SOCIALSCIENCE

SOCIAL SCIENCE
YEAR 9
REDISCOVERING SOCIETY
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT UNIT
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, NATIONAL HERITAGE, CULTURE & ARTS
SUVA, FIJI, 2013
SOCIAL SCIENCE YEAR 9

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This Form 3 Social Science textbook “REDISCOVERING SOCIETY” has been produced by the Curriculum Advisory
Service Unit with the assistance of form three and four teachers in the school.
Many thanks to Dr. Max Quanchi of the University of the South Pacific (USP) for his professional expertise in providing
advice in the progress of the writing of this text. We also acknowledge Ms Angela Lee of BEMTUP for designing the cover.
The Social Science workgroup is also acknowledged for their contribution in the final editing of the text; Ms Tulia Tuiqilai of
St. Joseph’s Secondary School, Mrs. Saleshni Chandar of Nabua Secondary School, Mrs Hakil Dil of Jai Narayan College,
Mr. William Fonorito of Assemblies of God High School and Mr. Kunau Veibataki of Lami High School.
Also acknowledged is the 2011 moderation team of Labasa and Lautoka, the Social Science Department of AOG High
School, Mrs Vaseva Saulekaleka, Mrs Sisilia Vurewa for their contribution and the following people who were engaged in the
initial stage of the book; Mr. Mikaele Vakasilimiratu [CDU], Mr. Seci Waqabaca [CDU], Miss Lanieta Veibataki [CDU] and
Mrs. Sovaia Dokonivalu of Ratu Kadavulevu School.
Copyright - Ministry of Education 2011
All Rights Reserved
No parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise without the permission of the Ministry of Education, Fiji.

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CONTENT
Chapter 1: Social Organisation and Processes
Unit 1: Society and Culture
Traditional and Modern Societies 7 – 21
Changes and Culture 22 – 29
Universal Culture 30 – 37
Unit 2: Community Living
Social Control 37 – 40
Rights, Responsibilities, Equality and Freedom 41 – 45
Social Deviance 46 – 49
Religions 50 – 51
Conflict and Peace Building 51 - 59
Local Leaders 60 – 62
Unit 3: NGO’s and Regional Organisation
Non- Government Organisations 64 – 69
Regional Organisations 70 – 74
Chapter 2: Time, Continuity and Change

Unit1: History of Fiji [pre-contact period to cession]
Early Settlers and the Society of the Early Fijians 77 – 80
European Discovery of Fiji 81 – 83
Early European Contact 84 – 90
The Rise of Ma’afu and Cakobau 91 – 92
Offer of Cession 93 – 97
Unit 2: Current Affairs
Local Current Affairs 99
International Current Affairs 100
Chapter 3: Place and Environment

Unit 1: Maps and Types of Map
What is a Map and Why Study Maps 103 – 104
Forms and Uses of Maps 105 – 110
Unit 2: Basic Mapping Skills
Grid System 112 – 117
Essential Features of a Map 118 – 122
Basic Contour Patterns 123 – 134
Cross Sections 135 – 137
Map Reading Activities 138 – 139
Fiji Maps 140 -143
Unit 3: Environment and its Uses
Environment 145 – 150
Heritage 151 – 154
GLOSSARY
REFERENCES

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INTRODUCTION
Social Science at Form Three level has been prepared to help students explore and express relationships between people
and events in relation to their culture, resources and environment and apply their knowledge and skills to become
responsible and productive citizens.
The book is to assist Social Science teachers and students in the teaching and learning of the subject and also to enable
teachers to identify related resources and information that will contribute to effective teaching and learning.
There are three chapters in the book with a number of units making up a chapter. Each chapter represents a major theme
from the syllabi and teachers can identify the relevant chapter to support the topic or unit in discussion. Students will also
find the book user friendly and simple to follow.
Unit 2 of Chapter 2 is about Current affairs. We are living in a forever changing global village. Teachers are encouraged to
integrate these topics into lessons throughout the year. It is important for students to know what is happening around them,
the events and changes and how these changes influence their lives and society.

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CHAPTER ONE: SOCIAL ORGANISATION AND PROCESSES
This chapter discusses why and how people organize themselves into cultural and social
groups and the processes involved in demonstrating acceptable cultural and social
behaviors.
UNIT 1: SOCIETY AND CULTURE UNIT 2: COMMUNITY LIVING

1.1 Society 2.1 Social Control
• Types of Society 2.2 Family Council
• Social Structure 2.3 Rights and Responsibilities
• Groups • Citizenship
• Needs and Wants • Rights
1.2 Culture • Responsibilities
• Types of Culture
• Traditional Ceremonies, Customs and UNIT 3: NGO’s AND REGIONAL

Rites ORGANISATION
• Values, Norms and Virtues 3.1 Non-Government Organizations
• Universal Culture 3.2 Regional Organizations [Agencies]
• Multiculturalism

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UNIT 1

SOCIETY AND
CULTURE
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
AND PROCESSES
COMMUNITY NGO’s
AND REGIONAL
LIVING
ORGANIZATIONS

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1.1 SOCIETY
Society refers to people in a

community/town/country and
their interactions with each
other.
1.11 Types of Society

There are three major types of societies:
• Traditional Society
• Modern Society
• Society that blend both modern and traditional aspects
A. Traditional Society
Traditional societies are normally smaller in size and people living in it are related. They share similar lifestyle and common
values. Changes also take place in this society but at a slower rate. They may adopt new technology, clothes and food, but
still keep their core values and beliefs.
Such society can be found in rural areas, villages and areas which are still developing. They use varieties of skills to provide
for their needs and wants for their everyday survival. Many of these skills are learnt from the older generation in the society
and are passed down to the younger generation. For example, gathering of food, building of homes and means of
transportation.
Many of these societies today have been transformed due to the influence of other societies and the outside world.
TYPES OF TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES
Hunting & Gathering Agricultural
Traditional
Society
Horticultural Pastoral
Maritime(Seagoing)

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a. Hunting and Gathering Society
In this society, people survived by gathering edible wild plants, by hunting and killing wild animals and collecting seafood.
These skills were obtained through observation and imitation.
People who live in this type of society are usually known as hunters and gatherers. They are nomadic in nature. They
lived in smaller groups of less than 50 and worked together to get enough food to survive. Hunters and gatherers are known
to have expert knowledge about their natural environment. If foods became scarce, they picked up their few possessions
and moved to another area. They did not build permanent shelters. In places where permanent supply of water and food
were available they began to settle down.
Features of hunting and gathering societies:
- They learnt to anticipate the seasons. For example, when fruits and root crops would mature and when animals
migrate
- Used primitive weapons for hunting and gathering
- Had simple life and needs
Some of the areas known for hunters and

gatherers are:
- Eskimos of Iceland
- Bushmen of Africa
- Highlanders of Papua New Guinea
- Hadza of Tanzania
- Aborigines of Australia
- Dani of West Papua
- Masai of Africa
- Mongolians of Mongolia
(Source: http/www.cartoonstock.com/directory/hunter_gatherers_gifts)
Activity
I. On the outline Map of the World provided by the teacher, locate and name well known Hunting and Gathering
Societies.
II. With the help of the teacher, make a poster of simple tools used by this type of society.
b. Pastoral Society
About 10 000 years ago, a cultural shift, known as the first agricultural (or Green) revolution began at several places in the
world. There was a shift from small mobile hunting and gathering bands to settled agricultural communities where people
learnt to breed and raise animals and cultivate wild plants. They were able to mass produce food to provide for the whole
village and developed small societies.

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Pastoral societies were often organized in tribes, with the ‘household’ (often including extended family) as a basic unit for
organisation of labour and expenses. Lineages were often the basis for property rights. The growth of pastoral societies led
to increased population, setting up of political and economic institutions and social structure. Culture became complex.
Some of the features of their survival are:
- Sheep and goats were easily caught, tamed and domesticated.

- Steady food supply is ensured
- Those who had more animals and gardens became rich and powerful.
- Had to move to find grass for their animals and so they had few possessions such as tents, carpets, simple
utensils, jewelry and so on. ( nomadic lifestyle )
Pastoral people commonly believed in God/gods who take an active interest in human affairs and look after the people who
worship them. Hence, Christianity, Judaism and Islam began among pastoral people.
The two types of Pastoral Societies include Nomadic Pastoralist where there is no permanent home. Their movement is
determined by the seasonal rainfall and the need to find new sources of grass for their animals. For example, Bedouin and
Tuareg in Sahara, Rendile and Masai in Kenya, Fulani in West Africa. Semi-Nomads include animals as the source of life.
They provide food, milk, meat and blood, dung for fuel, transport, wool and skins for shelter and clothing.
Activity
PHOTOGRAPH INTERPRETATION
Use the photograph given below and your knowledge to answer the questions that follow:
ǣǣǤǣ̴̴̴̴ͳ͸̴̴ʹͲͲͷ
(i) Which type of society is practiced in the picture above?
(ii) Give two reasons why the tender keeps moving his animals throughout the year.
(iii) List two important features of this type of society.

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c. Horticultural Societies (Subsistence Cultivation)
People discovered that they could grow wild plants by digging holes with a stick (a primitive hoe) and placing roots or tubers
(fleshy stems of plants) of these plants in the holes. They cleared small patches of forests by slash and burn cultivation.
They used shifting cultivation, moving to a new plot once the fertility of the current plot decreases. This will allow the soil
to regain its fertility. Horticultural societies also practiced subsistence farming, just growing enough to feed the families.
Features of Horticultural Societies
• They have a fair knowledge of the soil, plant needs and climate that would enable them to obtain the maximum
yield without endangering the soil
• Very little human and technical input
• Few labourers
• No capital needed
• Harvest/yield is low ( only enough for the family and community need)
Areas that practiced Horticulture:
• Tropical Rainforest of Latin America

• Milpa Iadang of S.E Asia
• Amazon Basin, Central America
• Congo
• Indonesia.
What would be the

advantage of shifting
cultivation?
[Source: http:www.agricultureinformation.com/mag/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/farmers]
Activity
List some advantages of shifting cultivation in one column and disadvantages in another column.

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d. Agricultural Society
About 7000 years ago, the use of agriculture increased with the invention of the wooden and then metal plough, pulled by
domesticated animals and steered by the farmer. Animal -pulled ploughs allowed farmers to cultivate larger plots of land and
to break up fertile grassland soils, which previously couldn’t be cultivated due to their thick and widespread root systems

(Source: https://www.=agriculture+in+fiji_images)
In some dry regions, early farmers further increased crop output by diverting water from nearby streams into hand dug
ditches and canals to irrigate crops.
Features of Agricultural Societies:
• Having surplus food supply
• Specialization/ division of labour emerged
• Social, political, economic institutions were established
• Trade developed ( local and international)
• Empire building and expansion of Territory
• Conflicts become international
• Towns and cities developed ( large population) relying on mass food production
• Services improved - medical
• Transport and communication improved as roads were to be built to link settlement (For example, Ancient Egypt,
Roman Empire, and Chinese Civilization)

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B. MODERN SOCIETY
In the world today many people still practice hunting and gathering (called indigenous) while others still practice horticulture
and pastoral lifestyles. But most people live modern lifestyles usually in towns and cities – this is called industrial society. All
these exist side by side across the world. For example, in Buliya, Dravuni and Ono in Astrolabe Lagoon, Fijians still farm and
fish and care in small villages but other Fijians - 300 000 at least live and work in factories, shops and officers in a city –
Suva.
A modern society is larger, has more diverse population and experiences more rapid and uneven cultural changes. This type
of society normally includes urban areas, industrial areas and areas where a lot of development is taking place.
There are two major types of modern society:
• industrial societies (create products)
• postindustrial societies [advanced industrial societies] are called information societies; produce information
Hunters & Industrial Post Industrial

Gatherers [A]
Pastoral [B] Modern Societies
Horticultural [C]
Segments of A, B, C
TYPES OF MODERN SOCIETIES
a. Industrial Societies
The next cultural change, known as the Industrial revolution began in Europe in the mid-1700s and spread to the US in the
1800s. This type of society greatly increased energy consumption and also used mass labour to alter and shape the earth to
meet their needs and wants. This led to increased production, trade and distribution of goods. It created industrial workers
who lived in cities, often overcrowded, informal housing (called slums), pollution and environmental damage. It also caused
a huge movement of people to the cities and overseas.

