Abstract

The main purpose of this research paper is to understand the factors that affect the girl

child education. Improvement in the education and literacy skills of the girls are primarily

based upon factors such as, socio-economic, socio-cultural, educational levels of the parents

and distance from school. These factors affect the participation of girls in schools and in

enhancing their educational skills and abilities. There are number of social, economic,

familial, cultural and educational issues that prove to be impediments within the course of

acquisition of education by the girls and compel them to drop out. The main areas that have

been taken into account in this research paper are, deprivation of the girl child education,

factors affecting female participation in education, factors leading to drop out of girls from

schools, factors affecting the completion of education by girls, child labour, child abuse, child

marriage, female foeticide and female infanticide, and measures to promote girl child

education.

1
Introduction

Education is an important foundation to improve the status of women and has also

been recognised as a fundamental strategy for development. No sustainable development is

possible if women remain uneducated, discriminated against and disenfranchised. Improving

and widening access to education, especially basic education, is not only an objective in itself

but also accelerates social and economic advancement. The evidence is out: nations that

invest in girls‟ education enhance economic productivity and growth. In fact, the World Bank

has stated that there is no investment more effective for achieving development goals than

educating girls.

The problems of the girl child education begin from home. It is at this level in the

community that girls are educated in a different manner as compared to boys. The parents,

siblings, relatives and even the neighbours, identify girls to be fundamentally different from

boys. They possess this viewpoint that boys are the assets of the family, they will bring

wealth and enhance the reputation of their families, if they are provided education. Though

this viewpoint is not correct that, boys are more intelligent, proficient, skilled and responsible

and therefore more important within the society as compared to girls. Although both girls and

boys are brought up together at home and within the community. Though there are still

restrictions imposed upon girls and they are forced to grow up differently in the community,

where there is implementation of certain restrictive practices. They are not given the same

opportunities as boys to prove their potentials and enhance their skills. As a result, girls grow

up believing that they are grossly inferior to boys just because they are girls. As gender bias

2
prevails within the society, girl child education will continue to experience social

discrimination (Gitonga, 2009).

Moreover, special attention had been paid to women and girls in other goals; for

example, goal two stipulates that by 2015, all children, especially girls in difficult

circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities will have access to complete free and

compulsory primary education of good quality. To encourage participation of girls in

education, parents are required to provide them adequate teaching and learning facilities,

protect them against societal problems, prohibit child marriage, practices of female foeticide,

female infanticide, and provide financial assistance clothing and proper nutrition (Ouma,

2013). The individuals need to formulate this viewpoint that girls should be sent to schools

and acquire education. They should create a pleasant environment within the house to

promote education and learning. Education is regarded as an investment, whose returns are

valued throughout the lives of the individuals. Through education, people acquire

information, awareness, skills and attitudes essential for sustainable economic growth and

general development. In the academic field, whatever they learn, they make use of it

throughout their lives.

Definition of Terms

Education in its general sense is a form of learning in which knowledge, skills,

abilities and habits of a group of people are transported from one generation to the next

through teaching training, research or simply through auto-dictatism. Education for the girls

is one of the principles that track ways to promote social and economic development.

According to EFA global observing report 2003-04, increasing the educational level of girls
3
has an encouraging influence upon economic growth. Since 2002, United Nations

Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the global community have

been striving to attain the Dakar Education For All (EFA) goals. Taking into consideration

the fact that education for girls and women is a crucial preference, the Darker Framework for

Action contained a time-bound goal; Goal five is dedicated explicitly to gender parity and

equality in education (Ouma, 2013).

The term, gender may be defined as the socially learned pattern of behaviour and

psychological or emotional expressions of attitudes, that distinguishes between males and

females within the society. Such performance and conduct is learnt through socialization in

the society and in school. This socialization has affected the girl child in terms of access to

education, achievement and accomplishment. The girls are made to feel lower, their position

is downgraded as and they are considered as less important than boys. Girls will therefore,

not be interested and enthusiastic to go for those things that are believed to be for boys. They

will not endeavour to outperform the boys in anything including education in case they get

ex-communicated within the society because of going against the norms (Gitonga, 2009).

