnb
vertical tail ay be estimated by again starting with Eq
137
derivative Cnda
 The derivative Cnda defines how yawing moment changes

with aileron deflection.
 For aircraft equipped with conventional ailerons, Cnda is
typically negative, indicating that adverse yaw is generated as
a result of the control input. This means that a positive aileron
input (right wing down) will have a nose left yawing moment
result.
 This yawing moment away from the direction of the turn
results from the differential induced drag.
 A TED aileron deflection reduces the lift on the wing being
rolled into, while a TED aileron deflection increases the lift on
the wing coming up
138
Proverse yaw
 Cnda may also be positive. This is called a proverse yaw

condition and results when roll control surfaces such as
spoilers are used.
 For example, many sailplanes use differential spoilers to
generate a rolling moment.
 Lift is decreased using spoiler deployment on the wing
being rolled into. The spoiler deployment increases drag on
the wing at the same time it is decreasing lift.
 This increased drag generates a yawing moment in the
direction of the turn.
 The F-4 Phantom incorporated a combination of these
ideas to minimize adverse yaw.
 The lateral control system incorporated both ailerons,
spoilers, and an aileron to rudder interconnect
139
Illustration of adverse yaw
140
Yawing moment wind tunnel data
Fig. Yawing moment wind tunnel data for F-16 VISTA aircraft
141
Rudder control power
 The rudder is typically the primary control surface for

producing a yawing moment in response to a pilot command.
 A positive rudder deflection is defined as trailing edge left.
 The derivative Cndr defines the change in yawing moment
that results from rudder deflection.
 It is also called the rudder control power.
 Cndr is negative because a positive rudder deflection results
in a negative yawing moment.
 The magnitude of Cndr depends on several factors.
 The rudder chord to vertical tail chord ratio is a measure of
the relative size of the rudder in terms of the vertical tail
chord.
 The larger the ratio, the larger the magnitude of Cndr
142
Lateral-Directional Static Stability
static stability refers to the initial tendency of an airplane, following

a disturbance from steady-state flight, to develop aerodynamic
forces and moments that are in a direction to return the aircraft to
the steady-state flight condition.
lateral-directional static stability will primarily refer to aircraft
rolling moment and yawing moment characteristics.
it should be realized that rolling and yawing motions are inherently
coupled.
This highly coupled behavior necessitates consideration of these
motions together, especially when analyzing and designing lateral-
directional handling qualities
143
Trim Conditions
Lateral-directional trim requirements can be simply stated

as achieving a total aircraft rolling moment and yawing
moment of zero. In coefficient terms, trim equates to
Lateral-directional trim is typically the condition of a zero sideslip

angle. This condition is more correctly referred to as coordinated
flight (beta equal to zero).
With the assumption of a symmetrical aircraft (Cl0 and Cn0

equal to zero) and coordinated flight (b equal to zero), zero roll and
yaw coefficients are achieved simply with da and dr equal to zero
144
Numerical 2.1
Determine the aileron and rudder deflections required

for an F-15 to maintain a þ1 degree ‘‘wings level’’ ideslip
at 0.9 Mach and 6000 m. Determine the value of the
sideforce coefficient under these conditions. Applicable
derivatives follow
145
Solution
We know that
For trim, Cl =Cn= 0, and the two equations become
We have two equations and two

un knowns by solving we get
146
Contd---
The result makes sense from a sign standpoint. Left rudder

(positive) is needed to generate the sideslip and opposite
aileron (positive) is needed to offset the rolling moment
generated by the aircraft’s lateral stability. To calculate the
sideforce coefficient, we use Eq. as given
the result makes sense from a direction standpoint. The

negative sign indicates a side force in the negative y
direction, which is what will result from a positive sideslip
angle.
147
Stability Requirements- lateral motion
The sign of the stability derivatives Clb and Cnb is key in

determining the lateral and directional static stability of the aircraft.
Lateral motion
The requirement for lateral (roll) static stability is
It is shown in figure of Cl vs beta
Fig. Rolling moment coefficient vs

sideslip characteristics
148
Geometric dihedral, wing position,
wing sweep, and vertical tail size,
must be balanced in an overall
aircraft design to achieve an
acceptable degree of lateral
stability. Too much lateral stability
typically results in unacceptable
dutch roll and crosswind landing
characteristics
Sideforce vector for an aircraft
in a bank
149
Directional motion.
The requirement for directional (yaw) static stability is
and is illustrated in Fig below

