Scheme of work

Week 1: Elastic properties of solid

Hooke’s law
Young modulus
Work done in springs and elastic strings

Week 2: Fluids at rest and in motion

Surface tension, definition, effects and applications

Capillarity, cohesion, adhesion, viscosity
Terminal velocity

Week 3: Physics in Technology

Units in industry
Electrical continuity testing
Solar energy, solar panels or collectors for energy supply

Week 4: Equilibrium of forces

Resultant and equilibrant forces

Parallel forces
Moment of forces

Week 5: Centre of gravity

Stability of objects, stable, unstable, neutral

Week 6: Equilibrium of bodies in liquids

Archimedes Principle
Law of floatation
Density and relative density
Hydrometer
Week 7: linear momentum

Momentum and impulse

Newton’s laws of motion
Conservation of linear momentum

Week 8: Mechanical energy

Applications of mechanical energy

Machines Force ratio, velocity ratio, efficiency
Types of machines lever, pulleys, inclined plane, wedge, screw jack, wheel and axle, gear
wheel etc.

Week 9: Projectiles

Concept of projectile, ways of projecting an object vertical and horizontal projection

Projection at an angle to the horizontal
Simple problems involving range, height, time of flight

Week 10: circular motion

Uniform circular motion

Centripetal force, centripetal acceleration
Centrifugal force, angular speed and velocity

Week 11: simple harmonic motion

Definition of simple harmonic motion

Displacement, velocity and acceleration of SHM
Energy of SHM
Forced vibration and resonance
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

A body is said to be elastic if it regains its original shape and size after undergoing
a stretch or compression.

Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s law states that provided the elastic limit of an elastic material is not
exceeded, the extension e is directly proportional to the load or force applied. F.

Where F = applied force

K = elastic constant or stiffness

e = extension.

F(N)

e(cm)
)
Tensile Stress:

This is the ratio of force to Area

Tensile stress =
 The unit for tensile stress is NM-2

Tensile strain
This is the ratio of extension to original length of an elastic material

Tensile strain =

Strain has no unit

Young modulus
This is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain

Y=

Y= FL
Ae
The unit for young modulus (Y) is NM-2

Energy Stored or Work done on springs and Elastic Strings

But

Examples:
1. A spring 20cm long is stretched to 25cm by a load of 50N. What will be its length
when stretched by 100N assuming that the elastic limit is not exceeded?
Solution
Original length = 20cm =0.2m
Extension = 25 – 20cm = 5cm = 0.05
 F2 = 100N
e2 =? e2 F2e1 = 100 × 0.05 = 0.1m
F1 50
OR
K= F= 50 = 1000NM-1
e 0.05

K= F2 F= 100 = 0.1m
e2 e2 K 1000

Length = 0.1m + 0.2m = 0.3m

2. A spring is compressed by 2.0cm, calculate the energy stored in the spring of the
force constant is 200NM-1
Solution
K= 200NM-
e = 2.0cm = 2×10m-2
Energy = 1 × 200 × (2×10-2)2
2
= 0.04J
3. A stone of mass 5g is projected with a rubber catapult if the catapult is stretched
through a distance of 7cm by an average force of 70N. Calculate the speed of the
stone at the time of release.
Solution
Average force F = 70
2
Extension e = 7cm = 7× 10-2m
Mass of stone = 5g = 5× 10 -3 Kg
Velocity V =?
From
Substituting
1
/2× 5 × 10-3× = 70 × 10-2
= 2× 70 × 7 ×10-2
5× 10-3
= √2 ×70 ×7 ×10-2
5×10-3
= 44.3ms-1

Fluids at rest and in motion

Liquid and gases are generally referred to as fluids. They are able to flow. Forces
such as capillarity, surface tension occurs when fluids are at rest. Viscosity is
present when fluids are in motion.