Girls want equal rights and opportunities, they also possess the aspiration of getting

enrolled in educational institutions and enhance their skills and abilities. In the present

existence, they aspire to achieve empowerment opportunities. There have been practices of

child marriage, female foeticide, and female infanticide, which prove to be impediments

within the course of progression and development of the girl child. In rural areas, people

possess this viewpoint that girls are the liabilities, they are meant to learn only the

implementation of the household chores. They are mostly trained regarding the performance
4
of the household chores, such as, preparation of meals, cleaning, fetching water, rearing of

livestock, sewing, embroidery, child development and looking after the needs and

requirements of the elderly and other members of the household. Due to these factors, they

are discouraged from acquisition of education.

The staying of girls within the house and when they are not encouraged to go out of

their homes and communicate with the outside world, have an unfavourable effect upon their

mind-sets. These girls are usually derided, ridiculed and laughed at and in some cases, they

are abused and mistreated. These types of experiences that they undergo make them feel

vulnerable and apprehensive, they experience problems in speaking out for themselves and in

enhancing their knowledge, skills and aptitude. Previous research in the field of education has

made revelation to the effect that for many years, the girl child has been deprived of her right

to appropriate education through gender socialization. The Boys are treated with more self-

esteem and momentousness and are given most of the opportunities in education. Family

funds will be geared towards education of boys. Where the prevalence of the conditions of

poverty leads to scarcity of resources within the family. The girl children are sent home to

work, so as to assist the parents in raising funds to educate their brothers. This situation

compromises the girl child education (Gitonga, 2009).

Factors affecting Female Participation in Education

The factors that affect the participation of females in education have been stated as

follows: (Alabi, & Alabi, 2014).

Geographical - Considerable spatial variations, and in some cases incompleteness of the

institutional provision, even at primary level transmits straight to the problems of physical
5
access, which unfavourably affects girls more than boys. There is a complete and deep urban

and rural dichotomy which favours towns and cities, especially in respect of secondary school

and especially single gender, provision for girls, forms of transportation and migration affects

educational provision and take up, again generally disadvantaging females and in some cases

intense physical difficulties, such as inundating and other threats. The influence of these

factors can only be overcome by more refined and multivariate spatial analysis of educational

needs and the planning and implementation of integrated development projects.

Socio-Cultural - A major restraint to the female take up and follow through of educational

opportunities, even when these are available is a near universal essential cultural bias in

favour of males. The common functioning of the patriarchal systems of social organisation,

of customary early marriage, of the incidence of early pregnancy, in and out of marriage, of

weightier domestic and subsistence duties of females, especially in rural areas, a usually

lower regard for the value of female life, all combine, though differentially in each case, to

negatively affect the participation of girls and women in formal education. In addition, there

may be problems of seclusion and security in some areas. Such long standing restraints result

in the scarcity of female role models that could challenge the traditional ones that is clearly

acquired by both genders at an early age.

Health - In general the effect of poverty and malnutrition on the health of school age children

is hard on girls than boys. Boys may get favoured feeding, while girls, who are required to

carry out the domestic responsibilities are more likely to be undernourished. Even if they go

to school, this unfavourably affects their performance and the retention rate. Health problems

associated with pregnancy, especially for adolescent girls, have a negative effect, as do the
6
increasing trends of sexual activity in younger generations, where these occur. Problems

associated with family size and family planning is prevalent in relation to possible

participation in education and imply the need for health education at the school level. Girls

usually experience problems in focusing on learning due to deprived health conditions.

Economic – The economic factor is most influential in affecting the participation of girls in

education. Finances are imperative areas, especially in higher education. Due to lack of

finances, capable and diligent students are required to give up their aspirations of pursuing

higher education. Parents find it difficult to pay for not only the education of their children,

but also in making provision of books, stationary, uniforms, clothing, and other materials.