This requirement results in an aircraft
that generates a yawing moment that
yaws the nose of the aircraft toward
the direction of sideslip. An aircraft
with a
positive Cnb will generate a positive
aerodynamic yawing moment in
response to a positive sideslip angle.
Directional stability attempts to keep
the aircraft in a coordinated flight Fig. Yawing moment vs
condition where the sideslip angle is sideslip characteristics
equal to zero.
150
GA aircrafts
151
Engine-Out Analysis
The lateral-directional force and moment equations can be used to

analyze the case of an engine failure in flight that results in a yawing
moment. Consider a twin-engine aircraft that has experienced a
right engine failure as shown in Fig. below.
The left engine is still operating while

the right engine is producing wind
milling drag. The yawing moment that
results is
152
Notice that for the engine out case presented, the asymmetrical
thrust and ram drag moments are both in the positive direction. For
trimmed flight and assuming Cn0 is zero, these terms are included in
the directional Taylor series.
For a jet aircraft, DD for a wind milling engine can be estimated as

10 to 15% of the thrust normally produced by the engine. For
propeller-powered aircraft, the wind milling drag is significantly
higher than this
153
The following lateral Taylor series (assuming Cl0 is zero) is then
appropriate for trimmed flight.
We will also present the sideforce Taylor series for trimmed

flight, including the gravity term.
154
Two options for engine-out flight
Two options for engine-out flight will now b

Option 1: The aileron and rudder control deflections remain at zero
after engine failure, and the aircraft is allowed to attain a steady-state
trim condition
with asymmetric thrust considered.
A 1-degree-of-freedom (DOF) estimate of the resulting steady-state
sideslip angle can be obtained using only Eq. (5.105) with da and dr
equal to zero
Option 2: The rudder is deflected to zero out the sideslip. For the
right engine-out case, this would require left rudder. A 1-DOF
estimate of the rudder required can be obtained using Eq. with b
and da equal to zero
155
MODULE – III
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
MODULE III - SYLLABUS
Description of motion of flight vehicle - systems of reference

frames - Earth, body, wind, stability axes - relative merits. Euler
angles, angles of attack and sideslip– definitions- Earth to body
axis transformation, stability axis to body axis transformation.
Rotating axis system- expressions for linear and angular moment
of rigid body, time derivatives-inertia tensor, components of linear
and angular velocities, accelerations. Components of
aerodynamic, gravity forces, moments applied on flight vehicle.
Equations of motion- longitudinal and lateral-directional. Relation
between angular velocity components and Euler angle rates.
Determination of velocities of airplane in Earth axis system.
157
COURSE OUTCOMES MAPPED WITH MODULE - III

Taxonomy
CO 6 Construct the mathematical model of aircraft Apply
motion in longitudinal, lateral and directional cases
for establishing the status of the flight vehicles
stability.
CO 7 Outline the contribution of aircraft components Understand
and their influence on lateral and directional
static stability on flight vehicles.
CO 8 Analyze different axis systems used for flight Analyze
dynamics and their transformations from one
system to another system.
158
MAPPED WITH MODULE - III
159
MAPPING OF COs WITH POs, PSOs FOR MODULE - III
Program
es (COs) (PSOs)
/ Number
of key
competenci
es
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 6 √ √ √ √ √
CO 7 √ √ √ √
√
CO 8 √ √ √ √
160
Aircraft Axis Systems
 These include the body axis system fixed to the aircraft,

the Earth axis system, which we will assume to be an
inertial axis system fixed to the Earth, and the stability axis
system, which is defined with respect to the relative wind.
 Each of these systems is useful in that they provide a

convenient system for defining a particular vector, such as,
the aerodynamic forces, the weight vector, or the thrust
vector.
161
Body Axis System
 The body axis system is fixed to the air craft with its
origin at the aircraft’s center of gravity.
 The x axis is defined out the nose of the aircraft along

some reference line.
 The reference line may be chosen to be the chord line

of the aircraft or may be along the floor of the aircraft,
as is often the case in large transports.
 The y axis is defined out the right wing of the aircraft,

and the z axis is defined as down through the bottom
of the aircraft in accordance with the right- hand rule,
162
Body axes system
163
Earth Axis System
 The Earth axis system is fixed to the Earth with its

z axis pointing to the center of the Earth.
 The x axis and y axis are orthogonal and lie in the
local horizontal plane with the origin at the aircraft
center of gravity.
 Often, the x axis is defined as North and the y axis
defined as East.
 The Earth axis system is assumed to be an inertial
axis system for aircraft problems.
 This is important because Newton’s 2nd law is valid
only in an inertial system.
 While this assumption is not total ly accurate, it
works well for aircraft problems where the aircraft
rotation rates are large compared to the rotation
rate of the Earth
164
Illustration of Earth’s Axis system
165
Stability Axis System
 The stability axis system is rotated relative to the body