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Companies made and used new machines powered by coal, oil and natural gas. Thus, the industrial revolution shifted from
use of wood and water fuel to coal, oil and natural gas.
Features of Industrial Societies
• Huge centers of trade developed near raw materials and transport routes
• Urban areas functions different from rural functions ( for example, people in urban areas work in factories and
people in rural areas work in farms)
• More services are found in urban areas
• Rural areas have poor health, education, transport and support services
• Rural to urban drift began thus, new problems such as overcrowding, congestion and pollution arises
• Factories produced many goods ( mass production)
• Green Revolution ( shift from Agricultural base economy to cash/ commerce and Industries, air pollution,
congestion, urban problems and mass production of white goods)
• Increased production led to increased trade with the rest of the world
b. Post industrial Societies (Advanced industrial Societies)
After WWI (1914-1918), more efficient machines and mass production techniques were developed forming the basics of
today’s advanced industrial societies in the USA, Canada, Japan and Western Europe. These societies are characterized
by:
• Increased production and consumption.
• Dependence on synthetic fiber rather than natural material which decomposes easily.
• New challenges/ problems such as global warming/ pollution exploitation of raw material or natural resources.
• Constantly changing skills to meet new inventions, systems and materials.
Features of post Industrial Societies
• Advance technology (computer age/space age) in transport, communications ,robots, satellites communications
• Energy was shift from coal to atomic energy/ nuclear power
• Low Birth Rates- Zero population growth

• Advanced medical facilities
• Low Death Rates- Ageing Population
• Scientific research in Agriculture
• Jet planes increased international travel and
tourism
• Research and development

• Tertiary industries (not primary or secondary)
Traditional societies had little or no impact on the natural environment because they
took only what they needed. However, there is huge destruction by modern societies in
terms of deforestation, emission of harmful gases, waste and industrialization.


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Activity VOCABULARY
1. State the differences between traditional and modern societies.
2. Cut pictures from a magazine or newspaper and create a collage which shows the features Society
of modern society. Add a Title to the collage and one sentence to explain your message. Traditional Society
Collage: a lot of different pictures in one page – but which have one clear Modern society
message to the viewer. Culture
3. Copy and complete the diagram below: Domesticated
Transition in Societies Global Warming
Green Revolution
`
Hunting and gathering
society
Slash and burn
Primitive
Industrial Society Zero population

4. Identify five challenges faced by modern societies.
Ageing population
5. Can Industrial Societies learn from Traditional Societies? Explain your
Mass production
answer.
6. Identify three problems faced by Industrial and Post Industrial Societies.
DISCUSSION
What does the future hold for Traditional Society?

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In the next section we will look at how people are organized to achieve their needs and ambitions.
1.12 SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Every society whether it’s traditional or modern needs order and leadership roles. It should have a leader who is in authority
and will make sure that everything is in control. Therefore, a social structure is set up so everyone has a part to play in the
running and the welfare of the community.
In a traditional i-Taukei society, the people are led by the chief or Turaga who, in the past happened to be the strongest,
powerful and could defeat his fellowmen in fights. Thereafter, his descendants also became chiefs or leaders. Status as a
chief in the society is known to be ascribed, meaning passed down from generations through inheritance.
EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE
1. I-Taukei Hierarchy System
In any i-Taukei society, everyone fits into the social structure because their place is followed according to their family and
social hierarchy. Their hierarchy determines the task and the responsibility they should carry out in their community. This is
known to be their social obligations/roles towards their vanua. An example of an i-Taukei hierarchy system is shown below.
Turaga
Sau Turaga (the chief
(the chief) executive)
Matanivanua (the
heraldsmen/spokesma
Bete
Bati (the warrior)
(the priest)
Gonedau
Mataisau (The fisherman)
Tauvanua (the carpenter)
(The commoner)
Discussion Point!
With your teacher, discuss the roles and responsibilities of the above status in an i-Taukei society.

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2. Indian Caste System
Social structure in the Indian society is demonstrated through the caste system whereby people are strictly divided
according to birth and occupation.
The Brahmins were of the highest caste while the Shudras were of the lowest caste.
Caste System is the strict division of Indians into various

social groups according to birth and occupation.
Brahmins (Priests)
– represents the head
Kashtriyas (Warriors)
– represents the hands
Vaishyas (Cultivators)
-represents the stomach
Shudras (Slaves)
– represents the feet
(Source:http.www.naturallivingschool.com/2012/04/22live-simply-so-others-may-simply-live-gandhi/)
Below the castes were the untouchables whom Gandhi (pictured above) called the Harijan (‘Children of God’)
The first Indians came to Fiji in 1879 as indentured labourers. Their caste system was broken down during their journey to
Fiji because the castes mingled and socialized with others on the crowded ships and labor lines. This mixing was strictly
prohibited back in India.

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Activity
(i) Give a reason why the Indians first came to Fiji.
(ii) Why has the Caste system disappeared slowly in Fiji?
(iii) Identify and describe the caste that is still practiced in Fiji.
(iv) Identify any other racial group you are familiar with and describe their social structure.
(v) State the differences and similarities between the Indian Caste System and i-Taukei Social System.
(vi) Identify your social status and describe your roles and responsibilities.
VOCABULARY
Discussion Point! Social Structure
If change is to happen, what would you like to see Caste

changed in your social status and why?
Hierarchy
First world
Third world
3. Modern Social Hierarchy
In modern societies, people still follow old methods of awarding class and status. But new ways of dividing societies have
appeared;
• Rich versus poor
• The haves versus the haves not
• Educated versus school drop-outs
• Urban versus rural areas
• Employed versus unemployed
• First world ( e.g. Europe) versus Third world (eg, Africa)
• Employers versus employees
In a more contemporary setting, organisations are still structured today in such a way that there is a leader who makes sure
that the society is well under control.
In schools, companies and organizations, the leader is chosen by looking at a person’s educational qualifications, skills and
years of experience. Hence, status is achieved, meaning one has to work hard to get a leadership position. In modern

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organization leaders can change whenever the need arises. Leadership positions are also elected and the holder is
identified as the best fit person.
Achieved status: status one gains by what he or she achieves.
For example Doctor, Manager, Teacher
A family’s status is determined by different criteria. These include wealth, level of education, occupation as well as place of
origin, ancestors and personal qualities. Gender is another criterion in determining your place in a social structure. Each
family has a social structure – Mother, Father, Aunts, Uncles, Grandparents, older children and younger children.
Below is an example of a school organization structure:
4. SCHOOL ORGANISATION STRUCTURE
Principal
Vice Principal
Assistant Principal
HOD HOD HOD HOD
Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers
Each level in a school has different functions and their functions contribute to the administering and running of the school.

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Discussion
Teacher to divide the class into 5 groups and each group must be allocated to one of the levels of leadership in the school
organization. The group then should list down at least 5 roles of the level allocated to them.
EXAMPLE OF MODERN ORGANISATION STRUCTURE
5. Example of a typical large company
Chief Executive Officer [CEO] or Managing Director
Chief Financial Officer
Credit Accountant IT Officer

Sales & Production HR Quality Assurance
Marketing Manager Officer Manager
Assistant
Accountant
Factory Quality
Controller
Officer
Workers
∗ Quality Assurance Officer also reports indirectly to the Production Manager
The diagram above shows a general organization in a service, retailing or production company.
Structure in organizations may differ from each other as it depends on the function of that organization. For instance, a
service organization would be different from a factory, an army, a church group or a sports club. The structure therefore
determines and contributes to the operation and day to day running of the organization.

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In modern societies, some activities are conducted in a formal manner such as by a committee. In this set up, there is a:
• Chairperson – the leader who conducts /leads the discussion.
• Secretary – write down the minutes/issues raised and discussed in a meeting.
• Treasurer – keeps financial records of a group.
• Committee members – carry out the work of the group.
1.3 GROUPS
A group can be defined as a collection of people interacting together in an

orderly way on the basis of shared expectations about each other.
People organize themselves into groups and they have different structures. There are mainly two types of groups, primary
and secondary.
Primary Group Common Expectation Secondary Group
[Informal] [Formal]
Primary group is also known as informal group. It is usually the first group that a person belongs to e.g. family, friends.
Members of this group have personal knowledge of each other and interaction always occur in informal ways. The groups
have expected norms of behaviour which are not written but have ways of understanding each other.
(Source: Personal Photo File)

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Features of an informal group
• Unwritten rules
• Small in number
• Members know each other
• Personal interactions and share common interests
Secondary group or formal group on the other hand has written rules and regulations.
Secondary group is made up of a wider collection of people who do the same type of work and share same interests e.g. co-
operatives, clubs and political parties. Leaders in such groups are elected.
Features of a formal group
y Governed by a set of rules and regulations
• Set goals ( aims, vision, mission)
• Have Members, leaders and functions
More complex system of communication.
What is the organisation’s aim?
What does it do to achieve its aim?
How do you think the organisation is meeting the needs of

our society?
Are there certain rules that are expected of the members?
What benefit would an individual get by joining the

organisation?
(Present the findings to the class)
Vocabulary
Modern organization Formal Human group Norms Goal
Structure Informal Expectation Complex Regulation

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1.14 NEEDS AND WANTS
Traditional and modern societies never stop needing and wanting things. Changes that are occurring in our society and
around us have influenced our needs and wants. Things may have been our ‘wants’ at one time but is now becoming our
‘needs’. For example, money and mobile phones.
Needs are always defined as those things we must have in order to survive. Our basic needs are food, clothing, water and
shelter. For some who live in the city, now also consider having a car as a need as they need transport to take them from
point A to point B.
Other needs include our interaction with one another, as well as our emotional and spiritual development as individuals and
as a society. For example, the need to be loved, need to feel safe and the need for companionship. It is also believed that
our needs help shape our behaviour.
(Source: Personal Photo file)
Wants are those things which make life more enjoyable. At times these wants becomes a need. For example a radio would
become a need during disaster.
ACTIVITY
i. Explain the difference between wanting things and needing things.
ii. How do we satisfy most of our needs and wants?
iii. Collect 3 or 4 pictures of needs and wants and paste them in your book under separate headings.