Due to patriarchal predominance, individuals possess this viewpoint that investment in

education of girls is inefficient. The main reason being, parents possess this viewpoint that if

the girls will get educated, it would be beneficial to the family in which they marry, rather

than their parents.

Educational – The educational factors that affect the participation of females in education

are, difficulties of accessibility, lack of resources, inadequate infrastructure, and shortage of

skilled and competent teachers. Within rural areas, the main problem is shortage of teachers.

Parents usually feel hesitant in sending their daughters to schools, when there are not any

female teachers. They want them to learn only from female teachers. The facilities required

for the accommodation of teachers are absent or inadequate. The organisation of schooling in

terms of day to day and seasonal necessities of local economies usually renders it

dysfunctional, and the curriculum is often unappealing in instrumental terms. Vocational

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education is weak and schemes open to the girls in this field are primarily beneficial. There is

still a common problem of gender bias in books and materials.

Religious - Although in general performing in an indirect manner, the religious factor is on

balance is a positive one, though it is often overcome by the fundamental socio-cultural

prejudice in support of males. The fact, most religious specialists and leaders are males and

this makes for an authoritative image in favour of boys, and it would be a co-operative move,

if religious leaders of all trusts, beliefs and denominations were to speak out powerfully in

support of the female cause.

Political/Administrative - Although policies exist in most cases for the developments in

education, as universal primary education, equal educational opportunities in terms of gender

and the elimination of gender bias from texts and other materials. The political will to carry

these, though seems to be weak in the face of severe economic constraints. In the present

existence, there has been formulation of laws and policies that girls should be regarded as

equal, they should be encouraged towards acquisition of education and be given equal rights

and opportunities. There should not be any type of discrimination between girls and boys and

they should be equally considered with regards to employment opportunities, pay, enrolment

in educational institutions and so forth.

Factors leading to Drop out of Girls from Schools

The factors that lead to drop out of girls from schools have been classified into four

categories, these are, economic factors, household level factors, school level factors and

cultural factors. They have been stated as follows: (Shahidul, & Zehadul Karim, 2015).

i. Economic Factors
8
Parental Investment – The investment of parents mostly in rural areas become gender

biased. They are altruistic to the gender of their children and do not invest in their education

on an equal basis. They prefer to get their sons educated more as compared to girls. The

parents possess this viewpoint that if the sons get educated, they will bring wealth and

prosperity for the families and take care of their well-being. Parental gender bias investment

particularly takes place, when parents belong to low income groups, causing girls to leave

school early.

Schooling Costs – Direct and indirect schooling costs are important factors for the education

of the girls. Schooling costs especially, the school fees, are a fundamental reason for leading

to early drop-out of girls from schools. Schooling costs are sometimes connected to the

gender of the children, as parents are sometimes getting disinclined to pay the school fees and

also in meeting other expenses, such as, books, stationary, uniforms, transportation and so

forth of their daughters. It becomes difficult for the parents to meet the schooling costs, when

they have financial problems.

ii. Household Level Factors

Household Work – Within the household, girls are meant to perform more work as

compared to boys. Besides, the tasks such as preparation of meals, cleaning, washing,

fetching water etc. they are required to take care of their younger siblings, while their parents

go to work. In the implementation of the household tasks, girls get compelled to drop out of

schools. It becomes difficult for them to take out time for studies due to domestic work, as a

result, they are unable to perform well academically and eventually give up their studies.

9
Female Involvement in Household Chores – When the households are headed by females,

then there is a decline in the drop out of girls. In the household's decision-making process, the

drop-out rate of girls has decreased. Though female headship ultimately proves to be

advantageous to the girls, studies in some cases, show debatable results. This is because,

many studies found that single female headed households experience larger financial and

time constraints than two-parent households in general, which may influence differently on

children's academic achievement. In fact, children in households, headed by married women

have higher educational attainment, while children of widows are more expected to get

engaged in employment opportunities.

iii. School Level Factors

Extra-Curricular Activities – There were differences in the participation of girls and boys

in extra-curricular activities. Girls are usually less participative as compared to boys. The

main reason that led to a lower rate of participation amongst the girls than boys are lack of

facilities in schools. The attire that students were supposed to wear in participation in sports

and outdoor games, were suitable to males, hence, there were large differences in the

participation of boys and girls.

