What is structuralism?

According to Peter Barry, the basis of structuralism is “the belief that things cannot be
understood in isolation - they have to be seen in the context of the larger structures they are
part of (hence the term 'structuralism')” (np). Structuralism can also be defined as a theoretical
framework or a method of inquiry that studies the underlying structures of language, culture
and other social and political paradigms. Structuralists argue that individual units (whether of a
building, a culture, a society or literature can only be understood in relation to the larger
structuralist model to which they belong.

Date of Origin:

1950s

Leading Figures:

Roland Barthes and Levi-Strauss

Ferdinand de Saussure’s Contribution to the Structuralist Framework:

Saussure was a Swiss linguist who originally proposed a structural model for linguistics. This
model was later on incorporated by literary theorists, cultural critics and anthropologists in
their respective fields of inquiry. The basic points of Saussure’s theory are:

1) The meaning of the words is arbitrary, relational and constitutive. Arbitrary means
random and refers to the fact that there is no inherent connection between a word and
what it means. Relational refers to the fact that the meaning of a word can be
understood in relation to other words that are either similar or different to it (e.g
happiness and joy, happiness/sorrow). Constitutive implies that an object has no
existence prior to language and the world as we know it exists and has been created
because of language. Thus, words (that are a product of human consciousness) give
meaning to the world.
2) Saussure also highlighted the difference between parole (a single speech utterance) and
langue (language as a system or a structure). Parole refers to a single unit (e.g. I am
happy) that cannot be understood unless one is aware of the grammatical rules that
govern the English language. Likewise, in case of literary analysis, one cannot analyze a
literary parole – a single literary text (e.g. Pride and Prejudice) without being aware of
the conventions and rules of the genre to which Pride and Prejudice belongs.

“As we noted earlier, structuralists believe that we “create” the world we see by projecting
onto it our structures of consciousness. Apply this belief to literature, and the result is the
same as the reader‑response notion that we “create” the literary text as we read it. But the
 structuralist move Culler makes is his question, “What is the structure that underlies the
surface phenomena of our interpretations?” And to find the answer, he examines
interpretation as a structural system. Unlike reader‑ response theorists, Culler examines the
langue, the structural system of rules and codes, that operate (consciously or
unconsciously) when authors write and readers interpret within the Western literary
tradition.” (Tyson 232).

Structuralist view of the World “For structuralism, the world as we know it consists of two
fundamental levels— one visible, the other invisible. The visible world consists of what might be
called surface phenomena: all the countless objects, activities, and behaviors we observe,
participate in, and interact with every day. The invisible world consists of the structures that
underlie and organize all of these phenomena so that we can make sense of them. For example,
the English language consists of over a million words, each of which can be pronounced in any
number of different ways by different speakers, resulting in millions of different utterances of
individual words. How is it possible that native speakers of English master enough of this
overwhelming collection of linguistic items to communicate effectively with one another at a
rather advanced level of sophistication and at a rather early age? The answer is fairly simple:
while there are millions of individual linguistic surface phenomena (individual words and all the
different ways people pronounce them), there is a relatively simple structure underlying all
these words, and it is that structure we master. The structure of English vocabulary consists of
approximately thirty‑one phonemes (fundamental units of sound recognized as meaningful by
native speakers of a language) and the rules of their combination. Most of us are not aware of
these phonemes and could not describe the rules of their combination, but our ability to use
English vocabulary demonstrates that we have unconsciously internalized these structures.
Similarly, our ability to construct simple sentences depends on our internalization, whether or
not we are aware of it, of the grammatical structure subject‑verb‑object. Without a structural
system to govern communication, we would have no language at all” (Tyson 209).

What are structures?