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1.2 CULTURE
Culture consists of the way of life of society. A

culture cannot exist without a society to
maintain it. Without culture neither individual
nor human society could survive. Culture is
dynamic. It changes with time.
Human beings are not born with rigid, complex behaviour patterns. They are not born with skills to survive in specific
habitats. We must therefore learn and invent ways to adapt to any type of society no matter how extreme it could be. From
the rainy hills and mountains of Naitasiri, to the wetter areas of Rewa or the hot sunny weather of Western Viti Levu, we
must learn to adapt. In other words, the members of each society gradually develop and share a culture – an entire way of
life that is acceptable to everyone.
Culture can be expressed in many ways, in songs, food we eat, clothes we wear, Arts, designs of buildings, stories and
many more. It also becomes part of our identity and people can be identified through their cultural activities, for example,
traditional dances and songs, costumes and artifacts.
Culture includes everything that people produce, do and share

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1.21 TYPES OF CULTURE

There are two major types of culture:
- Material Culture
- Non- material culture
(i) Material culture –includes all the artifacts, clothing, schools, totems, (physical objects).
(Source: http:museumvictoria.com.au/Fiji/)
(ii) Non Material culture- includes all abstract human creations such as language, beliefs, rules, customs, myths and
skills.
Anthropologists say that material culture can change easily and fast. For example, a person can quickly change fish
bone to iron tools, from wooden clubs to machine guns, from masi to Levi jeans but non-material culture is slow to
change. Ideas, languages and customs are much slower to change and often remain the same for hundreds of years.
VOCABULARY
Abstract Beliefs Dynamic
Rigid Customs Anthropologist
Culture Myths Totems

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ACTIVITY 1 - 21
(i) Find out the meaning of your name and share it with the class.
(ii) Describe two important aspects of material and non - material culture
(iii) Identify two ways material cultures can be preserved.
(iv) Identify two ways non-material cultures can be preserved.
1.22 TRADITIONAL CEREMONIES, CUSTOM AND RITES

Part of everyone’s culture is their traditional ceremonies. It identifies how people do things.
Each society has its own way of celebrating traditional ceremonies, customs and rites. Common ceremonies celebrated or
observed by all societies are births, weddings and deaths.
In Fiji, different cultural groups have different ways of carrying out celebrations and in many cases take a number of days to
end. For example, mourning a death may last a week for certain cultural groups and as for the i-Taukei community, it may
last 100 nights. Likewise births and weddings also take few days to end its celebration. Wallis and Futuna people in Fiji
celebrate a marriage differently to iKiribati or Solomon Islanders now living in Fiji.
However, due to changes taking place in our culture and society, changes have influenced these traditional celebrations. An
example of i-Taukei custom changing is evident in the fire walking of Beqa. It had traditional significance for the people of
Beqa. However, it has now become commercialized for the sake of tourism.
(Source: http//www.firewalking+beqa&safe=Fiji) (Source: Personal Photo File)
Debate: organize the class in to two teams and debate on the given topic
“The disadvantages of commercializing our culture”

(i) In a group, prepare a role play on how a birth, death or wedding is celebrated in your culture.
(ii) Discuss the advantages of having such a celebration.

(iii) Critically analyse the contribution of modernization to this part of your culture.
(iv) As a class, identify some traditions and customs that are experiencing changes.

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1.23.1 VALUES, NORMS AND VIRTUES
A. VALUES
The norms of a society are an expression of its values. Almost at all times we dwell on what we value the most in life. Some
values are written in the Constitution, others become Laws.
The difference between values and norms are that values are abstract, general ideas, whereas norms are specific
guidelines for people in particular kinds of situation. For example, if we share a value called “knowledge, learning and
education” then certain norms are established – the government provides schools, parents save to pay for the fees or
uniforms and attendance at school is compulsory.
The three main sources of societal values are:
• Religion - which tries to explain the meaning of life and the standards through which men find the good life
• Family - which by shaping attitudes and understanding of oneself, passes on its moral values of right and wrong
from generation to generation
• Society – which sets standards of behavior and creates rules and laws
(Source: Freedom and Control)
However, you may discover that some of your values and attitudes are in conflict with those of your parents and
grandparents. One of the factors that bring about this conflict is Generation Gap.
Generation Gap is the difference in values, opinions

and attitudes of the younger generation from the
older ones.
Discussion Point: As a class;
1. List two values which causes conflict between you and your parents.
2. Carry out a role paly to demonstrate ways in which conflict arises from these differences can be resolved.
3. Relate to the class an example of a conflict that took place between you and your parents or grandparents.

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B. SOCIAL NORMS
These are shared rules and guidelines that prescribe the behaviors appropriate in a given
situation.
Social norms define how people ought to behave under particular circumstances in a particular society. For example,
certain behaviour is expected when visitors are in the house or when you visit someone else’s home.
Norms ensure that social life proceeds smoothly. Norms shape our behavior and those of others. Norms are set by parents,
religion and society.
All of us break some norms one time or the other, however we still make sure that we improve and continue practicing that
which is expected.
ACTIVITY Norm
1. Identify three social norms in the community. Social norms
2. State two advantages of social norms in your society. Virtues
3. How does religion influence your values? Values
4. How are traditional values different from western values? (you might mention freedom, property ownership, time, wealth
and success)
5. Interview 2 teenagers and 2 adults using the question
“What do I value most in

life? “

27
C. VIRTUES
Virtues usually mean leadership, integrity, strength and inner quality, (The Virtue Project, 2004). Virtues helps us to realize
who we are, what we can do and also enable us to work towards becoming a better person.
Discussion Point
With the help of the teacher, discuss the following virtues
Assertiveness confidence caring
Creativity humility reliability
Determination forgiveness trustworthiness
Loyalty unity purposefulness
Idealism excellence kindness
Courtesy flexibility friendliness
Helpfulness generosity confidence
[Source: The Virtues Project, 1997]
ACTIVITY
(i) As a student, identify one way you can practice one of these virtues successfully?
(ii) Identify a virtue and explain how it has helped you to become a better student.
(iii) For you personally, which are the three most important virtues – list them.
(iv) Compare your list with classmates. See if you can agree on the most important virtues - make these a ‘Class List of
Virtues’.

28
Values are socially shared ideas about what is good, right
and desirable.
Virtue is also important because it is our behaviour and

attitude that show we have followed high standards.
(Source: Primary source)
D. Manners and Etiquettes
These are behaviours that are considered to be polite, courteous, and respectful and are acceptable in society. Acceptable
behaviour is important because it brings about order in the society, respect and good attitudes.
Behaviour in school may differ with those expected at home or church. However, some behaviours are common at all
places. For example, you are expected to speak politely in school, at home or in church, in parliament or in public.
VOCABULARY
Manners
Etiquette
ACTIVITY
(i) Write down 3 acceptable behaviours under the following headings:
Home School Community
(ii) Why do you think it is necessary to behave accordingly in society?
(iii) Explain the expression “Manners Maketh a Person.”

29
E. GOALS
A goal is an aim in life which you desire very much and which you are willing to work towards. Your goals will help you
determine the kind of life you will eventually live.
There are two types of goals one can work towards, mean goals and end goals. Both goals are important as it makes you
become a better person and also achieve something in life. Without setting these goals, one may not be able to identify what
is needed in life and how to achieve it.
1. Mean Goals: are those things you would like to acquire. They are habits you usually see in a person you respect
and admire and those which you want to adopt yourself such as honesty, being ambitions, being responsible,
patient, forgiveness, loving and politeness.
2. End Goals: are ultimate goals you set for yourself and what you want to do with your life such as travel overseas,
having many children, get a university degree, be an investor, become Prime Minister or a rock star.
ACTIVITY
i. Explain the difference between mean goals and end goals.
ii. Explain three ways in which End goals can influence the life of a young person.
1.24 UNIVERSAL CULTURE

Universal culture is a pattern in every known society. It can also be explained as pattern or trait common to all human
cultures worldwide.
Patterns are found in language, marriage, etiquette, myths and rituals and so forth. Universal culture encourages cultural
diversity or multiculturalism.

30

1.25 MULTICULTURALISM
Cultural Diversity refers to the many ethnic groups living together with various cultural characteristics.
Multiculturalism occurs in societies where people of various cultural backgrounds integrate and share values and ideas.
There are certain aspects of behavior that all societies will experience. Here are four important aspects of behaviour found in
nearly all societies;
i. Integration – process whereby one keeps his or her own culture and adopts good things from other cultures, for
example, i-Taukei learning to make roti, Indian males wearing Sulu vakataga.
ii. Culture Shock- Due to contact with other cultures, many people have been influenced and have experienced
culture shock. Culture shock occurs when an unprepared person finds himself/herself in a strange culture. Usually, he
or she will not know and not be able to identify what is best for him or her to do in a certain situation they have been in
before.
iii.Marginal People- When realizing the types of culture around them, many may find it difficult to decide which is best. A
person may become a marginalised because they become torn between two cultures. They know the aspects of both
cultures, for example, modernized and traditional, or in a refugee or migrant camp, in town different from their village, in a
new language area, but do not know which one to follow.
iv. Acculturation- means borrowing parts of another culture, while keeping to the basics of your own culture.
Other aspects of behaviour that can be found in our universal culture are:
a. Segregation: when one opts to cling to his/her culture and does not mix or integrate with people of other cultures
b. Assimilation: when a dominant culture absorbs or takes over an existing culture. Intermarriage in Fiji leads to
assimilation of culture to some extent. For example, an Indian woman marrying into a Fijian family.
c. Racism: normally occurs in society where many races of people are living together. It is when one favours his/her
own race over the others in terms of jobs, admission to institutions and use of facilities.
d. Discrimination: usually means a powerful group prevents another group from sharing. They either are pushed
away, not included in activities or abused and ignored by people. This can be because of language, ethnicity, being
weak, disabled and even competing clan or tribal identity.
e. Ethnocentrism: means believing that one’s own ethnic group or culture is superior. It is based on the view that
one’s own group is the center of everything and is the most important.
f. Prejudice: a strong feeling of like or dislike towards someone or something. It is not based on reason or
experience.
g. Apartheid: originated in South Africa whereby people of different races were separated and made to live apart for
example, “schools for whites only”. In the USA it took a “civil rights” movement of the 1960s to get equality for
African Americans. In Australia, the government did not give sovereignty to indigenous Australians (Aborigines)
until 2002.