axis system through the angle of attack.
 This means that the stability x axis points in the
direction of the projection of the relative wind on to
the x z plane of the aircraft.
 The origin of the stability axis system is also at the
aircraft center of gravity.
 The y axis is out the right wing and coincident with the
y axis of the body axis system.
 The z axis is orthogonal and points down ward in
accordance with the right-handrule.
166
Stability Axis system
167
Combination of axis system
168
Illustration of mass of an airplane
169
Body and inertial axes system
170
Earth Axis to Body Axis Transformation
171
Transformation of Axes contd-----
172
Stability Axis to Body Axis Transformation
173
Aircraft Force Equations
174
Moment Equations
175
Longitudinal Equations of Motion
176
Lateral-Directional Equations of Motion
177
Kinematic Equations
 In addition to the six force and moment EOM,

additional equations are required in order to
completely solve the aircraft problem.
 These additional equations are necessary because
there are more than six unknowns due to the presence
of the Euler angles in the force equations.
 Three equations are obtained by relating the three
body axis system rates, P, Q, and R to the three Euler
rates
178
Summary of Force and Moment Eq.
179
Velocity of aircraft in fixed frame of reference
180
Introduction to EOMs
Introduction:
After being given a small disturbance, it has a tendency to return to the
equilibrium position. To analyse the static stability, the moments
brought about immediately after the disturbance are only to be
considered. However, for a system to be dynamically stable it must
finally return to the equilibrium position. Thus, to examine the dynamic
stability, the motion following a disturbance or an intended control
input needs to be analysed. This motion is called response. However, an
airplane is a system with six degrees of freedom and obtaining the
response is a difficult task. However, in this introductory course the
equations of motion are derived and simplified forms are obtained.
Subsequently, the conditions that ensure dynamic stability are deduced
without solving the equations.
181
Equations of motion in vector and scalar forms
 The equations of motion are obtained by applying the Newton’s

second law to the motion of airplane. For this purpose the airplane
is treated as a rigid body which is translating as well as rotating.
 This motion is decomposed as: (a) translation of the c.g. of the
airplane with reference to an inertial frame which is taken as a
frame fixed at a point on the earth and
 (b) rotation with respect to the inertial system of a body axes
system, attached to the airplane. The linear velocity, vector and the
angular velocity vector are resolved along the body axes system.
 To apply Newton’s second law to the motion of an airplane, requires
an expression for the acceleration of an elemental mass ′dm′
located at a point on the body
182
Acceleration of a particle on a rigid body
The velocity of an elemental mass ‘dm’ at point P is the time

derivative of its position vector i.e
183
Derivation of acceleration contd--
184
Vector form of equations of motion
Applying Newton’s second law of motion, the equations of motion is

vector form are
Scalar form of equations of motion
185
Contd---
186
Contd---
187
Forces acting on the airplane
The external forces acting on an airplane are the thrust ( T ), the

aerodynamic forces (A) (lift, drag and side force) and the gravitational
force (mg). In vector form
Following assumptions have been made during the above derivation. (a)
The airplane is rigid. (b) The reference frame attached to the earth is a
Newtonian frame. (c) Flat earth model is used for gravitational force.
Before obtaining the scalar form of Eq.(7.37) the following points may
be noted. (a) The thrust vector acts roughly along the fuselage reference
line (FRL). (b) The aerodynamic forces are resolved so that the drag is
parallel to the free stream direction and the lift and the side force are in
mutually perpendicular directions to the free stream. (c) The
gravitational force acts vertically downwards. (d) To obtain the scalar
form of Eq. (7.37), T, A and mg must be expressed in a single coordinate
system 188
Concept of Newton’s Laws
189
190
191
Problem one frame to other
192
Equations of motion
193
Contd----
194
Problem
195
Euler’s Angles
196
Contd----
197
Contd-----
198
Euler’S Angle Contd-----
199
Aircraft Moment of inertia
200
Illustration of heading angular rate
Earth axis system
201
Illustration of pitch attitude angular rate
202
Illustration of role attitude angular rate
203
MODULE – IV
LINEARIZATION OF EQUATIONS OF
MOTION AND AERODYNAMIC
FORCES AND MOMENTS
DERIVATIVES
MODULE IV - SYLLABUS
Description of state of motion of vehicle, forces and

moments as perturbations over prescribed reference flight
condition. Equation of motion in perturbation variables.
Assumption of small perturbations, first order
approximations-linearization equations of motion. Linearized
of force and moment equation, of motion Linearized
longitudinal and lateral-directional equations of perturbed
motion. Significance of aerodynamic derivatives. Derivatives
of axial, normal force components and pitching moment with
respect to the velocity, angle of attack, angle of attack rate,
pitch rate, elevator angle
205
COURSE OUTCOMES MAPPED WITH MODULE - IV

Taxonomy
CO 8 Analyze different axis systems used for flight Analyze
dynamics and their transformations from one
system to another system.
CO 9 Explain qualitatively about motion in three- Understand
dimensions, Euler angles and rates, full 6-DOF
equations for rigid symmetrical aircraft, state space
formulation, and solution in the time domain and
flight simulation.
CO 10 Demonstrate different stability derivatives used in Understand
stability and control problems in different degree
of freedom of aircrafts using different
computational and experimental tools.
206
MAPPED WITH MODULE - IV
PO 9 Individual and Teamwork: Function effectively as an individual,
and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in
multidisciplinary settings .