Surface tension: This is the force acting parallel to the surface of the liquid causing
the liquid surface to behave like stretched elastic skin. The component of surface
tension T is defined as the force in Newton acting on a meter length on the surface.
T = F/L
Application or the effect of surface tension
1. A steel needle gently placed on the surface of water will rest there as if it
was supported by the surface of the liquid which behaves as though covered
with an elastic skin.
2. Waterproof materials used for umbrellas, raincoats are usually treated with
oil-based substances which prevents water from wetting the materials.
3. Cleansing action of soaps and detergents: it is difficult to wash oily plates or
dirty clothes with water only. This is because the oil repels the water which
cannot wet the plates or clothes. The use of detergents or soaps reduces the
surface tension and makes washing easier. Heating also reduces surface
tension hence it is easier to wash with hot soapy water than cold soapless
water.
Adhesion
This is the force of attraction between molecules of different substances e.g. water
and glass
Cohesion
This is the force of attraction between molecules of same substance e.g. molecules
of glass.
Adhesion of water to glass is stronger than the cohesion of water molecules. Hence
when water is spilled on a clean glass surface it wets the glass. On the other hand,
the cohesion of mercury is greater than its adhesion to glass hence when mercury is
spilled on glass it forms small spherical droplets and does not wet glass. For the
same reason, when water is contained in a glass vessel it forms a concave meniscus
to the air while mercury forms a concave meniscus to the liquid.
 Water Mercury

Water Mercury

Capillarity

Capillarity or capillary action is defined as the tendency of liquid to rise or fall in

narrow tube.

Examples of capillary actions

1. Water rising up the stem of plants

2. Blood spreading through the fine capillary channels in the body.
3. Liquid candle wax rising up the wick of a candle or kerosene rising up the
wick of a lamp
4. Ink held on the tube of a pen.

Viscosity

Viscosity is the internal friction which exists between layers of a liquid or gas in
motion. Liquids which pour slowly are said to be more viscous than those which
pour faster.

Viscous liquids include, engine oil, palm oil. Non viscous liquids include water,
petrol.
Terminal velocity

U V

W = mg

A stone falling through a viscous liquid such as glycerin is acted upon by three
forces; weight (mg),viscous force (V) which opposes motion, and upthrust (U) due
to the liquid displaced W-V-U = Ma ( when the stone is accelerating).

It is observed that at a certain stage the stone ceases to accelerate but moves with
uniform velocity, because acceleration is zero we have W-V-U = Ma = 0 or V =
W-U

This constant velocity is called terminal velocity

V˳ Terminal velocity

Acceleration

Time
Application of viscosity

1. Engine oils, grease are used as lubricants because of their viscosity

2. Paints need to have correct viscosity to spread well on surface when applied.
3. Writing ink needs to have correct viscosity to move through the tip of the
pen and write appropriately.

Questions

1. A body of mass 25 kg falls through a viscous liquid which offers a drag

force of 200N in the body. Calculate the upthrust on the body at terminal
velocity. (g =10m/s2)

Solution:

Mass of body = 25kg

Weight = 25 x 10 = 250N = Mg

Viscous force (V) = 200N

Upthrust μ = Mg – V = 250N – 200N = 50N

Physics in technology

Units in industry:

In science measurements are made in S.I units however in the industry many non
SI units are also used

Electricity supply and consumption is expressed in kilowatt hours (Kwh),

megawatt hours (Mwh)
1kwhr = 1000 watts supplied for one hour

1 horsepower = 746w

1kwhr = 3.6 x 106 J

Area

1 acre = 4047m2 100m

1 hectare = 10000m2 1ha 100m

Volume

1 barrel = 42 gallons = 0.159m3

1 gallon = 3.8 litres

The unit MBD (million barrels per day) is used to measure oil production

Mass

1 metric tonne = 1000kg = 2000 (lb) pounds

Power

1kwhr = 1000whr = 1000 x 3600J

Examples:

1. A car has an engine rated 152hp express this power in kw

Solution

Power = 152 x 746

= 113392
≈ 113kw

2. Abuja Electricity Distribution Company charges N15.75 per kwhr for

electricity. Dubem uses 186.4kwh for the month of December.
a. How much electricity did dubem use
b. How much does he have to pay

Solution

a. Amount of electricity = 186.4 x 103 x 3600J

= 6.71 x 108J
b. Total cost = 186.4 x 15.75
= N2935.8

Production of solar energy

A large amount of energy is produced in the sun by thermo-nuclear processes. The

very high temperature there makes this fusion process possible. The energy is
released principally in the form of light and heat. Most of the various forms of
energy come primarily from solar energy. There is more solar power that hits the
earth every day than the current world population can use in a year.