31
It is also important to be aware that within our multicultural society the following features can exist side by side, at the same
time or place.
(i) Ethnocentrism (vi) Racism
(ii) Discrimination (vii) Assimilation
(iii) Prejudice (viii) Government recognition of all cultures
(iv) Tolerance (ix) ‘Multicultural Festivals’
(v) Appreciation of other cultures (x) Sharing
It is therefore important to understand that there is one world/earth that we all share and need to KNOW, UNDERSTAND
AND TOLERATE one another and our differences for peaceful living.
DISCUSSION
With the help of your teacher, illustrate and discuss how the terms mentioned above (i)-(x)
affect the desire for peace building.
ACTIVITY
(i) Read the article below and with the help of your teacher, discuss the key issues.
Message from Irina Bokova, Director-General of UNESCO, on the occasion of World Day for Cultural
Diversity for Dialogue and Development, 21 May 2011
Ten years ago, the international community came together to highlight the importance of dialogue among cultures and its
commitment to diversity by unanimously adopting the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity.
With this historic declaration, the States of the world recognized cultural diversity as the common heritage of humanity.
All cultures and civilizations contribute to the enrichment of humankind. Cultural diversity is strength. Its defense is an ethical
imperative, inseparable from respect for human dignity. Recognition of this diversity can accelerate mutual understanding
and crafting a common space around shared values. No one may invoke cultural diversity to infringe human rights or to limit
their scope.
An understanding of cultural diversity is an ally in the pursuit of development. Several decades of international programmes
have shown that there is not a single development model that is applicable to all countries and to all cultures.
Acknowledgement of cultural diversity is the only thing that can help us to implement appropriate programmes.
UNESCO has sought to promote the importance of cultural diversity for more than 20 years by drafting international
development policies that are more effective and more sustainable. The groundswell of democracy surging through the Arab

32
World in 2011 is proof of the universality of the aspiration to freedom and dignity. It confirms the relevance of the 2001
Declaration and the necessity of ensuring that its principles are put into practice.
The adoption of the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003) and that of the
UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005) were major steps
forward in winning recognition of such diversity. The United Nations resolution on culture and development, adopted by the
United Nations General Assembly on 20 December 2010, is another major breakthrough that underlines the contribution of
culture and cultural diversity to sustainable development and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals.
Such progress reflects a positive trend. This new awareness must take material form in action to support population groups
and cultural dialogue. We must understand such diversity if we are to strengthen cooperation among States, tackle common
challenges together and learn to live together in modern, often heterogeneous, societies.
Therefore, I appeal to governments, NGOs and civil society to contribute to the improvement of our intercultural skills
through the arts, sport, humanities and language learning and to enhance our diversity for the benefit of all.
ACTIVITY
Read the case studies below and answer the questions that follow. The following incidents recount events that actually
happened, though names have been changed. The stories illustrate different cultural frameworks for understanding the
world.
Asking for water
An Indo- Fijian girl used to go to her next-door neighbor often to ask for ice cubes or ice water. The first time she asked she
was given the ice-cubes but when she continued to come to the front door and shout “Auntie, Thanda Pani (cold water)” the
i-Taukei woman either gave her the cold water grudgingly or sent her away empty handed.
(Source: Hoare. Frank: 2002)
a. Why was the i-Taukei woman later reluctant to give the Indo- Fijian girl water?
b. Was the girl demanding ice or asking for it?
c. How could this situation be improved on both sides?
Where do I belong?
Clara, a girl of mixed ethnic background, (part Indian, I-Taukei and Tongan) was told to go to the Indo-Fijian group. When her
class was divided into cultural groups during a school session, because her family name was Indian. Clara was upset. She
valued the three ethnic groups that constituted her background. She told her parents and they asked the teacher to allow
Clara to choose the group she wanted to identify herself with.
(Source: Hoare. Frank: 2002)
a. What are the disadvantages of being of mixed ethnic origin?
b. What are the advantages of being mixed ethnic origin?

33

c. What could the teacher (and school) do to avoid this situation occurring
d. If you were to live and work amongst a group of people who hold customs and beliefs different from yours, would
you choose to be assimilated. Why?
National identity
National identity reveals who you are as a citizen of a nation, or ethnic group. Some features of identity are:
i. Citizenship – is the state of being a citizen or legal member of a particular country and enjoying the rights and
protection of the constitution. By this right, one carries the passport of that country. Citizenship is a two-sided coin
because the government protects citizens’ rights and in return citizens need to be loyal to the government. The
duties of a citizen include obeying laws, paying taxes, avoid harboring prisoners, by exercising a right to vote and
exercising civic duties.
ii. Passport – an official document that identifies you and your nationality which you have to show when you are either
entering or leaving a country.
iii. Fijian – by virtue of our citizenship, we are all FIJIANS.
iv. Flag – is an important national identity which citizens honuor and salute.
v. National Anthem – the national song which we should all have pride in while singing because it is our identity.
vi. Constitution – a set of laws that governs a country.
vii. National Flora and Fauna - these are also symbols of our nationality. For example, coconut palm, crested iguana
and Tagimoucia plant of Taveuni
viii. Dress- masi, mats, sari
ix. Language ( official)
[Fiji’s flora and fauna] (Source:http://www.govisitfiji.com/images/Fiji-flowers.jpg&imgrefurl)

34

ACTIVITY VOCABULARY
Discussion Question VOCABULARY
(i) Why is it important to have a National Identity? Identity Flora
(ii) How do individuals show their nationality? Nationality Fauna
(iii) Which are the most popular symbols of Fiji. List the top five. Loyalty Honour
(iv) What is the most important responsibility of a citizen? Symbols Patriotism
(v) How can you be loyal to your country?
As a citizen of Fiji, I am a
Fijian. I must also abide by
its rules and regulations.
1.26 GLOBALISATION
The increasing interdependence of the global society OR the integration

of the world’s culture and economy
The developed world is now becoming a single global village and we cannot stop people and their culture from integrating.
For example, Europe and the United States are linked in many ways so are cities – New York, Beijing and Singapore.
We cannot avoid changes that are taking place and we cannot shut out influence of other societies and communities.
However, it is important to know of who we are and our identity, at the same time know that we are part of one world.
Agents of globalization :
- Information and communication technology (social networking – facebook, internet, mobile phone)
- Transportation network (airlines, shipping companies)

35

- Multinational companies (KFC, Coca Cola, McDonald)
- Mass media (Television companies- BBC, CNN, ABC, magazines, newspapers, movies, MTV)
- Trade (export and import)
- Sport
- Art
- Tourism
- Banking/Money
(Source: www.thenewblackmagazine.com/Photo Files/ globalisation.gif)
In what way do the pictures above portray or represent globalization?
Comment on the phrase;
“Think Global, Act Local”

36
Activity 1 - 29
(i) Apart from the global products, describe some other events or issues that demonstrate globalization.
(ii) List down three advantages and three disadvantages of globalization.
(iii) In what way can thinking about a global village contribute to our role in global peace building?
(iv) Resource Interpretation: Use the diagram below to answer questions (a) and (b).
www.dadalos.org/globalisation/grundkurs_2.htm
a. With the teacher’s assistance give an example of globalization for each of the five aspects.
b. In your opinion, will Fiji be able to benefit from the influence of globalization? Explain your answer. (use
the nine “agents of globalization” to describe how globalization will influence Fiji).
VOCABULARY

In this unit you have studied the very first humans and how they began to become farmers, hunters and gatherers and
pastoralists. We then jumped to the present – and studied how humans organize their family, clan, community, village and
even organisations like schools and companies.
We called this social structure.
We then looked at how humans change and how they adapt to and absorb new ideas. Finally, we introduced an exciting
concept – globalization. This is a tricky topic because we are still in the middle of a process of learning to understand what it
is and how it will affect us. In the next unit we go back and look more closely at the “community” – how it creates rules and
rights and responsibilities. We will look at how humans create organisations to help their own community and other
communities around the world

37
UNIT 2
COMMUNITY LIVING
TOPICS
2.1 Social Control
2.2 Rights, Responsibilities, Equality and Freedom
2.3 Social Deviance
2.4 Religion
2.5 Conflict and Peace Building
2.6 Local Leaders

38
We all live and belong to a community. Every community has rules or means and ways to control its members so law and
order is followed and maintained. Without control, there will be disorder and people will not have respect towards each other.
2.1 SOCIAL CONTROL

Are these measures

important?
Social Controls are measures
taken to control the behaviour
of people in a community
Ʈ
There are two types of social control:
a. Formal Control (written rules) – these are rules that are formally written down in black and white. For example, school
rules, constitution, decrees, laws and Regulations.
b. Informal Control (unwritten rules) - these are unwritten rules passed down verbally from one generation to another.
For example, customs, traditions and family rules.
Through Social Control, one can be rewarded in the

form of praise, love, favors, smiles, a good report, a As a class analyze your school rules and
prefect’s badge, a good promotion, salary increase, identify some behaviors that are suitable
acceptance, or can be punished in the form of to be controlled by those rules.
criticism, ridicule, detention, frown, caning, bad report,
the sack, no promotion, penalties, or imprisonment.
ACTIVITY 2 - 11
(i) Describe two ways a community benefits from informal control.
(ii) How do these people experience informal control:
a. The police officer c. My friend next door e. A nearby school
b. Your parents at home d. The church

39

Family council involves members of

the family taking active role in
decision making. It is an idea that a
small group can make decisions,
rules and control behavior.
PURPOSE OF FAMILY COUNCIL
[note: a family council is an alternative to the traditional Father/Mother/Children model]
Family members give their opinions, ideas, and suggestions towards the organization of the family freely and separate from
place as father, mother, oldest sibling.
y To resolve conflicts that may arise.
y To emphasize family and moral values, for example, respect for elders, obedience and maintain traditional culture.
y To emphasize the importance of family, and members of the extended family.
y To provide counseling and discipline of family members
y To discuss and make decisions on important issues concerning the family.
There are advantages and disadvantages of having family councils. All members of the family must look into both of these
before deciding on establishing a family council.
Advantages of Family Council Disadvantage of Family Council
y It gives all family members an opportunity to y At times family members are not able to
actively take part in family decision making, provide positive contribution towards family
especially the young ones. discussion.
y Problems experienced by any of the family y Some cultures do not encourage the
members are discussed and experience are participation of children in decision making
shared thus problems are solved collectively as of the family.
a group.
y It is a sign of disrespect when children
y It encourages family togetherness or bond. speak out especially in the presence of
respected elders.
y Encourage family members to speak freely

40

Debate!
Debate!
Should
Should children
children contribute
contribute to decision
to decision making
making in the
in the family?
family?
VOCABULARY
DISCUSSION POINT!

DOES GENERATION GAP HAVE ANY INFLUENCE ON FAMILY
COUNCIL?

2.2 RIGHTS, RESPONSIBILITIES, EQUALITY AND FREEDOM
In today’s world, everyone’s rights are important. It is important to know that we are responsible for our rights. For example,
corporal punishment is no longer allowed in school. So how do you learn what is not acceptable? We are responsible for our
own actions.
A. RIGHTS
Freedom and rights go together. One of the rights is the right to be free. These are called “Freedom of Movements”. The law
of the country consists of many rights for individuals to practice freedom. In any country there are three distinguished sets of
rights:
Listed laws or written laws (for example, in the Constitution)
Unwritten laws (customs and traditions passed down verbally)
Human Rights (UN Declaration, signed by most nations in the world)
Article 1: A child is every human being below the

age of 18 Article 28: you have a right to education. You
must have primary education and it must be
Article 7: You have the right to a name, a
free. You should also be able to go to
nationality and the right to know and be cared for
Secondary school
by your parents.
Article 32: You have the right to be protected
Article 9: You should not be separated from your
from working in places or conditions that are
parents unless it is for your own good
likely to damage your health or get in the way
Article 19: No one should hurt you in any way. of your education. If somebody is making
Adults should make sure you are protected from money out of your work you should be paid
abuse, violence and neglect. Even your parents fairly.
have no right to hurt you.