desire higher studies
207
MAPPING OF COs WITH POs, PSOs FOR MODULE IV
Program
es (COs) (PSOs)
/ Number
of key
competenci
es
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 8 √ √ √
CO 9 √ √ √
CO 10 √ √ √ √
208
u/U1 Derivatives
209
u/U1 Derivatives contd----
210
Mach Tuck Derivatives
211
U/U1 Derivatives
212
U/U1 Derivatives contd---
213
Mach Tuck Derivatives
214
Contd------
215
Mach Tuck illustration
Mach tuck is an aerodynamic effect whereby the nose of an

aircraft tends to pitch downward as the airflow around the
wing reaches supersonic speeds. This diving tendency is also
known as "tuck under". The aircraft will first experience this
effect at significantly below Mach 1
216
u/U1 derivatives
217
Contd------
218
219
Longitudinal Static Stability derivatives
220
221
222
223
Illustration of derivative parameters
224
Contd----
225
226
Contd----
227
Contd------
228
Contd----
229
Numerical 4.1
230
Solution of 4.1
231
Numerical 4.2
232
Solution of 4.2
233
Numerical 4.3
234
Solution 4.3
235
Numerical 4.4
236
Solution of 4.4
237
Pitch rate derivatives
238
Illustration of pitch rate derivatives
239
Contd---
240
Contd-----
241
242
243
Numerical 4.5
244
Summary of derivatives of flight dynamics
245
246
247
Contd-----
248
Numerical 4.6
Solution
249
250
251
Effect of roll rates
252
Effects of roll rates contd-----
253
Roll helix angle
 The absolute value of this change in angle of attack at the wing

tips due to roll rate (pb/2U1) is called the roll helix angle. It
provides the basis for the form of the nondimensionalization
approach used for angular rates.
 The roll helix angle has physical meaning as well. It can be
thought of generally as the angle that the wing tip light would
make with the horizon for an aircraft undergoing a roll rate
254
Side force on vertical tail
255
Vertical tail contribution on damping derivatives
256
257
Cross Derivative
258
Contribution of the wing in Cnp
 The wing contributes to Cnp in three ways that will be addressed
qualitatively. The first contribution comes from the
 Increase in drag that results from the increase in angle of attack
on the wing being rolled into, and
 Decrease on drag that results from the decrease in angle of attack
on the wing being rolled a
 The increased drag on that results on the right wing and
decreased drag that results on the left wing will provide a positive
yawing moment to the aircraft, resulting in a positive contribution
to Cnp.
 the increase in angle of attack on the right wing results in tilting
of the lift vector forward, while the decrease in angle of attack on
the left wing provides an aft tilting of the lift vector.
 The net result is a negative contribution to yawing moment; thus,
a negative contribution to Cnp. See Fig below. way from 259
Lift vector tilting
260
Side force effects
261
262
Wing Contribution to Cross derivative
Yaw rate increases effective velocity on one

wing and decreases on opposite wing.
 Nose right yaw rate, increases the effective
velocity on left wing and decreases on right
wing.
 This increase the lift in left wing and decrease
lift in right wing.
 Net result is positive rolling moment (right
wing down)
 Thus wing make a positive contribution to Clr
263
Vertical tail or Fin Contribution to Cross derivative
264
Vertical tail contribution contd------
265
Yaw Damping derivative
The derivative Cnr is called the yaw damping derivative. It

represents the change in yawing moment coefficient with respect
to non dimensional yaw rate and will always be negative (providing
a moment which opposes the direction of the yaw rate). Cnr is also
an important factor in lateral-directional stability characteristics.
The wing and vertical tail are the primary components that
contribute to Cnr.
266
Wing contribution on Cnr
 The wing contribution to Cnr results from the yaw rate.

 Which increases the effective velocity on one wing and
decreasing the effective velocity on the opposite wing.
 A positive ‘‘nose right’’ yaw rate will provide an angular rate
that increases the effective velocity on the left wing and
decreases the effective velocity on the right wing.
 The increase in velocity results in increased lift and induced
drag on the left wing.
 The decrease in velocity results in decreased lift and
decreased induced drag on the right wing.
 The net result is a negative yawing moment (nose left). Thus,
the wings make a negative contribution to Cnr
267
Vertical Tail Contribution on Cnr
268
Numerical 4.7
Solution
269
270
271
Summary of Lateral and Directional
Forces and moments
272
Summary of Lateral and Directional Derivatives
273
Regular perturbation
274
MODULE – V
DYNAMIC SATABILITY
MODULE V - SYLLABUS
Description of state of motion of vehicle, forces and

moments as perturbations over prescribed reference flight
condition. Equation of motion in perturbation variables.
Assumption of small perturbations, first order
approximations-linearization equations of motion. Linearized
of force and moment equation, of motion Linearized
longitudinal and lateral-directional equations of perturbed
motion. Significance of aerodynamic derivatives. Derivatives
of axial, normal force components and pitching moment with
respect to the velocity, angle of attack, angle of attack rate,
pitch rate, elevator angle
276
COURSE OUTCOMES MAPPED WITH MODULE - V