Female Teachers in Schools – The individuals, who belong to rural communities and

possess traditional viewpoints, prefer that their girls should only get educated from female

teachers. There is shortage of female teachers in schools, mainly in rural areas, hence, this is

an impediment within the course of acquisition of education and leads to drop out of girls.

They mostly feel comfortable in the presence of female teachers and would be able to

communicate effectively with them regarding their academic as well as other problems.
10
Absenteeism – The rate of absenteeism has a negative impact on the drop-out of girls from

schools. Girls are at a larger risk of absenteeism, reiteration and drop-out, and have lower

educational achievement than boys in the upper primary school. There are some causes for

girls' drop-out because of absenteeism. For instance, teenage pregnancy amongst girls is

commonly associated with frequent absence from school originally, then permanent and or

temporary drop-out. The increase in the drop out of girls get more likely to increase, because

of a higher rate of absenteeism due to child labour or household work.

Feminine Facilities in Schools – Inadequate sanitation facilities in schools have a negative

impact on the drop-out of girls. This is an indication of insecurity of girls and they will feel

vulnerable in attending schools due to these facilities. Lack of facilities and poor hygiene

affect both girls and boys, sanitation in schools has a strong negative influence on girls.

Parents expect safe and separate sanitation for their daughters in schools. Girls need to have

separate and adequate facilities in school. The lack of proper facilities and civic amenities are

barriers within the course of their acquisition of education and they are required to drop out

of schools.

Teacher’s Attitude – In order to pursue education, it is vital for the teachers to possess

efficient knowledge, information and teaching skills. Besides these, they should have a

pleasant attitude and an approachable nature. Strict and harsh attitude on the part of the

teachers, compel the students to drop out, before their educational skills get honed. There

have been cases, when teachers tend to favour boys more as compared to girls and this makes

them to drop out of school.

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School Distance – The distance of schools from home, costs and transportation problems are

the primary factors that lead to drop-out of girls from schools. Parents are reluctant to send

their girls to long distances and they feel vulnerable regarding sexual harassment. When girls

and their parents feel that it is not safe to travel at a distance, then girls normally drop out or

do not get enrolled in schools.

Low Academic Performance – When students are not able to understand the academic

concepts in an effectual manner and do not perform well in studies, then the ultimate outcome

is school drop-out. Deprived academic performance does not generate pleasant attitude on the

part of the teachers and they are normally dissatisfied with these students. When girls do not

perform well academically and there is lack of understanding and awareness, then they

eventually drop out of school.

iv. Cultural Factors

Early Marriage – Early marriage of girls is the primary factor that lead to discontinuation of

education. There have been cases, when girls get married within the course of their

acquisition of education. Marriage imposes numerous responsibilities on girls and they do not

find time to attend schools. In the household of the parents, they may attend schools, but as

they get married and go to another home, they eventually have to drop out of schools.

Cultural Beliefs – Cultural norms and beliefs prove to be restraints upon the acquisition of

education. The older individuals mainly possess this viewpoint that girls should be trained

regarding the household management and in taking care of the needs and requirements of the

family members. Education and academic learning is not meant for them, as they will not be

able to utilize their education, skills and abilities in an effective manner in any area.
12
 Factors Affecting the Completion of Girls/Women Education in Northern Nigeria

The factors that prove to be impediments in the completion of education by girls have

been stated as follows:

Gender – The rates of school drop-out were high amongst girls as compared to boys. The

boys were 1.8 times more likely to complete their education than girls. Even after controlling

for variables related to individual characteristics. The profound qualitative research has been

carried out by the Young Lives team, it takes into consideration, various factors that influence

girls’ progress through secondary education, including familial, societal and educational

concerns, such as safety concerns related to travelling to school, and the anticipation that girls

will support the family in domestic chores or will work to increase household income.