41
(Source: Convention of the Rights of a child)
ACTIVITY 2-13
(i) Select an article from the list above and discuss what it means to you personally.
(ii) Which of your responsibilities is influenced by the article?
(iii) Describe how one article influences your interaction with other young people.
DISCUSSION POINT!
What are the differences between listed laws, customary/unwritten laws and human rights?
Not all countries practice all the “rights” to which they have signed to protect.
There are occasions when some governments deliberately intervene in the rights of individuals. For example, during a
national crisis, our rights of movement will be restricted. When a person becomes a threat to the society or peace, he/she
can be put under house arrest, when his or her movement is restricted within a certain area. However, there are common
basic rights to which everyone is entitled to and we must try to learn to exercise these rights accordingly with responsibilties.

Our rights as children are what we are allowed to do and what the people responsible for us are allowed to do. We
have the right to be heard and express our opinion.

42
It is important to understand that having
these rights brings responsibilities and if
we want to enjoy our rights we must
consider and respect others rights
too!!!!!!!!!!!!!
ACTIVITIY 2 - 12
(i). DISCUSSION
A. Can Rights cause conflicts between nations?
B. In what way can children’s rights cause conflicts in our society?
(ii) Cut and paste pictures or draw an example of rights under the following headings:
a. Civil rights c. Personal rights e. Social rights

b. Legal rights d. Economic rights
Discussion points.
Do I have any right at

home?
How will I exercise my

rights at home?
What if my parents feel

I’m too young to make
my own decision?
[Source: Fiji National Action Plan for Human Rights Education 2003 – 2005: 2003]

43
(iii) Read the article below and copy and complete the table:
Whose rights and responsibility?
Scenario 1 Scenario 2
Mere and Anare’s dad has been unemployed for over Uraia is 11 years and wants to be a newsagent to earn
six months, since the gold mine he used to work in some extra pocket money for a new electronic game.
closed down. Their mum has got a part-time job in He would have to start work at 5:30am every morning.
the local bakery; she does not get paid very much. His parents think he is too young to do the job and are
The benefits the family receives and mum’s salary is worried about his health and safety.
just enough money to buy the amount of food the
family needs. Mere and Anare do not have enough to
eat, they are small for their age and are not doing
well at school.
Scenario Rights Affected Solution/How to resolve
(iii) Study the picture below and answer the questions that follow:
Heaps of rubbish dumped in front of a school gate. (Source: Personal Photo File)

44
i. List all the parties responsible for the above action.
ii. Name the authority responsible in looking into such action.
iii. According to the picture, in what way are rights and responsibilities misused.
B. RESPONSIBILITIES
With freedom comes rights and with rights comes responsibilities. To be responsible is to be accountable for your actions.
Being a student, you are responsible in following the school rules, taking care of the facilities and using the resources wisely.
This would result in others respecting, trusting and believing in you.
Therefore it is important to keep in mind that “Rights come with Responsibilities”
ACTIVITY 2 - 14
1. Fill in the table below
Student Child Citizen
Your rights
Your responsibilities
2. Read the story and look at the poster then answer questions (a) and (b).
Tiki wanted to participate in an Indian

dance at school but her father was
strongly against her participation. She
decided to take part without getting her
father’s consent which later resulted in
her being punished.
She demanded the reason for her

father’s disagreement but he felt that she
had no right to question his decision.
Critically analyze the situation given

according to your understanding of
rights and responsibilities.
[Source: Fiji National action Plan for Human Rights Education 2003 – 2005: 2003]

45
(a) In the story about Tiki, whose rights were dominant?
(b) In the poster, which ‘Human Rights’ has the artist included. List four.
C. EQUALITY AND FREEDOM

FREEDOM
There are many ways of defining and explaining freedom- a person may be free to make his/her own decision or a country
has been free from the rule or control of another. At times, situations determine how freedom is defined and considered.
Freedom can be explained as:
• Liberty of a person or personal liberty.
• The absence of external restraints and individual behaviour.
• The opposite of Freedom is Slavery.
• Freedom is affected by racism, prejudice, discrimination and oppression
It is important to value the freedom we have and given to us because it enables us to make decisions concerning our life,
family, location, career and leisure.
2.3 SOCIAL DEVIANCE

When people misuse their freedom, it is sometimes social deviance. This is when unacceptable behaviour becomes a
common sight. It differs from the acceptable standard and pattern of behaviour known and acceptable in the society.
Two major examples of social deviance are delinquency (a young law breaker) and truancy (the act of missing school
without permission). They create a habit or attitude that would be difficult to control and change.
There are ways in which such behaviour can be controlled:
• Rehabilitation
• Counseling
• Positive encouragement

46
Society and community members must work together to make sure and see that these kinds of behave`iour are not
entertained by its members. Parents play an important role in instilling good behavior in children and the importance of
becoming a good member of the society and community.
Social deviance can also mean simple protests – having a lip pierced when it is against school policy; J-walking instead of
using the pedestrian crossing; whistling instead of clapping after a performance; wearing a short dress when everyone else
is wearing ankle-length sulu.
Ȃǲ
ǳ
ACTIVITY
Read the article below and make judgment
Meru misses school a lot, from home he is known to be at school. He spends most of his time with his friends in
the amusement centre. He comes from home in school uniform and goes back in school uniform.
(i) problem
Meru’s Identify Jovesa’s
was knownproblem.
during the parents’ teachers’ interview when his parents found out that he failed his
examination and the number of days he stayed away from school.
(ii) What do you think is the cause of problem?
(i) Identify Meru’s problem.
(ii) What do you think is the cause of the problem?
(iii) How is the problem known to his parents?
(iv) If you were Meru’s parents what would you do to resolve Meru’s problem?
There are people and organisations responsible for making sure that people behave as expected without causing conflict
and unrest in the society. Those who break the law are taken to court.

47
Some of the people involve in the maintaining law and order are:
a. Police Force
The main function of the force is to maintain law and order. Other roles they play are:
y Provide security.
y Provide evidence for a court case – act as a witness.
y Maintain law and order.
y Act as escorts for important people.
y Control traffic.
y Go overseas on peacekeeping duties.
y Raise awareness on criminal activities.
y Investigate criminal activities
b. Military Force
They also assist in the maintaining of law and order but their main role is to provide national security and defence. Other
roles are:
• Protect important people like commissioners and

ambassadors
y Guard and protect the EEZ and marine resources.
y Form a special ‘search and rescue’ team when

needed /required.

y Maintain a defensive force for the country when the
ȋǣǣȀȀǤǤȀȀȀʹ͵ͻͷͻͲȌ need arises
y Carry out peacekeeping work in war-torn countries.
y Protect and guard the PM, President, Parliament and

Politicians
ȋǣǣȀȀǤǤȀȀȀʹ͵ͻͷͻͲȌ
y Act as guard of honour and provide security

48
c. Judiciary
The Judiciary is made up of Judges and Magistrates who protect the legal aspect of the law. Some of their roles are:

(Source: http://republikamagazine.com/tag/fiji_judiciary)
y Give justice to the people
y Provide solutions/advice on any problem/misunderstanding.
y Punish people who break the law
y Make fair and just decision against law breakers.
y Interpret the Constitution and make sure it is the basis for all laws.
ACTIVITY
(i) What do you understand by the term ‘House Arrest” and explain why it is a necessary action.
(ii) In a court of law, what happens when a charged person is acquitted?
(iii) State two functions of a jury.
(iv) PARAGRAPH WRITING
Identify one Fiji law which protects the health and welfare of young people (for example, by forbidding them to do
certain things until they are old enough).
Discuss two advantages and two disadvantages of that particular lawǤ VOCABULARY

There are also traditional laws and customary laws in our traditional
society. These laws normally determine the use and ownership of resources.


49
Many of our communities do not use these laws even though they are important and still exist. It is essential that parents,
village headman and leaders do remind the young generation of their existence. That will result in young people
acknowledging and cherishing what traditionally belongs to them.

2.4 RELIGION
Our religion plays an important role in our life. Many families, individuals and society focus on religion to help them
determine how they function, their values, and the expected behaviour. There are many religious group or denomination
and they have different values and beliefs. These values and beliefs influence our decision making and how we live our
lives.
RELIGION IS THE FAITH AND

BELIEFS THAT WE HAVE
1. Choose a religion you feel is completely different from yours and identify and explain the differences.
2. Suggest ways religions can work together to bring peace and harmony within the society.

50
Holy Name of place
of worship
Name of Religion Book Leaders Beliefs
Elders, Pastors, Believe in Jehovah .Sinners will spend

eternity in hell and repentant will spend
Christianity Bible Church Reverend, Father. eternity in heaven with the son of God,
Jesus.
There are many gods and various

sects. Also stress on the cycle of birth
Hinduism Ramayan Temple Brahmins, Pundits. and rebirth. The consequences of our
action in this life will appear in the
rebirth of a new spirit in the next life.
Hanmandir They do not believe in any god but

believe in discipline.
Sikhism Adi Granth Sahib (Golden Gur Nanak Dev Ji
Temple)
They worship Allah and Mohammed as

a messenger of God. The sign of Islam
Islam(Muslims) Koran Mosque Molbi Mulan is a crescent, or a thin moon and a star.
ACTIVITY
(i) Name a ritual that is practiced in your religion and briefly describe how it is carried out.
(ii) Make a presentation to your class on the topic “How my religion influences my life?”
2.5 CONFLICT AND PEACE BUILDING

Conflict is a disagreement between two people, two communities or two nations who have different ideas or belief or have
grievances against each other.
Conflicts are always present in human beings. We must accept that conflict is part of life so that it can also be resolved.
People experience disagreements at one time of their life and these disagreements are normally called conflicts. Conflict
can either be constructive or destructive.
(I) Constructive Conflict – These are conflicts from which one can learn and these conflicts can make our life better.
(II) Destructive Conflict – These are conflicts that lead to the downfall of people or death.

51
Some examples of conflicts are:
Global conflict Role conflict Tribal conflict International conflict
Personal conflict Industrial conflict Border conflict Religious conflict
Causes of conflict Solution
• Differences in needs and wants of the people
• Misunderstanding of cultures, ideas Conflicts may be resolved in traditional

societies where traditional values are still
• Desire for power often leads to conflict intact or in modern ways where western
values are more prevalent.
• Trespassing of territory

• Disagreement over certain issues
Traditional Ways of Resolving Conflicts
In some societies, some people still appreciate their traditional values and thus use their traditional means of resolving
conflict. For example, Maori tradition in New Zealand, the Council of Chiefs in Vanuatu or the unimare (old men) in Kiribati.
In a traditional i-Taukei society, resolving conflict does not only include the two parties involved but the families, communities
as a whole and even the church. When a person is wronged or created conflict, in order to seek forgiveness, the people will
carry out the Bulubulu - which is the i-Taukei traditional way of resolving conflicts.
This is where the presentation of ‘yaqona’ and other food items is followed by a verbal apology. When the items are
accepted, that shows that the hostilities are forgotten. This is commonly practiced in the i-Taukei communities.