“Before we go any further, we should take a moment to consider how structuralism defines the
word structure. First of all, as we noted earlier, structures aren’t physical entities; they’re
conceptual frameworks that we use to organize and understand physical entities” (Tyson 211).
Thus, structures have no concrete, tangible existence. They are mental constructs projected
onto the outside world. For instance, the political and literary theory of feminism can be
regarded as a structural paradigm that has no concrete existence. It is merely a conceptual
framework used for evaluating gender dynamics in relation to physical entities such as literary
texts and individuals belonging to a particular social or political group. Moreover, the genre of
novel can also be regarded as a structural framework that has no tangible existence and
occupies no space. A novel in effect, is a conceptual model that refers to any work of literature
that incorporates the following features: plot, setting, characters, narrative voice etc. It is
noteworthy that similar to feminism, a novel in itself has no physical existence whereas the
pages of the text that feature character, plot, setting etc. are both tangible and occupy space.
Hence, the novel as a structural paradigm, grants meaning to the pages of a text (the physical
entity).

What is Structuralist Analysis?

Example: In terms of architectural design, a structuralist would maintain that Lahore Fort can
only be understood in relation to its commonalities with other forts built during the Mughal
Empire. In this context, a structuralist critic would focus on the following question: What are
the underlying principles of Mughal architecture that are evident in all forts constructed during
the Mughal rule? The critic would then set out to identify these recurrent architectural patterns
in all forts.

With respect to cultural anthropology, a structuralist interested in understanding the cultural

features of people living in South East Asia (Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia
et al) would focus on the: dress code, communal practices (celebratory and funeral rituals) and
preferences for certain food items (seafood) that are commonly shared by most people residing
in South East Asian Countries. By highlighting the aforementioned features, a structuralist critic
would identify a common underlying pattern or a system of rules that governs the culture of
South East Asian region.

In literary theory, structuralism is used "...if you examine the structure of a large number of
short stories to discover the underlying principles that govern their composition...principles of
narrative progression...or of characterization...you are also engaged in structuralist activity if
you describe the structure of a single literary work to discover how its composition
demonstrates the underlying principles of a given structural system" (Tyson 209).

“We must keep in mind, however, that structuralism does not attempt to interpret what
individual texts mean or even whether or not a given text is good literature. Issues of
interpretation and literary quality are in the domain of surface phenomena, the domain of
parole. Structuralism seeks instead the langue of literary texts, the structure that allows texts to
make meaning, often referred to as a grammar because it governs the rules by which
fundamental literary elements are identified (for example, the hero, the damsel in distress, and
the villain) and combined (for example, the hero tries to save the damsel in distress from the
villain). In short, structuralism isn’t interested in what a text means, but in how a text means
what it means” (Tyson 220).
Various Methods of Structuralist Analysis:

Peter Barry asserts that a literary theorist who is interested in analyzing a text from a
structuralist perspective would select a single text and interpret it by adopting one of the
following methods:

1) By relating the selected text to a larger structure such as “the conventions of a

particular literary genre” (np). For example, by examining Pride and Prejudice within the
context of the defining features of the subgenre of the novel of manners.
2) By analyzing the text in relation to “a network (link) of intertextual (relationship
between texts) connections” (np). For example, by grouping together A Tale of Two
Cities, Gone With the Wind and War and Peace and then identifying the conventions of
historical fiction as the unifying factor between these three novels.
3) By interpreting a text with respect to “a projected (predictable) model of an underlying
universal narrative structure” (np). Narrative structures deal with the unfolding of
events in a story. Two of the most basic universal narrative frameworks are linear and
nonlinear narrative. In this particular context, a structuralist would analyze the linear
progression evident in A Tale of Two Cities and would then substantiate how this
particular chronological sequence is a defining feature of all linear narratives that
proceed in a sequential manner.
Note: When conducting structuralist analysis of a text with respect to narrative
strategies or narrative structures, a literary critic has to abide by the set of rules that
govern narrative structures. Hence, in this particular instance, a literary critic would be
engaged in a close reading of the text and would attempt to identify a narrative formula
that links the text to the general narrative structures. Thus, in a way, this manner of
structuralist analysis is similar to the scientific interpretation carried out by formalists.
The only difference is that for a formalist critic, the linear progression highlighted in A
Tale of Two Cities is an end in itself whereas for a structuralist critic, the way in which
this linear progression relates to the universal structure of linear narratives, is
significant.