Problems experienced by the family often have a disproportionate effect on girls.

Parental Education - Levels of parental education are vital elements of children completing

secondary education. Children, whose fathers have completed secondary school and above

are 2.1 times more likely to complete schooling as compared to children whose fathers had

less or no education. The education of the mothers, did not have an effect upon the education

acquired by children. Though maternal education is itself, likely to be associated with

paternal education. The significance of parental education encourages questions about how

policy-makers can support parents with lower levels of education or no education to provide

assistance to their children and help them through schooling.

Early Literacy – The early literacy skills, such as the ability to read words and sentences

more effortlessly at the age of eight, means a child is 1.7 times more likely to complete

secondary school than children who faced problems in reading, writing and in solving
13
numerical problems. Similarly, children who depicted better writing skills at the age of eight

were 3.3 times more likely to progress than children, who were not able to write without

mistakes. Clearly this suggests that children’s efficacious change through secondary

education begins with operative learning in pre-schools and early primary, where the

foundations for learning are created.

Self-Efficacy – Self-efficacy is defined as one’s acceptance, belief or observation in their

capabilities to become successful in the performance of the tasks. This fact emerges in the

analysis as another important factor of secondary school completion. Children with high self-

efficacy were 1.6 times more expected to complete secondary education. This is not

unanticipated since self-efficacy affects students’ motivation to learn and their determination

in learning new and difficult concepts. This suggests, it is important to understand how self-

efficacy is itself formed.

Pressures on children to work – Children, who did not spend time on domestic chores at the

age of 12, were 3.3 times more likely to complete secondary school than children who did

three or more hours of domestic work per day. When children are pressurised to carry out the

household chores, they normally have problems in finding time for their studies. Similarly,

children who did not participate in paid work at the age of 12 were 2.2 times more likely to

complete secondary education than those children who participated in paid work. For a child,

who is below 14 years of age, it becomes difficult to take out time for studies and go to work

simultaneously.

Role of Organizations - Governments, Non-Governmental Organizations, Religious leaders

and traditional rulers have a major role to play in leading the awareness and enlightenment
14
campaigns on not only the importance of western education for the girl child but also on the

need to remove various cultural and religious misconceptions that have had a negative

influence upon the education of girl children. It is necessary to enlighten the mind-sets of the

parents to encourage their girls to acquire education. They should not put any type of pressure

on them to get engaged in paid jobs or performance of the household chores. It is the major

benefit of education to make the girls self-reliant and help them to secure a better future.

15
 Measures to Promote Girl Child Education in Northern Nigeria

The measures to promote the education of girl child have been stated as follows:

School Information Campaign (SIC) - The School Information Campaign (SIC) is regarded

as an entry point into the schools. It serves as the primary mechanism of collecting vital

information to formulate consistent and reliable data as a standard for the schools.

Information collected has to do with matters like school infrastructure, facilities, student

teacher ratio, attendance, and so forth. Thus, SIC recognizes important needs and

requirements of the schools. The main purpose of SIC is to look into the areas that need

improvement, so that education and learning of the children can take place in a productive

manner.

Community Mobilization- Project organizes community members to make sure that

communities are involved and participate in getting the out of school girls enrolled in

schools. The plans cover issues of infrastructure and quality improvement within the schools.

In order to increase the enrolment of girls, it is vital to ensure that there is availability of all

the essential infrastructure and facilities to facilitate their learning and education.

Development of Life Skills for Girl Children – Besides academic concepts, the

development of life skills is considered essential in stimulating the participation of girls in

matters relating to their development, growth, building confidence, capacity, leadership and

self-esteem. World Health Organization (WHO) has identified ten life skills and these are,

problem solving, critical thinking, decision making, communication skills, self-awareness,

creative thinking, interpersonal relationship skills, coping with stress, coping with emotions

and empathy. These skills are essential to carry out various types of daily life activities and
16
functions in an efficient manner. Lack of these skills impose detrimental effects upon the

individuals.