Solar collectors or solar panels

Solar energy is distributed over large areas and for it to be used it must be collected
and concentrated to produce usable power when sunlight strikes a solar panel
electrons are released causing a direct current. The current passes through the
charge controller before entering the system of batteries. The current is then passed
into ac(alternating current) which can be used for household appliances
There are two types o collectors

a. Flat plate collector

b. Focusing collector

Advantages of solar power

i. Solar power does not contribute to green house gas emission

ii. Homes in the rural areas can get electricity easily with little or no
maintenance
iii. Constant power supply, no power outages
iv. It is safer
v. Excess power can be sold back to power companies
vi. Reduced dependence on foreign oil

Disadvantages of solar power

i. Only limited amount of electricity can be stored for later use

ii. Large cost involved in purchasing and installing solar power
iii. Need for battery banks hence there is no solar power at night

Continuity faults in electric circuits

Electrical circuits have many components and connecting wires. Any faults or
discontinuity stops the flow of current. These faults are detected by using a
continuity tester. An electrical continuity tester is used to detect faults in electrical
circuits.

How solar panels work

A solar panel unit is composed of solar cells. As light hits a cell, electrons are
ejected. The electrons flow through the cell and that produces direct current (dc).
The dc electricity output is then sent to an inverter which converts it into
alternating currents (ac) electricity. Ac electricity is the kind of electrical power
that is used in homes, and offices.

The electricity can be used to meet the homes electricity needs, charge a battery
storage unit or sent to the power grid to be used by someone else.

Solar panels in action are completely green. They produce no carbon emissions or
waste product as they convert sunlight into electricity which is stark contrast to
traditional fossil fuel power stations where electricity output is based on burning
coal, natural gas, or petroleum a process that releases climate changing carbon
dioxide (Co2).

Equilibrium of forces

A body is said to be in equilibrium when several forces act on it and it does not
accelerate or rotate.

Resultant and equilibrant forces

Resultant force is that single force which acting alone will have the same effect in
magnitude and direction as two or more forces acting together.

The equilibrant of two or more forces is that single force which will balance all the
other forces taken together. It is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the
resultant force.
 Q R

O P

Moment of a force

The moment of a force about a point is defined as the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action of the force.

The principle of triangle of forces states that when three forces are in equilibrium
they can be represented in both magnitude and direction by the three sides of a
triangle taken in order.

Principle of moments

The principle of moment states that if a body is in equilibrium then the sum of the
clockwise moment about any point on the body is equal to the sum of the
anticlockwise moments about the same point.

F1 F2
X1 X2

X4 0,1 X3
 F4 F3

ACW CW
The resultant clockwise moment of the system about O for the four forces in action
is F1X1 – F2X2 + F3X3 – F4X4
If we take the clockwise moments to be positive and anticlockwise moments as
negative, if the bar is in equilibrium
F1X1 – F2X2 + F3X3 – F4X4 = 0
F1X1 + F3X3 = F2X2 + F4X4

Conditions of equilibrium under the action of parallel co-planar forces

Coplanar forces are forces that lie in the same plane; parallel forces are forces
whose lines of action are all parallel to each other. The conditions are;
1. Forces: the algebraic sum of the forces acting on the body in any direction
must be zero (or sum of upward forces must be equal to sum of downward
forces)
2. Moments: the algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces acting about
any point on the body must be zero (or sum of clockwise moments about any
point must be equal to the sum of anticlockwise moment about the same
point).
A system of two equal but oppositely directed parallel forces not acting in a
straight line is called a couple.
F
a
A
B
F
Examples of couples can be seen in the action of a corkscrew and turning of a
water tap on or off
The moment of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular
distance between the lines of action of the two forces.
Concurrent forces – these are forces whose lines of action on a body pass through
the same point
Coplanar forces- these are forces that act on the same plane.

Examples
A body of mass 60kg is suspended at the 10cm mark of a uniform meter rule. The
meter rule is adjusted on a point until it settles horizontally at the 40cm. determine
the mass of the rule.
40cm

10cm
60kg 10
W
50cm

Let the Mass of the ruler be M. Since the rule is uniform, the Centre of the ruler is
at 50cm.
Taking moments about the point O
10×M =30×60
 10M=1800
M =1800 =180g
10
Examples 2: A height beam AΔ rest on supports at P and Q as shown belows. A
load of 4N is placed at O. Where PO is 40cm and QO is 60cm. find the reactions P
and Q at the supports
40cm 60cm
c c

O
P Q
4N

Since upward force =downward force

P+Q =4N.
Taking moment about P
CW = ACW
4×0.4=1Q
Q=1.6N.
Taking moment about Q
CW =ACW
P×1 =4×0.6
P =2.4N
2.4+1.6 =4N ________ Upward force is equal to downward force.