Note: Most literary critics who follow the structuralist model, focus on prose works
because the underlying literary patterns (with respect to genre, style, literary
movement) can be more easily and extensively analyzed and highlighted in a novel or a
short story as compared to a single poem.
Analysis of A Tale of Two Cities with respect to the Larger Structuralist Paradigm of Realism

One of the ways in which one can carry out a structuralist analysis of A Tale of Two Cities is by
relating and examining the text with respect to the larger structural model of realism. This manner of
structuralist reading would simply involve identifying the elements of realism in A Tale of Two Cities as is
evident from the following analysis.

The portrayal of historical or fictional events in an unidealized or lifelike manner is called realism.
Sometimes, novelists provide a glimpse into a particular moment in history through the creative or
fictional representation of significant historical incidents. In A Tale of Two Cities, the events prior to and
after the French revolution have been delineated in graphic detail. For the most part, the numerous
events and the characters featured in this novel appear lifelike or realistic. The following discussion will
serve to reinforce this point:

1. According to Abrams, a “ typical realist sets out to write a fiction which will give the illusion that
it reflects life and the social world as it seems to the common reader” (153). Moreover, “Realism
... gives us characters and plot as we were looking through a window onto an actual scene taking
place before our eyes. Our attention is drawn not to the nature of the words on the page but
the action those words convey” (Tyson 66). There are several instances in the novel that enable
the readers to visualize incidents as if they were actually taking place before their eyes. For
instance, the heartrending scene when Dr. Manette reunites with his daughter after an absence
of eighteen years transports the readers in time and evokes their sympathy. It is almost as if the
following image is being enacted or visually displayed in a film:
“He had sunk in her arms, and his face dropped on her breast: a sight so touching, yet so
terrible…covered their faces” (Dickens 47).
The frenzied action that takes place during the fall of Bastille is another example of a lifelike
visual representation of a historical incident. The following picturesque images seem lifelike,
chaotic and frightening:
“A tremendous roar arose from the throat of Saint Antoine, and a forest of naked arms…no
matter how far” (Dickens 220). Furthermore, the entire scene where Defarge, Jacques and the
turnkey storm through the “gloomy vaults” of the Bastille “where the light of day had never
shone, past hideous doors of dark dens and cages, down cavernous flights of steps, and again up
steep rugged ascents of stone and brick” (Dickens 223) arouses the readers’ curiosity and
horror. It appears as if it is a realistic as opposed to a fictionalized account of the French
revolution and as if the aforementioned events are being recreated before our eyes.
In addition to the revolution, the mass starvation and deprivation in Paris prior to the revolution
has been graphically portrayed in the following lines:

The “children had ancient faces and grave voices; and upon them, and upon the grown faces,
and ploughed into every furrow of age and coming up afresh, was the sign, Hunger. It was
prevalent everywhere. Hunger was pushed out of the tall houses, in the wretched clothing that
hung upon poles and lines; Hunger was patched into them with straw and rag and wood and
 paper; Hunger was repeated in every fragment of the small modicum of firewood that the man
sawed off; Hunger stared down from the smokeless chimneys, and started up from the filthy
street that had no offal, among its refuse, of anything to eat. Hunger was the inscription on the
baker's shelves, written in every small loaf of his scanty stock of bad bread; at the sausage-shop,
in every dead-dog preparation that was offered for sale” (Dickens 30). The unsettling image of
starvation in these lines seems revoltingly real.
2. Similar to realist fiction, A Tale of Two Cities places emphasis on human behavior and the myriad
of responses and conflicts that are observable in real life. For instance, the impact of
imprisonment on Dr. Manette, the trauma experienced by him thereafter and his subsequent
relapses are experiences that authentically convey the horrors of imprisonment. His “sunken
and suppressed” (Dickens 39) voice, “vacant gaze” (Dickens 41) and “haggard eyes” without
“any interest or curiosity” (Dickens 40), epitomize the predicament of an individual who has
been forced to endure solitary confinement. Moreover, the dilemma of human alienation and
the internal conflict experienced as a result of leading an unfulfilled life has been effectively
conveyed through the agony experienced by Carton in the following lines: “Waste forces within
him, and a desert all around…its pillow was wet with wasted tears” (Dickens 91).
3. In realist fiction, reality is not described through any one singular individual’s consciousness but
through a third-person object point of view or third person narrative. This is because a first-
person or a subjective narrator clouds the narrative with his/her emotions thereby adding a
sentimental quality to the narrative. A Tale of Two Cities features an omniscient or an objective
narrator (who is all-knowing and all-observing). No character in the novel serves as the
mouthpiece for the plot. For instance, the profound philosophical insights in the opening
sentence of the novel i.e., “It was the best of times…comparison only” (Dickens 3) and the
mystery underlying human interactions as highlighted in the initial paragraph of “The Night
Shadows” (Dickens 11) are profoundly meaningful observations and comments made by the
omniscient narrator.
4. Linear progression is another hallmark of realism. Linear progression refers to a straightforward
narrative that proceeds in a chronological manner. In A Tale of Two Cities, every event in the lot
moves in a sequential manner. The timeline of the novel showcases three distinct periods of
history- Book I focuses on the year “one thousand seven hundred and seventy-five” (Dickens 3),
the second book highlights the period from 1780 onwards while the third book details the
events that take place in the year “one thousand seven hundred and ninety-two” (Dickens 253)
onwards.
5. Realist fiction also features dialogue that is true to life and that reveals or highlights the
innermost depths of a character. For example, the conversation that takes place between
Carton and Stryver in the chapter entitled, “The Jackal” (Dickens 85) highlights Carton’s self-
effacing character. Furthermore, the bond of friendship between Dr. Manette and Mr. Lorry and
the human factor underlying their relationship is conveyed through the beautiful and believable
dialogue that takes place between them in the chapter, “An Opinion”. After conversing at length
about disposing the shoemaking tools, Mr. Lorry poses the following question: “…may not the
retention of the thing…forge?” (Dickens 210). In response to this question, Dr. Manette replies:
“it is such an old companion” (Dickens 210) and then hesitatingly gives his consent. This heart-
 felt conversation is significant in terms of character revelation as well. It simultaneously portrays
Mr. Lorry’s selfless concern for his friend and Dr. Manette’s reluctance to part with his “old
employment” (Dickens 210).
6. The portrayal of settings that exist in reality is another prominent feature of realist novels.
Several realistic settings such as the Old Bailey, Saint Antoine, Dover, Bastille and Soho are
portrayed in A Tale of Two Cities. These settings make the novel seem more believable and
authentic.

Binary Oppositions:

“According to structuralism, the human mind perceives difference most readily in terms of
opposites, which structuralists call binary oppositions: two ideas, directly opposed, each of
which we understand by means of its opposition to the other. For example, we understand up
as the opposite of down, female as the opposite of male, good as the opposite of evil, black as
the opposite of white, and so on” (Tyson 213). Binary oppositions are also known as dyads.

Barthes’ Codes – Another Method of Structuralist Analysis

According to the literary theorist Roland Barthes, there are five codes that underlie all
narratives (short stories, novels etc.). Thus, one way of engaging in structuralist criticism would
be to take a particular short story or a novel and highlight the five codes evident in that
particular text. Barthes’ codes can be regarded as a formula or an equation that can be applied
to all literary texts. In this instance, the five codes used as a frame of reference for the text
would grant an underlying pattern to the text. Collectively, the five codes therefore, can be
regarded as a larger structural model that enables the readers to understand a single unit (the
novel or short story in this case). In the following analysis, each of the five codes will be
examined with respect to A Tale of Two Cities.

Proaeritic Code: This code refers to those elements in a text or a plot that are related to
actions. This code refers to an event or an action that leads to future actions thereby enabling
the plot to progress. Proaeritic code is significant in a text, because it enables the audience to
reflect on what will happen next or what will a particular action lead to.

Example: “Not yet trusting the tones of her voice, she sat down on the bench beside him. He
recoiled, but she laid her hand upon his arm. A strange thrill struck him when she did so, and
visibly passed over his frame; he laid the knife down softly, as he sat staring at her” (Dickens
39).