Taxonomy
CO 10 Demonstrate different stability derivatives used in Understand
stability and control problems in different degree
of freedom of aircrafts using different
computational and experimental tools.
CO 11 Categorize different types of dynamic modes in Analyze
longitudinal, lateral and directional motion of the
aircraft and their influence on dynamic stability
and safety.
CO 12 Apply the advances of flight dynamics and controls Apply
in design of modern airplane control systems.
277
MAPPED WITH MODULE - V
PO 9 Individual and Teamwork: Function effectively as an individual,
and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in
multidisciplinary settings .

desire higher studies
278
MAPPING OF COs WITH POs, PSOs FOR MODULE I
Program
es (COs) (PSOs)
/ Number
of key
competenci
es
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 10 √ √ √
√
CO 11 √ √ √
CO 12 √ √
279
Aircraft Dynamic Stability
 Aircraft dynamic stability focuses on the time history of
aircraft motion after the aircraft is disturbed from an
equilibrium or trim condition.
 This motion may be first order (exponential response) or second
order (oscillatory Response).
 Will have either positive dynamic stability (aircraft returns to the
trim condition as time goes to infinity), neutral dynamic stability
(aircraft neither returns to trim nor diverges further from the
disturbed condition), or
 Dynamic instability (aircraft diverges from the trim condition and
the disturbed condition as time goes to infinity).
 The study of dynamic stability is important to understanding
aircraft handling qualities and the design features that make an
airplane fly well or not as well while performing specific mission
tasks.
280
Aircraft Dynamic Modes
There are basically two modes of aircraft dynamic motion

1. Longitudinal Modes
a) Phugoid (longer period) oscillation
b) Short period oscillations
2. Longitudinal modes
Oscillating motions can be described by two parameters, the period
of time required for one complete oscillation, and the time required
to damp to half-amplitude, or the time to double the amplitude , a
dynamically unstable motion. The longitudinal motion consists of
two distinct oscillations, a long-period oscillation called a Phugoid
mode and a short-period oscillation referred to as the short-period
mode
281
Contd--
 Phugoid mode is the one in which there is a large-amplitude
variation of air-speed, pitch angle, and altitude, but almost no
angle-of-attack variation.
 The phugoid oscillation is really a slow interchange of kinetic
energy (velocity) and potential energy (height) about some
equilibrium energy level.
 The motion is so slow that the effects of inertia forces and
damping forces are very low.
 Although the damping is weak, the period is so long that the
pilot usually corrects for this motion without being aware that
the oscillation even exists.
 Typically the period is 20–60 seconds. This oscillation can
generally be controlled by the pilot.
282
Phugoid
Phugoid is an aircraft motion in which the vehicle pitches up and

climbs, and then pitches down and descends, accompanied by
speeding up and slowing down as it goes "downhill" and "uphill”
Incidents: 1975 USAF C5 flight control damaged-153 died,

1985 Japan airlines, 520 death. 2009, Airbus 320-214
landed Hudson river
283
Short period oscillations
 The short-period mode is a usually heavily damped

oscillation with a period of only a few seconds.
 The motion is a rapid pitching of the aircraft about the
center of gravity.
 The period is so short that the speed does not have
time to change, so the oscillation is essentially an
angle-of-attack variation.
 The time to damp the amplitude to one-half of its value
is usually on the order of 1 second.
 Ability to quickly self damp when the stick is briefly
displaced is one of the many criteria for general
aircraft certification
284
Lateral-directional" modes
 "Lateral-directional" modes involve rolling and yawing motions.
Motions always couples into the other so the modes are generally
discussed as the "Lateral-Directional modes“. There are three types
of possible lateral-directional dynamic motion- roll subsidence
mode, Spiral mode, and Dutch roll mode.
1. Roll subsidence mode
 This is simply the damping of rolling motion. There is no direct
aerodynamic moment created tending to directly restore wings-level,
i.e. there is no returning "spring force/moment" proportional to roll
angle. However, there is a damping moment (proportional to
roll rate) created by the slewing-about of long wings. This prevents
large roll rates from building up when roll-control inputs are made or
it damps the roll rate(not the angle) to zero when there are no roll-
control inputs.
 Roll mode can be improved by dihedral effects coming from design
characteristics, such as high wings, dihedral angles or sweep angles285
Dutch roll mode
• The second lateral motion is an oscillatory combined roll and
yaw motion called Dutch roll.
• The Dutch roll may be described as a yaw and roll to the right,
followed by a recovery towards the equilibrium condition, then
an overshooting of this condition and a yaw and roll to the left,
then back past the equilibrium attitude, and so on.
• The period is usually on the order of 3–15 seconds.
• Damping is increased by large directional stability and small
dihedral and decreased by small directional stability and large
dihedral.
• Although usually stable in a normal aircraft, the motion may be
so slightly damped that the effect is very unpleasant and
undesirable..
286
Contd---
 In swept-back wing aircraft, the Dutch roll is solved by