Example 3: P

30

b
 20cm 30cm
40N

Determine the magnitude of the force P in the diagram above

Solution
Taking moment about the point
ACW moment of P about the point
Psin30× (20+30) cm
The C.W of 40N about the point
40N ×20cm
Applying the principle of moment
i.e clockwise moment =Anti clockwise moment
P×0.5×50 = 40×20
P = 800 =32N
25

Classwork
A uniform metre rule of mass 100g balances at the 40cm mark when a mass x is
placed at the 10cm mark. What is the value of x.

40cm

10cm x

100g
Taking moment about the point
CW = ACW
100×10 =30x
1000= 30x
Divide through by 30
1000
30 =33.3g
x = 33.3g

T 12N

Mg

A body of mass 0.5kg is suspended by a string and pulled by a horizontal force of

12N as shown in the diagram above. Calculate the tension T in the string if the
body is in equilibrium
Take g =10m/s2

5N T

12N
From the mass = 0.5kg then the force or weight mg = 0.5 ×10 = 5N
From Pythagoras theorem
T2 = 122 =52 =144+ 25 =16g
T= 16g =13N.

Centre of gravity: This is defined as the point through which the line of action of
the weight of the body always passes irrespective of the position of the body. It is
the point at which the entire weight of the body appears to be concentrated.

Stability of objects: there are three types of equilibrium

a. Stable equilibrium
b. Unstable equilibrium
c. Neutral equilibrium

Stable equilibrium: A body is said to be in stable equilibrium when on receiving a

slight tilt, it tends to return to its original position. A large base and low C.G helps
put objects in stable equilibrium e,g A cone rest P on its base.

Unstable Equilibrium: A body is said to be in unstable equilibrium if when

slightly displaced, it tends to move further away from its original position e.g. a
cone resting on its pointed ends
Neutral equilibrium: A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium if when slightly
displaced, it tends to come to rest in its new position. E.g. a cone or cylinder
resting on its side.

Effects of position of c.g on stability

The position of c.g is very important when dealing with stability. The lower the c.g
the more stable the object, the higher the c.g the more unstable the body.

Equilibrium of bodies in liquid

U = upthrust
W = weight of body

U
W
When an object is immersed in a liquid, the object appears to become lighter.
Consider the experience when a bucket of water is being drawn out of a well.
While under water, the bucket appears lighter and becomes heavier as soon as it is
out of water.
This experience shows that when the bucket is still in water, it is acted upon by an
upward force; there is an apparent loss of weight. This upward force is called
upthrust. If the total weight of object in air is W and the apparent weight in the
liquid is W2 then upthrust (U) is given by
U = W – W2

Archimedes Principle:
It states that when a body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences
an upthrust or loss of weight which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
The upthrust is the weight of the volume of the liquid, the object completely
immersed in a liquid displaces a volume of liquid equal to the volume of the
object.
Also upthrust U = Volume of object x density of liquid x acceleration due to
gravity

Upthrust = weight of liquid displaced

Example:
-4
1. A body of mass 5kg and volume 4 x 10 m3 is hung from a balance
graduated in newtons. What is the reading of the balance when the body is ;
 a. In air
b. Fully immersed in water
c. 1/3 immersed in water
d. Fully immersed in paraffin
(Density of water = 103kgm-3, density of paraffin = 800kgm-3)

a. Reading of balance in air = mg = 3x10 = 30N

b. Fully immersed in water
Upthrust = density of liquid x volume of object x acceleration due to gravity
= 103 x 4 x 10-4 x 10
=4N
Weight of the liquid (water) = weight in air – upthrust
= 50 – 4
= 46N
c. Upthrust = 1/3 x 4 x 10-4 x 103 x 10
= 1.3N
Weight in liquid (water) = weight in air – upthrust
50N – 1.3N
= 48.7N
d. Upthrust = 4 x 10-4 x 800 x 10
= 3.2N
Weight in liquid (paraffin) = weight in air – upthrust
50N – 3.2N
= 46.8N

2. A solid plastic cube of side 0.2m is submerged in a liquid of density 0.8kgm3

Calculate the upthrust of the liquid on the cube (g = 10ms-2)
Solution
Volume of cube = L3 = 0.23 = 8 x 10-3m3
Upthrust = volume of cube x density of liquids x g
= 8 x 10-3 x 0.8 x 10
64 x 10-3N
= 0.064N