52
A Common Scenario Questions
Viliame has a girlfriend and they are already planning to
(i) How many parties are involved in this conflict?
get married. The problem with their relationship was that
Viliame’sparents felt that he must complete his Masters (ii) In your opinion, should the parents be involved in
degree first before settling into marriage. For Viliame to
the decision making of Viliame and Roselyn?
complete his study, it would mean another 6 months of
waiting (iii) What would be the cause of conflict in this
situation?
The girl’s parents on the other hand felt that their (iv) State the way this conflict should be handled or
daughter is not ready for marriage and they should wait resolved.
for another two years. These decisions made Viliame and
Roselyn unhappy and they have decided to elope.
Students to identify a conflict situation they were involved in. state the cause, who was involved and
how it was resolved? What lesson they have learnt from there?
In a traditional Indian society, conflict is resolved through the Panchayat, where a group of 5 elderly people are chosen to
settle disputes in traditional Indian rural societies.
In some traditional settings, there is the Village Council where a village meeting deals with conflicting matters.
Modern /Contemporary Ways of Resolving Conflicts
In Europe for example, conflicts are usually resolved within the legal system. That is, by the court or the arbitrator.
Court/ Legal system – conflicting matters are brought forward in a court system in front of a judge where lawyers fight your
case.
Arbitration – Disputing parties are brought before an arbitrator who leads a discussion to settle disputes especially between
employers and employees.
∗ As a class, carry out a research on the procedure used by the Law Court in resolving conflict.

53
Defending your rights
There are also ways that people use to demonstrate their disagreement on ways conflicts are resolved. For example:
(i) Strike – disagreement between employees and employer over wages, working conditions, management. Workers
refuse to attend work until their demands are met or they come to a compromise.
(ii) Petition – a document signed by citizens opposing the government or a higher authority..
(iii) March/ Protest - gathering of people to walk and show their opposition to certain issues publicly. For example, an
Anti-Nuclear Protest march.
VOCABULARY

ACTIVITY 2 - 20
I. Read the article below and answer the questions that follow:
A Role Conflict
͵Ͳͳ
ǤǤǤ
Ǥ
Ǥ
ǡǤ
Ǥǡ ǡ
ǯ
ǤǤ
ǤǤ

Ǥ
(Source: Freedom and Control)
(i) How was Anare elected to be the class captain?
(ii) What did his friends expect of him and did this create a problem for him?

54
(iii) What problem did he face?
(iv) If you were Anare, how would you resolve this conflict?
2. Read the article given below and answer the questions :
(i) Describe the conflict in the article and the parties involved.
(ii) Which type of conflict would best describe this article?
(iii) What would be the best way to resolve this type of conflict?
Fiji Water: Where bottled water, money, and ethics conflict
Water Numbers: Either one-third of a Fiji cent or 15 Fiji cents per liter.
This week, Fiji Water threatened to close their water bottling plant in Fiji in a game of high-stakes industrial chicken. Why?
Not because they object to the military regime or the unelected government or the martial law. But because the government
of Fiji announced that they intend to increase the business tax on bottled water from F$0.003 per liter (a third of a Fiji cent)
to F$0.15 per liter (15 Fiji cents). This is the second time this chain of events has unfolded: a previous effort to increase the
tax on bottled water also led to a threat to close the Fiji Water plant, and the government backed down.
Fiji Water bottles around 3.5 million liters of water each month for sale (at a typical list price of $3-4 per liter) mostly in
affluent U.S. markets. Current Fiji water taxes generate only F$0.5 million annually, but the proposed increase would raise
this to over F$22 million. The company can certainly afford to pay something more. For comparison, the trade journal
Brand Week put Fiji Water's 2008 marketing budget at US$10 million, just for marketing and advertising.
According to the Fiji Prime Minister Bainimarama, Fiji Water has enjoyed a huge corporate tax holiday for over a decade,
paying less than a million dollars in total corporate tax over the past two years, despite earning hundreds of millions in
revenue from sales of product. The government of Fiji also accuses the company of manipulating the way the value of
water exports is computed to minimize their tax payments. In a war of numbers, the company in turn argues that it provides
lots of jobs, 20 percent of Fiji's exports and 3 per cent of its gross domestic product.
( source: internet: http:// www.sfgate.com)
As human beings, we must understand that conflict is inevitable and we must learn to accept and deal with with
challenges. It is also important to understand that outcomes of any conflicting situation will either be positive or
negative and we need to be prepared to analyse the outcome.

55
2.6 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN GROUPS
A “relationship” is the way in which two people, groups or countries behave towards each other.
The way in which a person is related to somebody else in the family, for example, is a father- son relationship.
ACTIVITY 2 -17
(I) Complete the table below to explain the relationship between the following groups.
Group How is this relationship demonstrated
Parents vs. children
Teacher vs. student
Adult vs. children
Employers vs. Employee
(ii) Research Work
a. List ten different kinds of work done by people living in your area.
b. Identify three people doing different kinds of work and find out about the following:
(i) Who employs them?
(ii) What kind of work they do?
(iii) What sort of things do the employees expect from the employers?
(iv) What do the employees expect from their employers?

56
2.7 THE DISADVANTAGED GROUP
[Source: http://www.uscpaa.org/wp.content.upload/2010/02/disabilities.jpg
There are many disadvantaged groups in our society. Being disadvantage means not being able to support yourself or
having very less or no excess at all to services and means that can provide for our survival.
These groups are also known as the “Disempowered Group”. Two examples of such groups are the physically disabled
and the elderly.
THE DISABLED
‘Disabled usually refer to people with physical or mental disabilities. Most of these disabilities are beyond their control thus
making them disadvantaged.
There are two types of disability:
ii. Physical disability – these are people who have physical disabilities such as not being able to walk or talk properly,
hearing problem, speech problem, poor eye sight or even blindness.
iii. Old Age Disability – this type of disability is inevitable as people are not able to do things properly due to old age.
Many of them become sickly, weak or cannot do things by themselves. Some of the problems they encounter are:
y Physical weakness, poor eyesight, weak limbs and deafness.
y Loneliness.
y Disrespect by young people.
y Rejection by family members and society.

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Physical Disability Old Age Disability
[Source: http://www.images.inmagine.com/img/radiusimages/rds109/]
WAYS TO HELP THE DISABLED
There are many ways societies can help the disabled. It is important that they are empowered to be able to live an
independent life and support themselves. Some of the ways they could be helped are:
y Treating them
y with respect, dignity and equality.
y Providing workshops /training where they could learn basic skills for activities as printing, weaving and baking so it
can become their source of income.
y Encourage and help them to develop positive attitude of life
INSTITUTIONS THAT HELP THE PHYSICALLY DISABLED
There are institutions that provide assistance to advocate for such group of people. With their help many have found
employment, started their own business and adapted into the main stream of activities in the society.
y Fiji Society for the Blind.
y Fiji Crippled Society.
y Fiji Crippled Children’s School.
y Fiji Disable People Association.
y Old people’s Home
y St Giles Hospital

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ACTIVITY 2 - 18
1. Copy and complete the table.
The Disadvantaged Group
Difficulties Care given to Assistance

they faced them available,
Type provided. Causes Solution
Physically Disabled
Needy people
( Beggars, Shoeshine
boys, Homeless)
Old Age Disability
2. In what way you can identify yourself as being disabled.
3. In two sentences, explain the phrase below.

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2.6 LOCAL LEADERS
In all societies, there are leaders who contribute to the welfare of the people and the society. There are also leaders who in
the past made an impact on the society, brought about social, economical and political changes and development.
Fiji as a multiracial society have had great leaders from all ethnic groups who have contributed to their country and also to
their own ethnic group. Some of the leaders had impacted our country were:
1. Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna [ 1888 – 1958]
y Ratu Sir Josefa Lalabalavu Vanayaliyali Sukuna was born into a chiefly
family in Bau..
y He attended Wairuku Indian School in Ra and then moved to Whanganui

College in New Zealand.
y He proved to be a bright pupil and spoke very good English.
y He was the first Fijian to graduate from a university, graduated with a law
degree from Oxford University
y Enlisted in the French Foreign Legion during WWI.
y Returned to Fiji when his father died in 1920 and brought with him a
tailored ‘sulu vakataga’ (pocket sulu), which became a national dress.
y In 1938, Sukuna was crowned the Tui Lau .In 1940, he became the Native Lands Reserves Commisioner.
y He encouraged the formation of Fiji’s first political party, the Fijian Association under the leadership of Ratu Epeli
Cakobau.
y He died en route to England on the ship Arcadia on May 30th , 1958.
Other Achievements
• Ratu Sukuna’s greatest achievement was his role in establishing the Native Land Trust Board.
• In 1944, he established the Native Regulation Board renamed the Fijian Affairs Board.
• He was appointed the first speaker of the Legislative Council
• He mentored several of the men who were to play pivotal roles in the post independence year.
[Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lala_Sukuna.]
In summary, Ratu Sukuna was a high chief, great statesman, a scholar, a teacher, a soldier and should be an example to all
of us. Ratu Josefa Iloilo, a former President of Fiji described him as “a great and noble man….. whose foresight and
vision still impacts on our future”.

60
2. Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara [ 1920 – 2004]
y Is considered to be the founding father of a modern nation Fiji.
y Was chief minister from 1967-1970.
y The first Fijian Prime Minister from 1970-1992.
y President of the Fiji Islands from 1993 – 2000.
y Paramount chief of the Lau ; succeeded to the Tui Nayau title in 1969
y Founded the Alliance Party and the Pine industry
Education
• Educated at Sacred Heart College in Auckland, Knox College, Otago University where he studied medicine.
y Graduated from Oxford University.
y 1961 – pursued postgraduate study at the London School of Economics
y He contributed a lot to the social, economic and political development of Fiji and its people.
y He died in 2004
[Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamisese_Mara]
Ratu Mara was regarded as the modern Fiji’s founding father. He contributed to the development of the sugarcane
industry, pine industry and even well known internationally .
Identify one of Ratu Mara’s contributions, either socially, economically or politically to Fiji and describe
how the local people benefitted from his contribution.
3. Ambalal Dayabhai Patel [AD Patel]
y Was a Fiji born politician.
y Farmers’ leader and founder of the NFP (National Federation Party).
y Was committed to the vision of an independence Fiji with full racial

integration
y One of the first to advocate a republic/common roll.
y Was a barrister.

61
y Married an English woman (inter-racial marriage).
y Stood for the 1937 Legislative Council election but lost.
y Appointed as the member for Social Services.
y A.D.Patel College in Ba is named after him.
There are women leaders who have contributed a lot ot the development of our country socially, economically and politically.
For example, Adi Kuini Speed who was once a well known woman politician, Adi Finau Tabakaucoro who contributed al lot
to the welfare of women, Shamima Ali who is very much concerned about the protection of women from violence, Irene Jai
Narayan, a well known politican during her time and so many more.
ACTIVITY 2 – 21
Research Work
(i) Choose a local leader in your community and complete the table below. Include three women and three men.
Local Leader (name) Leadership Qualities Contribution to Community Living
Summary
In this unit you have studied how a community functions. The key words have been Social Control, Rights,
Responsibilities, Deviance, Law and Order, Conflict, Disadvantage and Leadership.
To see if you are ready to move on to the next topic, challenge your classmate to explain what each of these words mean -
Social Control, Rights, Responsibilities, Deviance.
Now, ask your classmate to test you on the other four key words – Law and Order, Conflict, Disadvantage and
Leadership.
If you pass this little test, you are ready to move on to part 3 of this unit. It looks at the role of Non-Government
Organisations (NGOs) and how they help to resolve issues and problems and how they make society peaceful and
prosperous.