installing a yaw damper,
 in effect a special-purpose automatic pilot that damps out
any yawing oscillation by applying rudder corrections.
 Some swept-wing aircraft have an unstable Dutch roll.
 If the Dutch roll is very lightly damped or unstable, the yaw
damper becomes a safety requirement, rather than a pilot
and passenger convenience.
 Dual yaw dampers are required and a failed yaw damper is
cause for limiting flight to low altitudes, and possibly
lower Mach numbers, where the Dutch roll stability is improved
287
Dutch Roll
288
Spiral Divergence
289
Types of Divergence
290
Stable and Natural Ditch Roll
291
Negative Dutch Roll and Manual Dutch Roll
292
Characteristics of Spiral Divergence
293
Types of Divergence
294
Dutch roll further explaination
295
Reasons for Dutch Roll
296
Illustration of Dutch Roll
297
Mass Spring Damper System
The mass–spring–damper system as in Fig. 7.1, provides a

starting point for analysis of system dynamics and aircraft
dynamic stability. This is an excellent model to begin the
understanding of dynamic response. Sum of the forces is
given
----7.1
298
There are two forces acting on the mass, the damping force (Ff), and
the spring
Force (Fs). This resistance force Ff can be expressed as
Ff= CV where C is slope. The spring force
(Fs) is directly proportional to the displacement (x) of the mass and
can be represented as
Fs = Kx, where K is the spring
constant.
If the mass is displaced in the positive x direction, both the damping

and spring forces act in a direction opposite to this displacement and
can be represented by
Ff + Fs = -CV – Kx ---------------7.2
299
Contd----
300
First Order System
In a spring–mass–damper system where the mass is very small or

negligible compared to the size of the spring and damper. We will
call such a system a mass less or first-order (referring to the order of
the highest derivative) system. The following differential equation
results when the mass is set equal to zero.
----7.6
To solve this differential equation, we will first describe the

method of differential operators where P is defined as the
differential operator, d/dt, so that
301
Contd----
We will first attack the homogeneous form (forcing function equal

to zero) of Eq 7.6
----7.7
Substituting in the differential operator, P, Eq.

(7.7) becomes
302
Contd----
303
Numerical 5.1
304
Second Order systems
305
Contd---
306
Damping Ratio and natural Frequency
In Eq. (7.12), two new parameters are there: damping ratio (ζ) and
natural frequency (ωN ). These parameters have physical meaning
for Case 3 and lead directly to the time solution for common inputs
such as steps and impulses.
------7.16
The damping ratio (ζ) provides an indication of the system

damping and will fall between -1 and 1 for Case 3. For
stable systems, the damping ratio will be between 0 and 1.
For this case, the higher the damping ratio, the more
damping is present in the system. which show the
influence of damping ratio. Notice that the number of
overshoots/undershoots varies inversely with the damping
ratio.
307
Unit step responses for different damping ratios
308
Types of frequencies
Natural Frequency
The natural frequency is the frequency (in rad/s) that the system
would oscillate at if there were no damping. It represents the
highest frequency that the system is capable of, but it is not the
frequency that the system actually oscillates at if damping is
present. For the mass–spring–damper system,
Damped Frequency
The damped frequency (ωD) represents the frequency (in rad/s)
that the system actually oscillates at with damping present. we can
use the quadratic formula to solve for the roots of the
homogeneous form of the equation
309
Contd---
310
Contd----
311
Numerical 5.2
312
Dynamic Stability Criteria
313
Routh’s Criteria
Presently, the roots of the stability quartic are obtained by the