Classwork
The apparent weight of a body wholly immersed in water is 32N and its weight in
air is 96N Calculate the volume of the body. (Density of water = 1000kgm3, g =
10ms-2
Solution
Upthrust = weight in air – weight in liquid
= 96N – 32N
= 64N
Upthrust = density of liquid x volume of object x g
Volume of object = upthrust/density of liquid x g
= 64/1000 x 10
= 0.0064m3

Experimental verification of Archimedes principle

Aim: to verify Archimedes principle
Apparatus: spring balance (object) glass stopper, water, beaker, eureka can.
Method/ procedure
i. Use the spring balance to weigh the object/glass stoper in air W1
ii. Suspend the object gently into the water
 iii. Note the new reading of the spring balance when the object is in the
water W2
iv. The water displaced from the eureka can is collected by a beaker which
has been previously weighed and found to be W3
v. Weigh the beaker and water as W4
Results
Weight of object in air = W1
Weight of object in water = W2
Weight of empty beaker = W3
Weight of beaker + water displaced = W4
Apparent loss of weight of object = W1 – W2 (upthrust)
Weight of displaced water = W4 – W3
Conclusions
When the values of weight of displaced liquid (W4 – W3) is compared with the
apparent loss of weight of object upthrust it is found to be equal.

Principle of floatation
It states that a body floats in a fluid when the upthrust exerted upon it by the fluid
in which it floats equals the weight of the body.
Thus a floating body displaces its own weight of the liquid in which it floats W =
U
Factors affecting floatation
1. The density of the body must be less than the density of the liquid.
2. The volume of the object should be equal to the volume of the displaced
liquid
Importance of floatation principle
Ships float in water even though they are made of steel which is much denser than
water. This is because they are hollow objects containing a large amount of water
given an upthrust large enough to support the weight of the ship.

Density
The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume

The s.i unit of density is kgm-3. In the laboratory smaller unit’s gcm-3 may be found
necessary
1gm-3 = 1 x 103kg/10-6m3 = 103kgm-3
To convert density from c.g.s to s.i unit we merely multiply c.g.s by 103

Example: A piece of copper of mass 5.0g has volume of 20cm3 calculate the
density of copper.
Mass = 5.0g = 0.005kg
Volume = 30cm3 = 30/106m3 = 30 x 10-6m = 3 x 10-5
Density = 0.005/3x10-5
=166.6kgm-3

Relative density R.D = density of a substance/ density of water

R.D = weight of substance/weight of equal volume of water
R.D = upthrust in liquid/upthrust in water
Example: Gold has a density of 19.3g/cm3. If you have a gold bar with a volume of
44.9cm3, what is its mass?
Density = mass/ volume
Mass = density x volume
= 19.3 x 44.9cm3
= 867g

Example: A spherical ball of radius 2.5cm has a mass of 15g. Will the ball sink or
float in water? density of water is 1g/cm3.
Volume of the spheri al all = 4 3 r3
V = 4/3 (2.5)3
V = 65.45cm3
Density = mass/volume = 15g/65.45 = 0.229g/cm3
The sphere is going to float hence its density is less than the density of water
The hydrometer
The hydrometer is an instrument used to measure relative density of liquids.

Simple Hydrometer
Linear momentum
Momentum and impulse
The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and velocity.
Momentum (p) = mass (m) x velocity (v) = mv
Impulse is defined as the product of average force acting on a particle and the time
during which it acts.
Impulse (I) = Ft
The unit for impulse is N.s

Newton’s laws of motion

Newton’s first law of motion
It states that a body will remain in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight
line unless it is acted upon by an external force.
The tendency of a body to remain in its state of rest or uniform motion is called
inertia of the body.

Newton’s second law of motion

It states that the rate of change of linear momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the applied force and is in the direction of the force
F α hange in momentum time

But k = 1
Therefore
Newton’s third law of motion
Action and reaction are equal and opposite. To every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction.

Law of conservation of linear momentum

In a system of colliding bodies, the total momentum is always conserved, provided
there are no net external forces acting on the body.
If the odies ollide and don’t sti k together

If the bodies collide and stick together

Types of collision
There are two types of collision
1. Elastic collision – in a perfectly elastic collision both momentum and kinetic
energy are conserved. The odies don’t sti k together after ollision.