This particular passage highlights the encounter between Lucie and her father. As Lucie sits on
the bench, Dr. Manette moves away from her as if he is terrified. She in turn, places her hand
on his arm in order to comfort him. These series of actions make the audience ponder on the
following questions: Will there be a reunion between father and daughter? Will he recognize
her? Therefore, all these actions highlight the presence of the proaeritic code.

Hermeneutic Code: refers to those elements in a text that generate suspense or a sense of
mystery. The importance of using this code in a text is that it gives rise to curiosity on the
readers’ part thereby urging them to read the entire story or novel.

Example: “Good day!” said Monsieur Defarge, looking down at the white head that bent low
over the shoemaking. It was raised for a moment, and a very faint voice responded to the
salutation, as if it were at a distance:
“Good day!”
“You are still hard at work, I see?”
After a long silence, the head was lifted for another moment, and the voice replied, “Yes—I
am working.” This time, a pair of haggard eyes had looked at the questioner, before the face
had dropped again. (Dickens 35)
In the above excerpt, there is an element of mystery surrounding “the white head bent low
over the shoemaking”. The lifting of the head a second time, the pair of haggard eyes and the
faint voice of the shoemaker generate suspense thereby increasing the readers’ curiosity.
Consequently, the readers feel impelled to read further (probably the entire text) in order to
find out more about the person who has been merely identified as a “white head”. The element
of mystery highlights the presence of the hermeneutic code.

Cultural Code: refers to those elements in a literary work that are accepted as general truths
and common knowledge amongst the global cultural community.

Example: In the second paragraph of A Tale of Two Cities, there is a reference to England and
France. However, the exact geographical location of these countries is not specified. It is taken
for granted that the readers are aware of the fact that these countries are located in Europe.

Semic or Semantic Code: is related to those words or phrases in a text that have multiple
connotations or meanings. These connotative or extended meanings could either be in relation
to a character or a theme. The semic code can be analyzed most easily by selecting a particular
passage from a text and substituting the connotative words with other alternatives.

Example: “There were many women at that time, upon whom the time laid a disfiguring hand; but,
there was not one among them more to be dreaded than this ruthless woman, now taking her way
along the streets … imbued from her childhood with a brooding sense of wrong, and an inveterate
hatred of a class, opportunity had developed her into a __________. She was absolutely without pity”
(Dickens 375). The original word in the blank is tigress. However, if one substitutes it with “hyena, owl or
leopard ”, the character of Madame Defarge changes completely. Hyena is a carnivore but it often eats
another animal’s prey. Madame Defarge does not depend on others to carry out vengeance. She takes
the initiative herself. An owl signifies wisdom and is the exact opposite of Madame Defarge. A leopard is
a predator that secretly attacks its prey but it is the smallest amongst all the wild cats (lionesses,
tigresses etc) ; therefore, a leopard would not be the most accurate metaphor for Madame Defarge. A
tigress on the other hand lives primarily in solitude, is the strongest of all wild cats and is regarded as a
ferocious killing machine thereby serving as the perfect word for Madame Defarge.

Symbolic Code: refers to the binary oppositions in a text that correspond both to the text’s themes as
well as to the general themes evident in literature.

Example: Death/Resurrection is the most important binary opposition in A Tale of Two Cities that
reinforces the significant theme of eternal salvation as opposed to temporal phenomenon of death – a
thematic pattern that recurs in several novels.

It is noteworthy that Death and resurrection form an important binary equation in the novel. At countless
moments in the novel, the finality and futility of death is juxtaposed with the life-giving phenomenon of
rebirth. For instance, Madame Defarge’s violent death seems meaningless and has a tone of finality to it.
Her death is merely accompanied by an “awful stillness” (Dickens 383) and her lifeless body “on the
ground” (Dickens 383) seems destined for oblivion. In other words, Madame Defarge’s death as portrayed
in “The Knitting Done” leads to no productive outcome. On the contrary, Carton’s execution in the
following chapter “The Footsteps Die Out Forever” is both meaningful and life-enhancing. Moreover, as
opposed to Madame Defarge, Carton’s memory transcends his mortal span and he lives on in the heart of
his beloved admirers – Lucy and her family.