iterative procedure described above or by using packages
like Matlab. However, earlier the tendency was to look for
elegant analytical / approximate solutions. Routh’s criteria is
a method which indicates whether a system is stable without
solving the characteristic equation. The criteria is presented
without giving the mathematical proof.
A quartic Aλ 4 + Bλ 3 + Cλ 2 + Dλ + E = 0 will have roots
indicating stability i.e. real roots negative and complex roots
with negative real part when A>0 and the functions T1,T2, T3
and T4, given below, are positive.
314
Contd---
315
In the case of longitudinal stability quartic with A = 1, the criteria
simplify to: B > 0 ; D > 0; E > 0 and R = T3 = BCD - B 2E - AD2 > 0
(8.26) The term ‘R’ is called Routh’s discriminant. The reader can
verify that for the stability quartic given by Eq.(8.18), the value of
R is positive
316
Damping and rate of divergence when
roots are real
As mentioned earlier, when a root is real and non-zero, a negative
root indicates subsidence and a positive root indicates divergence.
Larger the magnitude of the negative root, faster will the system
return to the undisturbed position. This is clear from Eq.(8.15),
which shows that the response of the system corresponding to the
root λ1 is 11 1λ t e . At t = 0, the amplitude of the response is 11
. Further, when 1 λ is negative, the term 1λ t e indicates that the
amplitude would decrease exponentially with time (Fig 8.1b). The
time when the amplitude decreases to half of its value at t = 0, is a
measure of the damping. This time is denoted by t1/2. This
quantity (t1/2) is obtained from the following equation.
For the sake of generality the root is denoted by λ instead of 1 λ .
317
e = 2 Or 1/2 t = (ln2) / λ = 0.693 / λ --------------(8.27)
When the root is positive, the amplitude increases exponentially
with time (Fig 8.1a). The time when the amplitude is twice the value
at t = 0, is a measure of divergence. This time is denoted by t2. This
quantity (t2) is obtained from the following equation. 2 t λ e = 2; ;
Note λ is positive Or
t2 = (ln 2) / λ = 0.693 / λ --------(8.28)
318
Damping, rate of divergence, period of oscillation
A complex root is usually written as: λ = η ± iω

When η is negative, the response is a damped oscillation. The
damping is characterized by the time when the quantities ηte
becomes half.
This time is denoted by 1/ 2 t .
Consequently , 1/ 2 η t e = 0.5 Or (ln 2) 1/2 t = / η = 0.693/ η
When η is positive, the response is a divergent oscillation. The
time when the term ηt e equals two is a measure of the rate of
divergence. This time is denoted by t2. It is easy to show that : t =
ln 2 / 2 η = 0.693/η
The time period of the oscillation (P) is given by P = 2π / ω (8.31)
When η is negative, the number of cycles from t = 0 to t1/2 is
denoted by N1/2 and equals: N = t / P 1/2 ½ Similarly, when η is
positive, the number of cycles from t = 0 to t2 is denoted by N2
and equals: N = t / P 2 2
319
Linearized EOMs in Laplace form
The EOMs are repeated here
these three EOM have five aircraft motion variables (u, θ, α, w,

and q) and δe. We have three equations with 5 variables and
one forcing function. We need to reduce in three motion
variables i.e α ,u and θ. assumption of initial trimmed flight
with the wings level condition.
320
Contd---
Therefore, our aircraft motion variables are reduced to α ,u and θ.

These should be thought of as the outputs for our system of
differential equations. With zero initial conditions, the Laplace
transform
321
322
Each of these transfer functions can be represented as
the ratio of two polynomials in the Laplace variables
323
Contd-----
There is a separate transfer function for each of our three longitudinal

motion variables (α ,u and θ). Also, each of these transfer functions has the
same characteristic equation.
Characteristic equation determines the dynamic stability

characteristics of the response, and therefore all three transfer
functions will have the same dynamic characteristics
Each motion variable will have a different magnitude of response
but with the same dynamic characteristics.
324
Phugoid as slow interchange of kinetic energy and
potential energy
(a)As the pitch angle goes through a cycle (Fig. 8.4 b), while the
angle of attack remains nearly constant implies that the altitude of
the airplane also changes in a periodic manner (Fig 8.5). (b)The
damping of the phugoid is very light and the flight speed changes
periodically. (c) Items (a) and (b) suggest that the motion, during one
cycle, can be considered as an exchange between potential energy
and kinetic energy of the airplane.The total energy (i.e. sum of
potential and kinetic energies) remains nearly constant during the
cycle 325
Standard notation for ASC
326
Effect of Re in Lift and drag
327
Elevator and trim tab representation
328
Complex conjugate mode
329
Short period dynamics
330
The phugoid mode consists of poorly damped, long-period oscillations of the point-
mass aircraft. We can derive an approximation for the phugoid mode along the
lines of the derivation for the SP mode We 5 start by assuming that ∆α = ∆q = 0.
Furthermore, we normalize the perturbation ∆V by V 0 to keep it non-dimensional.
The phugoid dynamics are then given by
331
Roll Mode
332
Dutch roll mode
333
Illustration of Dutch roll
334
Spiral Mode
335
Illustration of Spiral roll
336
Lateral-Directional Modes at Higher
Angles of Attack
337
Basic Elements of a Control System
An automatic control system is used on aircraft for several