2. Inelastic collision – in a perfectly inelastic collision the momentum is

conserved but the kinetic energy decreases and the bodies stick together after
collision
½ +½ =½( )v2
 Examples
1. A resultant force of 20N acts on a body of mass 5kg for 5s. calculate the
change in momentum of the body within this period.
Force = 20N
Time = 5s
Mass (m) = 5kg
Change in momentum = Ft F = mv-mu/t
= 20 x 5 = 100N.S
2. Two trolleys of masses 8000kg and 5000kg are travelling on same track with
velocities 4ms-1 and 2ms-1 respectively in the same direction. If both trolleys
collided and stuck together after collision what is their common velocity
after collision

Make the subject of the formula

V = (M1U1 + M2U2)/(M1 + M2) = 8000 x 4 + 5000 x 2/ 8000 + 5000
V = (32000 + 10000)/13000 = 3.2ms-1
3. A heavy truck of mass 5.0 x 103kg. Is used to tow a car of mass 2.5 x 103kg.
the truck moved with a speed of 30ms-1 just before the towing tope becomes
taut
Calculate the
i. Speed of the truck immediately the rope becomes taut
ii. The loss in kinetic energy of the system just after the car has started
moving.
Solution:

5.0 x 103 3.0 + 0 = (5.0 x103 + 2.5 x 103) V

 15 x 103 = 7.5 x 103V
V = 15 x 103/7.5 x 103 = 2m/s

i. Kinetic energy (k.e) = ½ mv2

½ +½ =½( )v2

½ 5.0 x 103 x 32 + 0 = ½ (5 + 2.5) 22

2.25 x 104J
Loss in kinetic energy = (2.25 – 1.5) x 104
= 0.75 x 104J
= 7.5 x 103J

Recoil of a gun
MgVg + MbVb = 0 MgVg – MbVb = 0
MgVg = MbVb

Example: A gun of mass 2.0kg fires a bullet of mass 1.6 x 10-2kg due east. If the
bullet leaves the nozzle of the gun with a velocity of 150ms-1, What is the recoil
velocity of the gun?
Solution
Momentum change of gun = momentum change of bullet MgVg = MbVb
2 x Vg = 1.6x10-2 x 150 Vg = 1.6 x 10-2 x 150/ 2
Vg= 1.2 m/s due west
Where Mg = mass of gun
Vg = Velocity of gun
Mb = Mass of bullet
Mechanical Energy
Machines
A machine is a device which allows force or effort (E) applied at one point to
overcome load (l) at another point. Examples of machines include pulley system,
wheel barrows claw hammers, levers, wedge, incline plane.

Mechanical advantage (M.a) or force ratio

The m.a of a machine is defined as the ratio of the load to the effort
m.a = load/effort = l/e

Velocity ratio:
The velocity ratio of a machine is defined as the ratio of the distance moved by the
effort to the distance moved by the load.
v.r = distance moved by effort / distance moved by load
v.r depends on the geometry of the moving parts, it is independent of friction.

Efficiency of a machine (‫)ﻉ‬

The efficiency is expressed in percentage and is defined as the ratio of useful
workoutput (workdone) to the total work put in the machine
‫ = ﻉ‬useful workoutput/ workinput x 100%
‫ = ﻉ‬m.a/v.r x 100%
‫ = ﻉ‬load x distance moved by load/effort x distance moved by effort
Efficiency decreases with increase in friction.
Types of machines
There are different types of machines these include
1. Lever
2. Pulleys
 3. Wheel and axle
4. Inclined plane
5. Screw jack
6. Gear wheel

Levers:
The lever is a simple form of machine pivoted about a point called fulcrum (F)
with effort (E) applied at one point to overcome load (L) at another point.
Class/types of levers
There are three types of levers
i. The first class lever: In this type of lever, the fulcrum (f) lies between the
load and the effort e.g. crowbar, scissors, pliers
ii. Second class lever: In this class of lever, the load is between the fulcrum
and the effort e.g. nut cracker, wheel barrow
iii. Third class lever: in this type of lever, the effort is between the load and
the fulcrum e.g. forearm of a human body, forceps and sugar tongs

Pulleys:
A simple pulley is a fixed wheel with a rope passing round a groove in its rim. A
load (L) is attached at one end of the rope while the effort is applied at the other
end.
 E L E

The v.r of the pulley system is generally equal to the number of pulleys. The
efficiency of the pulley system is always less than 100% because of friction and
weight of the pulleys