Creative learning and teaching techniques (CLT) for teachers - The project aims at

training DIET members in creative learning and teaching techniques. Subsequently, the DIET

will be responsible to train a minimum of one teacher from the identified five hundred

schools in the methodology to make improvements in the teaching and learning processes in

schools. The usage of innovative teaching and learning processes and instructional methods

will not only encourage the enrolment of girls in schools, but they will generate enthusiasm

and motivation towards learning. These techniques will support the students in the

achievement of their academic goals.

Development of Infrastructure and Other Facilities – The development of infrastructure

and facilities in schools are imperative to promote learning amongst girls. These are,

construction of toilets, provision of clean drinking water in school, installation of computers

and projectors, provision of electricity in schools, such as, heating and cooling equipment in

accordance to the weather conditions, tree plantations in the school compound, construction

of kitchen for the preparation of mid-day meals, procurement of utensils for mid-day meals,

enrolment of girls, who have either dropped out or have never been to school before, into

bridge course camps, recruitment of more teachers in a single teacher school or where there is

shortage of skilled and competent teachers and construction of boundary walls.

Creative Learning and Teaching Techniques (CLT) - Creative learning and teaching

techniques are an essential part of EGG project model, as these have the potential to enhance

learning levels of children. It is vital to ensure that teachers integrate innovative techniques
17
and practices into the classroom. The CLT is aimed at classroom processes, which are girl

child friendly and also child centric. The emphasis is put on the usage of augmented learning

methods so that children can learn rapidly and at the same time, they are interesting and

pleasurable for them. Girl child friendly teaching and learning practices play an important

part to ensure that girls do not drop out from school.

Development of Extra-Curricular Activities – Extra-curricular activities stimulate the

mind-sets of the students and arouse interest and enthusiasm towards learning. In schools,

besides academic learning, there is promotion of extra-curricular activities. These may

include, drawing, painting, handicrafts, dance, music, sports, physical activities and so forth.

Girls usually take pleasure in participating in all kinds of extra-curricular activities, as in

schools they are taught creative activities as well as sports. When proficient teachers, who

possess adequate knowledge and skills train the students, they enjoy learning and also

participate in competitions organized relating to various extra-curricular activities, such as,

sports, drawing dance, music, poetry and so forth.

Financial Assistance – The girls who belong to marginalized, deprived and socio-

economically backward sections of the society, normally experience problems in funding for

their education. They normally face setbacks in getting enrolled in schools due to financial

problems, as tuition fee, books, stationary, uniforms, diet and nutrition, travel expenses, and

other expenses associated with learning. In Government schools, free education is provided to

the students, in these schools, there is normally provision of mid-day meals, so that students

do not have to worry about bringing their meals from home. The students are required to

provide themselves for their uniforms, books, stationary, school bags and travel expenses.
18
There have been initiation of schemes to make provision of scholarships and financial

assistance to these students. When they obtain some form of financial assistance, they usually

feel motivated towards acquisition of education. Therefore, food assistance, financial

assistance or any other form of help encourages the minority groups towards acquisition of

education.

Conclusion

Education has a major role to play in the social, economic and political aspects of

human development. It is also through the use of education that the environment has been

transformed into a better place to live in. There have been formulation of measures, policies

and rules to enhance the living conditions of the individuals. To improve rapid human

development, it is essential that one recognizes the significance of education. Education has

therefore become a basic human need. Basic education has for some time remained high in

the global structure for education. Its importance in economic and social development makes

it a basic right for every child, whether it is a boy or a girl. There are certain factors that

affect the education of girls, especially in rural areas and the ones belonging to deprived and

socio-economically backward sections of the society.

There are number of factors, such as, economic, social, familial, educational and

cultural that lead to barriers within the course of acquisition of education. In some cases,

these factors impose major effects, due to which girls do not obtain any opportunities to

acquire education, while on the other, they impose minor effects, which may hinder their

development of educational qualifications. It is essential to formulate measures that lead to

promotion of education amongst girls. In order to motivate girls, it is important to arouse

chores, but they should be educated and allowed access to empowerment opportunities.

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