reasons: • Reduce pilot workload by automating routine
manoeuvres such as wings-level flight and turns. • Improve the
handling qualities by augmenting the eigen values of the flight
dynamics. • Eliminate pilot-induced oscillations by filtering the
pilot inputs appropriately. • Help the aircraft achieve the desired
dynamical response, including for the purpose of creating control
system test beds.
338
Types of Flight Control
Depending on the nature of the problem and the sensed

variables, control problems can be classified as follows
• State versus output feedback problems: when z = g(x) =
x, all of the aircraft states are available to the flight
computer in real time, and it can use them for control. This
is called full state feedback. In contrast, when z ⊂ x, i.e.,
only some of the state variables are measured, the
resulting control problem is called an output feedback
problem. Output feedback problems are generally harder
to solve, and the flight computer will usually make for the
limited information by using algorithms which help it predict
the state variables that are not measured. • Regulation
versus tracking problems: a tracking problem is one where
the output y(t) is required to track a reference signal r(t).
339
Summary
In such cases, it suffices to ensure that the remaining state

variables do not assume unreasonable values; their exact
values are not important subject to the qualification of
boundedness within a reasonable range. On the other
hand, if the control objective is to ensure that y(t) tends to
zero asymptotically, then the control problem is referred to
as a regulation problem. Regulation problems are generally
easier to solve than tracking problems, although it is usually
possible to convert a tracking problem into a regulation
problem by appropriate coordinate transformations.
340
Sensor and Actuator Limitations
Consider the system ˙x = Ax + Bu. When we design a control law

for such systems by writing u = Kx, we implicitly assume that the
control actuator can physically produce any signal given to it.
This is usually not true owing to some physical constraints of the
actuator:
Fig. Hysteresis. Green: expected

cyclic path; Red: actual
341
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Yechout, T.R. et al., “Introduction to Aircraft
Flight Mechanics”, AIAA education Series, 2003,
ISBN 1-56347-577-4.
2. Nelson, R.C., “Flight Stability and Automatic
Control”, 2nd Edn., Tata McGraw Hill, 2007,
ISBN 0- 07-066110.
3. Etkin, B and Reid, L.D., “Dynamics of Flight”,
3rd Edn., John Wiley, 1998, ISBN0-47103418-5
343

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Aircraft Stability and Control (R 18)

Aircraft axes system, definition: equilibrium, stability,

CO Course Outcomes Blooms

AIRCRAFT : An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by

Fig an airplane, helicopter, or other machine capable of flight”

 Suppose an aircraft in some state of steady flight. If it is disturbed,

These rotations are produced by torques (or Moments) about the

 Examples of stability by simple mechanical system

It is the ability to change the direction of motion of a body

Stability is the ability of an aircraft to correct for conditions that act

Positive Static Stability

An aircraft that has positive static stability tends to return to its

Positive Static Stability

Neutral static stability

Neutral static stability

Negative static stability

Finally, an aircraft that has negative static stability tends to continue

Negative static stability

Dynamic stability is how an airplane responds over time to a

Aircraft with positive dynamic stability have oscillations that dampen

Aircraft with neutral dynamic stability have oscillations that never

Aircraft with negative dynamic stability have oscillations that get

Wing contribution- stability

 For neutral static stability, Cm(alpha )will be equal to zero.

 The ways and means of reducing the magnitudes of Ch

 The methods for aerodynamic balancing are:

 Horn balance and

 In this method of aerodynamic balancing, apart of the

 There are two types of horn balances– shielded and

 In this case, the portion of the control surface ahead of

 The methods of aerodynamic balancing described earlier

 Tabs are also used for other

 A brief description of different types of tabs is given in the

 It is used to trim the stick or bring Ch to zero by tab

 In this case the tab is linked to the main control surface.

Configuration with two vertical tails

Introduction to lateral-direction stability- aerodynamic forces and

CO Course Outcomes Blooms

 Because we have assumed that longitudinal and lateral-

Aerodynamic side-force acts along the number two stability axis

Aircraft rolling moment acts about the x axis and may be

Aircraft yawing moment acts about the z axis and may be

 Static stability refers to the initial tendency of an airplane,

Lateral motion: The requirement for lateral (roll) static stability is

Directional motion: The requirement for directional (yaw)

 Landing approaches with a component of the wind across

 The first approach is to ‘‘crab in to the wind’’. The degree

 The lateral-directional force and moment equations can

 The rolling moment resulting from an asymmetric

Lateral stability is roll stability: the tendency of the aircraft

 Because we have assumed that longitudinal and lateral-

Aerodynamic side-force acts along the number two stability axis

Side force is a function of the angle of sideslip (beta or b), aileron

The contribution of the vertical tail to Cyb can be estimated

where s is the sidewash angle

The derivative Cydr

Aircraft rolling moment acts about the x axis and may be

The rolling moment coefficient is a function of the same