Example: A block and tackle system of pulleys consisting of 5 pulleys is used to

raise a load of 400N through a height of 10m. If the total work done against
friction in the pulley is equivalent to 500J calculate
i. The total workdone
ii. The efficiency of the system
iii. The effort applied
Solution:
i. Total workdone = workdone in raising the load + workdone against
friction
= (400 x 10) + 800J
= 4800J
ii. Efficiency = useful work output/ work input x 100%
= 400 x 10/4800 x 100% = 83.3%
iii. Efficiency = M.A/V.R x 100
100M.A = Efficiency x V.R
100M.A = 83.3 x 5
M.A = 416.5/100
M.A = 4.16
M.A = load/effort
Effort = load/M.A
= 400/4.16 = 96.1N

Inclined Plane: This type of machine provides an easy way of carrying heavy loads
such as drums of oil up a slopping plank to high platform like back of lorries

L h

V.R = Distance moved by effort/ distance moved by load

Since h L = sinθ
V.R = 1 sinθ

The screw jack

The screw jack is commonly used to lift heavy objects like cars. Its thread has a
continuous inclined plane wrapped round a cylinder. If the screw handle is turned
through 3600, the rod overs a distan e “P” etween two onse utive threads of the
jack. The distance P is called pitch. If r is the length of the effort arm which is
equal to the radius of the circle formed on rotating screw handle.

V.R = distan e moved y effort distan e moved y load = 2 r p

Lubrication of the screw reduces friction and increases efficiency
Example:
A screw jack 25% efficient and having screw pitch of 0.4cm is used to raise a load
through a circle radius 40.0cm
Calculate;
i. The V.R of the machine
ii. The M.A
iii. The effort required to raise the load of 1000N with the machine
Solution
i. V.R = 2 r p = 2 x x 40 0.4 = 628
ii. From efficiency = M.A/V.R x 100%
M.A = efficiency x V.R/100 = 25 x 628/100 = 157

iii. M.A = load/effort

Effort = load/M.A = 1000/157 = 6.4N

Assignment
1. Explain why the efficiency of a machine cannot be 100%
2. A screw jack whose pitch is 4.4mm is used to raise a body of mass 8000kg
through a height of 20cm. the length of the tommy bar of the jack is 70cm if
the efficiency of the jack is 80% calculate
a. The V.R of the jack
b. The M.A of the jack
 c. The effort required in raising the body.

The wedge

L
θ

M.A = slant height of wedge/ thickness of wedge

A thin wedge has a higher M.A than a short thick one or the smaller the angle θ
between the slants, the greater the M.A.

Gears:
This are used in cars, bicycle and cranes

A
B
The velocity ratio is given by
V.R = number of teeth on driven wheel B/ number of teeth on driving wheel A

The wheel and axle:

This machine is used to raise heavy loads or lift water from deep wells

wheel

r R r

L axle

The wheel has a large radius R, attached to this wheel is another cylinder, the axle
having a common axis with the wheel but of radius r less than that of the wheel.

V.R = distance moved by effort/ distance moved by load

v.r = R/r = Radius of wheel/ Radius of axle

In the absence of friction V.R = M.A

Example: The efficiency of a wheel and axle system is 80% and the ratio of radius
of wheel to radius of axle is 4:1 in order to lift a mass of 20kg, what is the
effort required?
Solution:
V.R = radius of wheel/ radius of axle = 4/1 = 4
M.A = L/E = 200/E
‫ = ﻉ‬efficiency of wheel and axle system = 80%
‫ = ﻉ‬M.A/V.R x 100%
80%=200/e x ¼ x 100%
E = 200 x 100/4 x 80 = 2000/32
E = 625N
Example:

The diagram above illustrates the gear system of a bicycle

i. Determine the velocity ratio

ii. If the bicycle has an efficiency of 90% calculate the effort required to
overcome a load of 70N
Solution:
i. V.R = no. of teeth of driven wheel / no. of teeth of driven wheel
ii. = 90% L=70N E=?
L/E ÷ V.R x 100%
= L/E x 1/V.R x 100%
= 100L

Projectiles
A projectile is an object launched into space in a parabolic path or curve under the
influence of gravity and air resistance. Examples of projectiles include a thrown
javelin released missiles, kicked ball in the air. Projectiles are used in warfare as
well as in sports.