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UNIT 3
NGOs AND REGIONAL ORGANISATIONS

Source: http://www.nwa-vangani.co.za/images/HelpUslogo.jpg&imgrefurl/rentisland.com
http://www.pacificbusinessonline.com/files/imagecache/story_23pacificforum+Logo_0.jpg&imgrefurl
TOPICS
3.1 Non-Government Organizations – Brief history, Functions, Contributions
3.2 Regional Organizations – Aims, Roles and Functions, Importance and Contribution to People’s Welfare

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3.1 NON – GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS (NGOs)
• Save the Children Fiji
• Live and Learn
• Religious and Church Organizations
• Red Cross Society
• Fiji Women’s Crisis Center
There are many Non-Government Organizations in Fiji. They have different functions and play different roles in the country
and within the local community. However, they have the same goal that is to provide assistance to those who need help for
survival whether in terms of food, education, sanitation, home and health.
Choose an NGO and write down two

ways in which they assist or help our
society.
Some of the NGOs who provided assistance to our communities are:
(i) Red Cross Society
[Source: http://www.pacificisndjobs.com/uploads/Fiji RedCross Society_Logo_red.jpg.

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BRIEF HISTORY
The Fiji Red Cross Society was established in 1954 as a branch of the British Red Cross. It was recognized as an
independent National Society in 1973. The Society is officially recognized by the government of Fiji as a voluntary relief
organization, an auxiliary to public authorities and is the only Red Cross Society in Fiji. It is the most widely recognized and
respected humanitarian organization in the country.
The Society has a National Council, a National Board, a National Office in Suva and 15 active branches and two Divisional
Service Centers (DSC Northern and DSC Western ) throughout Fiji, covering 80% of the country.
The Branches function primarily as relief operators and as a network system for implementing and promoting various
programmes and services within their communities. The DSC Northern and DSC Western are the link on the ground for the
National Office and the branches and each are responsible for their divisionsrespectivelyǤ
Depending on capacity, the Society fills the gaps where they can by providing the following free services and programmes:
1. relief items to victims of natural disasters and fires

2. protecting and promoting human dignity of people living with and affected by HIV
3. community-based safety first aid
4. community-based home care and the provision of ambulatory aids for the disabled and elderly
5. HIV in the Workplace sessions
6. Blood donor advocacy
7. Red Cross in schools
The programme areas covered by the Society are as follows:
1. Disaster Preparedness and Response

2. Health and Care
3. International Humanitarian Law
4. Safety First Aid
5. Resource Development
NAME/ TYPE The Red Cross / NGO
AIM The aim or purpose of the Red Cross is to provide relief to victims of disaster and help people
prevent, prepare for, and respond to emergencies.
FUNCTION The Branches function primarily as relief operators and as a network system for implementing and
promoting various programmes and services within their communities

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CONTRIBUTION 1. relief items to victims of natural disasters and fires
TO PEOPLE’S 2. protecting and promoting human dignity of people living with and affected by HIV
WELFARE 3. community-based safety first aid
4. community-based home care and the provision of ambulatory aids for the disabled
disabled and elderly
5. HIV in the Workplace sessions
6. Blood donor advocacy
7. Red Cross in schools
(ii) The Fiji Women’s Crisis Centre (FWCC)
BRIEF HISTORY
The Fiji Women's Crisis Centre" (FWCC) is a Non-Government Organization (NGO) established in 1984. It offers
counseling and legal, medical, and practical support to woman and children victims of violence.
The Women's Crisis Centre started in August 1984. The founding group met in 1983, when women of a variety of races,
nationalities, religions and beliefs, got together and expressed a fear about the number of sexual attacks on women in and
around the city of Suva. The group was worried about the lack of support for women.
There was no official body to provide help, so the women decided to work towards providing such a service themselves. The
result was the Women's Crisis Centre. The Centre is funded by donations and by small grants, occasionally from the
government. It is a charitable trust affiliated to the National Council of Women. However, the National Council of Women has
not provided much help to the Centre; the WCC however still wished to be affiliated to the NCW.
Presently, the centre is made up of about 30 women, mostly locals and some expatriates. Its aim is to continue to increase
the number of local women members, and the Centre constantly works to this end.

66
Fiji Women’s Crisis Centre
: NGO
NAME/ TYPE
To be committed to the betterment of women’s lives through

collective efforts against violence.
AIM
To see that no one has the right to inflict violence on a woman or

child under any circumstances.
FUNCTION That women’s voice are heard.
Counseling and support services

Community Education and Public Advocacy
Information and research
CONTRIBUTION TO PEOPLE’S WELFARE Regional Training Programme
Male advocacy programme on Women’s Human Rights
Regional and International networking.

(Source: www.ausaid.govt.au/..../white ribbon_story.jpg.)

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ACTIVITY
CHOOSE either the Red Cross or Fiji Women’ Crisis Centre and complete the table below.
NAME/ TYPE
AIM
FUNCTION
ROLE
IMPORTANCE
CONTRIBUTION TO PEOPLE’S
WELFARE

68
(III) Save the Children Fiji
Save the Children Fiji promotes children's rights and responds to their needs by facilitating lasting improvements that enable
children to become responsible.
Save the Children’s first started as a Sponsorship Scheme where the organization assisted children with their education
expenses. Assistance was both on a short term and long term basis. In 1998, the organization resolved to focus on two key
strategic directions – promoting equity in education and advancing children’s rights in line with the United Nation’s
Convention on the Rights of the Child.
This shift led to the organization branching out into other areas of programming and eventually phasing out the sponsorship
scheme.
Save the Children Fiji involves itself on projects and activities that benefit children and the society as a whole. Some of the
projects and activities include:
a. Child’s right Awareness Training - It aims to protect children at risk of abuse, exploitation and violence.
b. Early Childhood Education - Using Mobile Playground Programme to provide basic education for economically
disadvantaged children.
c. Research and Advocacy – Provide information necessary to advocate for policy changes to bring about
improvement to children’s lives.
d. School Development Program – it was initiated in 1998. Schools benefitted through a textbook hire scheme,
provisions of water tanks for schools in drought prone areas, dormitory and classroom furniture, library blocks and
books, sanitation projects and classroom block construction.
e. Emergency Relief – during emergencies and natural disasters, Save the Children Fiji provide support for children in
the form of a school feeding programs, bus fare assistance, clothing, stationery, books and fees.
f. [Most of the information was adapted from http://www.savethechildren.org.fj/fiji/general/contactuis.hml]

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3.2 REGIONAL AGENCIES
USP SPC PFL
FFA
Regional Agencies
SPREP
SOPAC
Forum Secretariat MSG SPTO
The Regional Agencies are agencies that were established to focus on issues in the Pacific Region. The statutory objectives
of the Regional Agencies are, at present:
1. to further economic development and regeneration;

2. to promote business efficiency and competitiveness;
3. to promote employment;
4. to enhance the development and application of skills relevant to employment, and
5. To contribute to sustainable development.
Some examples of Regional Agencies are shown below:
(i) THE PACIFIC FORUM LINE ( SHIPPING)-( PFL)
a. The PFL was established in 1977 and started operations in 1978.

b. It was established especially to provide modern shipping services in the Pacific Region.
ROLE
a. To offer efficient and modern shipping services among the Pacific Islands.
b. To help ensure trade between islands.

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FUNCTIONS
a. To ensure regular shipping services

b. To offer a modern shipping service.
c. To encourage the economic development of the region
d. To keep freight rates low
e. To operate a viable shipping service.
HEADQUARTERS:
a. The headquarters of the PFL is located in Auckland , NZ.

b. Agencies are located in Suva – Fiji, Apia – Samoa and Christchurch in NZ.
OPERATION OF SHIPPING SERVICES:
PFL operates a few vessels on 3 routes……all connecting NZ, Australia and the Pacific Islands.
a. The bulk of the cargoes carried are containerized ( large steel container boxes)
(ii) FORUM FISHERIES AGENCIES (FFA )
• The Headquarters is in Honiara, Solomon Islands.

• Established in 1979 under a Convention signed by 12 forum countries.
• The convention reflects the common concern of member nations on matters of Conservation of Marine Species and
State’s Sovereign Rights over the region’s living marine resources.
• Its governing body is the Forum Fisheries Committee (FFC) which decides on the FFA budget.
• The FFC is responsible for the appointments of the FFA.
• A Multilateral Treaty on Fisheries with the USA was signed on April 2nd 1987. It was renewed in 1993.
Aim
To enable member countries to manage, conserve and use the tuna resources in their exclusive economic zones and
beyond, through enhancing national capacity and strengthening regional solidarity, (Council of Regional Organization in
the Pacific, 2003: pp4).
Functions
a. It protects and conserves the marine resources of the member nations.

b. It gives each island country the right to enforce the 200 mile Exclusive Economic Policy that arose from the law of
the Sea Conference

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(iii) SOUTH PACIFIC FORUM [PACIFIC ISLAND FORUM]
Body formed by the Pacific leaders to enhance and support the social wellbeing of the people of the Pacific.
Member Countries
Some of the member countries are New Zealand, Tonga Australia, Western Samoa, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Solomon
Islands, Niue, Palau. Cook Islands, Marshall Islands, Tuvalu, Micronesia, Kiribati.
Fiji was suspended since May 2, 2009
One of the major agreement signed by the forum as a way to help the Pacific Island countries was SPARTECA
SOUTH PACIFIC REGIONAL TRADE AND ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AGREEMENT ( SPARTECA)
• Was signed by the Forum Heads of Government at their meeting on the 15th of July, 1980 in Tarawa, Kiribati.
• Since it started, export from the Forum Island Countries (FIC) to Australia and New Zealand has increased in several
areas including timber and coconut- products, canned fish and clothing items.
• The aim is to enhance the export capabilities of the Forum Island Countries. (FIC).
Functions
• To provide island countries markets for their export like garments, fruits and food crops
• To promote investments planning in the South Pacific Region.
• It looks after the Regional Economic Issues.
(iv) SECRETARIAT OF THE PACIFIC COMMUNITY
The Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) is a regional technical and development organization. SPC work
programmes develop the technical, professional, scientific, research, planning and management capability of Pacific
island people.
The agency has three main divisions: land, marine and social. SPC's headquarters are located in Noumea with a sub-
branch in Suva.
(v) PACIFIC ISLANDS FORUM SECRETARIAT
The Secretariat is the administrative arm of the Pacific Islands Forum. Its programmes are aimed at promoting
regional cooperation among member states through trade, investment, economic development and political and
international affairs.

72

The Forum Secretariat implements work program through three main areas;
- Development and economic policy
- Political and international affairs
- Trade and investment (Council of Regional Organization in the Pacific, 2003: pp10)
Head Quarters: Suva, Fiji
History: 1972 was known as the South Pacific Bureau for Economic cooperation (SPEC) and later change to the South
Pacific Forum in 1988. It adopted its present name in the year 2000.
(vi) SOUTH PACIFIC REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMME
The South Pacific Regional Environment Programme's (SPREP) charter is to strengthen the capacity of Pacific island
members to plan and manage their own national environmental programmes and to enhance regional cooperation to
deal more effectively with issues that are transboundry in nature or which require interventions at the global level.
The work of the organisation covers nature conservation, pollution prevention, climate change and economic
development.
(vii) South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission
The South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) work focuses on providing assistance to its 20 member
countries in three key programme areas: Ocean and Islands Programme, Community Lifelines Programme and
Community Risk Programme.
(viii) The University of the South Pacific
The University of the South Pacific provides tertiary and higher education to the Pacific region. It has 12 member
countries and based in Suva Fiji. There are also small centers located in each member country.
USP was established in 1968 by the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, at the request of the Pacific Island leaders to
meet the training and the development needs of the newly emerging island states of the Pacific and to strengthen
institutional capacity in the region, (Council of the Regional Organization in the Pacific, 2003: pp23).