Uy H
θ
R

Definition of time of flight, maximum height and range of a projectile

Time of flight: This is the time taken for a projected body to return to the same
level from which it was projected
From V= U + at
At maximum height V = 0
Resolving U along the verti al U = Usinθ a=g
Therefore 0 = Usinθ – gt (negative because it’s going against gravity)
gt = Usinθ divide both sides by g
T = Usinθ g this is the time taken to reach maximum height

Therefore total time of flight = 2t = 2Usinθ g

Therefore T= 2Usinθ g

Maximum height:
The maximum height is the highest vertical distance attained as measured from the
horizontal projection plane
From V2 = U2 + 2gh
At maximum height V = 0
h=H
resolving the velocity U along the verti al, U = Usinθ
Therefore U2 = U2sin2θ
0= U2sin2θ – 2gH
Therefore H = U2sin2θ 2g

Range: This is defined as the horizontal distance from the point of projection of a
body to the point where the projectile hits the projection plane again
From s = Ut + ½ gt 2
Along the horizontal g = 0
Therefore S = ut
S=R resolving u along the horizontal U = U osθ
R = U osθt
Remem ering that t = Usinθ g
Since time of flight is 2t then, T = 2Usinθ g
R = UCosθ x 2Usinθ g
R = U22 osθsinθ g
From trigonometri identities 2sinθ osθ = sin2θ
Therefore R = U2sin2θ g

The maximum horizontal range is attained when the projection angle is 45o

Example: A tennis ball is hit with a velocity of 2ms-1 at an angle of 60o to the
horizontal calculate
i. The time of flight
ii. The maximum height
iii. The range take g = 10ms-2
Solution:
i. U = 3ms-1 θ = 60o g = 10ms-2
T = 2Usinθ/g = 2x3xsin60/10
= 0.52seconds
ii. Maximum height H = U2sin2θ 2g
= 32 x sin260/2 x 10
= 9 x 0.75/20 = 6.75/20 = 0.3375m

Range R = U2sin2θ g
= 32 x sin (2x60)/10 = 9 x sin120/10
=0.779m
Example 2:
A missile is projected with a velocity of 250ms -1 at an angle θ to the verti al. If the
total time of flight of the missile is 25s what is the value of θ?
Solution
Time of flight T = 2Usinθ g ut here T = 2U osθ g
Because the angle of projection is to the vertical and not horizontal

so T = 2U osθ g = 25 = 2 x 250 x osθ 10

25 = 2 x 25 osθ
25 osθ = 50 osθ osθ
Cosθ = 25 50
= 0.5

θ = os-10.5 = 60o
Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M)

Simple harmonic motion can be defined as a to and fro movement of a body along
a straight line under the influence of a force so that its acceleration is directed
towards a fixed point and is proportional to its displacement from that point.
Examples of simple harmonic motion are:
a. Motion of a mass on a spring

b. The simple pendulum

L
T = 2II /g
:. L = g/4II2 T2

L K. E = O
P. E = max

P. E = O
 K.E = max
c. Loaded test-tube in a liquid
Test tube

Definition of terms
a) Period: This is defined as the time required in making one complete
revolution about a reference point.
b) Frequency (F): this is defined as the number of complete revolutions per
second made by a vibrating body.
F = 1/T
c) Amplitude: is defined as the maximum displacement of the body performing
simple harmonic motion from its equilibrium position.
Characteristics of S.H.M
i. The period (T) of motion is independent of the amplitude
ii. When the displacement is maximum in either direction the speed is zero.
iii. When the displacement is zero, the speed of the body is maximum.
Speed and acceleration of S.H.M
P

A S
C
As the particle P moves round the ir le on e it sweeps through an angle of θ =
360o or 2 radians in time T the period of the motion.
The rate of hange of the angle θ with time is known as the angular velo ity (w)
W=θt
Linear velocity V = s/t
The angle θ is related to the ar length s and the radius of the circle r by
θ=sr
Therefore s = rθ
w=θt
w = s/r ÷ t
w = s/r x 1/t can be rewritten as
w = s/t x 1/r
Therefore w = v/r since v = s/t
Therefore v = rw
This gives the relationship between linear and angular velocity.

Example: A stone is attached to the end of an inelastic string and whirled round in
a circular path of radius 30cm. if the stone makes a complete revolution in 3s. find
the angular and linear velocities during this period.
Solution
I complete oscillation = 360o = 2 rad
θ=9x2
t = 3s
Angular velo ity w = θ t = 9x2 3 = 6 rads-1
Linear velocity
v = rw
= 30 x 6
= 180cms-1.