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(ix) South Pacific Tourism Organization (SPTO)
The organization was set up in the 1980s and was known as the Tourism Council of the South Pacific. The organization
is based in Suva, Fiji and it plays an important role in both the social and economic development of the Pacific region,
through its support of the tourism industry.
ACTIVITY
i. Choose a Regional Agency apart from the ones mentioned above, state its headquarters and explain three
ways in which it provides assistance to Pacific Countries.
ii. List ten key problems that Regional Agencies try to solve.
iii. Paragraph
(a) Choose any two regional agencies specifically set up to cater for the South Pacific Countries.
(b) Outline three ways in which these agencies have improved the island’s economies.
(v) Identify the agencies that is represented by these symbols
Summary
In this section you looked at three non-government agencies (Red Cross, Fiji Women’s Crisis Centre and Save the
Children Fiji) and the sort of work they do to help Fijians.
You also looked at regional organisations that try to help people right across the Pacific.
Before you change direction and study Chapter 2, here is a small test. Stand up in front of the class for three (3) minutes
and begin by saying “For me personally the organization that most helps Fijians is ………”.
In your talk you could go all the way back to the earliest Topics on how humans create communities, social control,
rights, and conflict resolution, or you could focus on local and regional organisations that help society in general.
You are now ready to move to Chapter 2 and change direction and study that past (our early History) and how Fiji is
caught up in world affairs and current events.

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CHAPTER TWO: TIME, CONTINUITY AND CHANGE
STRAND OUTCOME:
Recognize that our past play a significant role in shaping our

current actions and values and to propose processes and
actions to build a better future.
UNIT 1: HISTORY OF FIJI

[Pre-contact to Cession]
2.1 Early Settlers and the Society of the Early Fijians
2.2 European Discovery of Fiji
2.3 The Rise of Ma’afu and Cakobau
UNIT 2: CURRENT AFFAIRS

2.21 Local Current Affairs
2.22 International Current Affairs

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UNIT 1
HISTORY OF FIJI
(Source: photographs from the King of the Cannibal Isles, by Brewster A B, 1937)
Most information in this chapter was adapted from Fiji in the Pacific, By Kerr, M Quanchi and Donnelly, Fiji
in the Pacific, Jacaranda, 1992.

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Pre- Contact Period
• Period before the arrival of Europeans to Fiji.
Before the arrival of the Europeans, Pacific Islanders have already settled in the Pacific at least for 40 000 years. They
established themselves and created a social structure and organization. Many theories have been put forward to explain the
way in which the Pacific was settled.
2.1 EARLY SETTLERS

• There were three periods of early voyaging:
a. Ist Period: 50,000 – 60, 000 years ago.
Movements of people from South China and the first Aboriginal people moved to Continent Australia and New Guinea.
b. 2nd Period: 30,000 – 40,000 years ago.
People continued to move into South East Asia, Australia and mainland New Guinea islands and nearly Solomon Island.
c. 3rd Period : 3500 – 3000 years
People moved quickly through voyaging from Melanesia out into the South Pacific, and into the North Pacific from
Philippines/Taiwan into the atolls of Micronesia.
Define the word “THEORY”
THE SOCIETY OF THE EARLY FIJIANS
SETTLEMENTS
• First settlements in Fiji- started by voyaging traders and settlers from

Melanesiaabout 3500 years ago.
• Early travelers were using Fiji as a transit so therefore it has both a

history of settlement and mobility.

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• Due to the fact that Lapita potteries have been found in Lakeba, Beqa, Natunuka, Naigani and other parts of Fiji, it
suggested that the first Fijians shared common cultural aspects with the people of the Western Pacific or
Melanesia.
• Stone adzes found in Samoa and Fiji suggested that Fijian culture has a link to Samoans culture.
• Huge canoes made from Fiji trees were found in Tonga and also some of the words used by the people of Lau
were similar and this suggested that there was also a link between Fiji and Tonga. Marriage linked many Fijian and
Tongan families.
• Pots made in Fiji have been found in the Marquesas Islands.
• All these contacts could have been the result of people of other places coming to, through
and from Fiji. This could also explain the number of languages or dialects used within the
Fiji Group.
(Source:http://www.justpacific.com/Fiji/fijiphotos/books/canniblisies.suvachurch82.jpg)
SOCIAL ORGANISATION
• The i-Taukei ( taukei ni qele) settled and worked the land

• The first settlers’ society was made up of many different people, some staying while others moved on to the other new
districts.
• People cleared the bush, levelled land and made gardens in different ways.
• New settlers introduced new patterns or designs in Lapita pottery.
• Gradually, through this sharing process, a unique Fiji culture developed to form and we can see the start of a distinct:
a. Social organization Activity

b. Work organization
c. Decision making Carry out an interview with an old member of your community and find out how life and
d. Ceremonial life work were organized during his or her childhood. Discuss your finding with the class.
EFFECTS OF POPULATION GROWTH ON SOCIAL STRUCTURE
As the population increased, people settled permanently which resulted in the formation of social organization known as the
“mataqali” or the family unit.
• The “mataqali” was headed by a “Turaga” or chief

• Land use was decided by the “ mataqali” and in some parts of Fiji by a smaller group within the village known as
“tokatoka”
• Political authority was organized within, whereby everyone was given a position: chiefs, the chief’s assistance,
speakers and orators, organizers of ceremonies, priests and warriors.

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There were chiefs at different levels:-
a. A chief of the leading family of each village
b. A chief of whole island or large district
c. A great chief – ruling several islands and other regions
Chiefs were responsible for:

a. Control of food production
b. Decision about village life
c. Protection of the people from attackers
d. Uphold village law
These chiefs had power of all life and death over their people and they commanded great respect. Several “mataqali” who
were linked to a common ancestor began to form “yavusa” or clans.
As the population grew and competition for power and status increased, the “yavusa” joined to form a “vanua” (a small
alliance).Later, several vanua would join to form a larger political group the “matanitu”.
However, this organization of “mataqali”, “yavusa”,” vanua” and “matanitu” was not exactly the same all over Fiji. This was
also not permanent, like the “mataqali” of one “yavusa” might disagree, break away and form another “yavusa”, or move to
another district. By 1800, there were 12 powerful “matanitu” in Fiji each led by great chiefs competing for power.
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Vanua
yasanas
Yavusa

mataqali
∗ Yavusa - there can be two or more yavusa in the (vanua) village

∗ Mataqali – one or more than one mataqali in one yavusa

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WHAT WAS EARLY FIJI LIKE?
The i-Taukei lived a life regularly threatened by war but were busy tending animals, fishing, ceremonies and domestic
chores each day. Agriculture was very important. They used wet-field methods to grow taro and protected the soil by leaving
fields fallow. Another characteristic of early life was the practice of sacrifice - for ceremonial and spiritual reasons; people
were used as rollers to launch huge war canoes or buried in the postholes of new buildings. A barter system was used for
trading mostly by people living in the interior with those along the coastal area or by a “mataqali” living along a river, or on
neighbouring islands
EVIDENCE OF THE PAST
The evidence of the past has been shown and demonstrated in many ways. The older generation are able to interpret and
explain what took place earlier in life by the evidence around them. Such evidence is in the form of:
a. Old structures such as forts and ditches
b. Customs passed down through the generations
c. Messages in the forms of ceremonies, rituals, songs, myths, chants, body decorations, house carvings, “masi”
patterns
d. The shape of sail
e. Hand and body movements in dances
f. Stories passed down through generations
g. Diaries and letters of Europeans who saw Fiji before it was affected by western habits, goods and ideas
h. Photographs (after1840)
(Source:http://www.=pictures=of=early=fijians&safe)
ACTIVITY
Why do you think is important to know how the Fijians live their lives in the past?

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2.2 EUROPEAN DISCOVERY OF FIJI
Explorers Dates Names of Ships Discoveries and Achievements.
ABEL JANSOON TASMAN 1643 Heemskerch & * Entered the Fiji Group. Came down to Taveuni
Zeehaen through the Ringgold islands from where he
turned North, leaving Fiji by way of Cikobia.
*Tasman Namuka Reef ‘Heemskerck Shoals”
*He made no landing.
CAPT. JAMES COOK( 2nd Voyage

1772-1775)
1774 Resolution & *He sighted the islands of Vatoa and named it
Adventure Turtle Island.
CAPT. WILLIAM BLIGH *A mutiny led by Fletcher Christian caused Bligh

& 18 others to be drifted in an open boat.
( 1st Voyage)
* 4th May – entered the Fiji Group between
1789 Bounty Yayasa Levu and Moce.
* 6th May – discovered Gau, Nairai, Koro, Viti

Levu
* Bligh passed between Viti Levu and vanua

Levu.
* He did not land because he was afraid of the

hostility of the natives.

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CAPT. WILLIAM BLIGH *Bligh returned to Fiji
( 2nd Voyage) 1792 PROVIDENCE *Bligh’s second voyage added new islands to his
chart (map)
* For a long time the Fiji Group was known “

Bligh’s Island”
*Bligh was the first to put Fiji on a map.
CAPTAIN JAMES WILSON *He saw Yagasa, Moce & Recorded Ogea and
Fulaga.
1779 DUFF
*The Duff was almost wrecked on a reef which
he named “ Providence Reef”
*He named Vanua Balavu, Sir Charles

Middleton’s Islands.
*He was famous for discovering many islands

and reefs in the Northern Part of Lau.
1794 ARTHUR *Landed – In the Yasawas
CAPTAIN BENTLY 1799 ANN & HOPE *Sighted Kadavu, Beqa, Vatulele and Malolo.
BELLINGSHAUSEN 1820 *Charted the reefs of Ono-i-Lau.

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DUMONT D’URVILLE 1834 ASTROLABE *He sighted Astrolabe Reef.
(Source: http://os8soth.wikispaces.com/European+Exploration&usg
:http:/www.chronicle-dicksonj.edu/encyclo/w/wilsonJ.jpg&imgrefurl)
VOCABULARY
Activity
i. What was the daily lifestyle during the pre-contact period? Archeologist
ii. Why was the need for social structure in the Early Fijian Societies? Lapita
Melanesians
iii. Who was the first- European explorer to visit Fiji? Micronesians
Polynesians
iv. Which people did Captain James Cook make contact with?
Migrate
v. How did Bligh find the Fiji Islands- Explain what happened? Pre – history
vi. On a map of the Pacific mark in the routes of Tasman and Bligh. Radio carbon dating
Voyaging corridor
vii. Draw a map of the Fiji area, showing the routes of Tasman, Cook, Bligh and Wilson.
Barter system

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EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACT
The Sandalwood trade
• Europeans first came to Fiji in large numbers in search of sandalwood

(Fragrant wood that contained oil which was greatly valued)
• A profitable trade in sandalwood could be found in China and India as they were used for religious articles and
scent.
• It was highly priced in Asia and buyers would pay high price for it.
[Source: http:www.kawiseraya.com/images/sandalwood]
1800 OLIVER SLATER
1800 – Olive Slater discovered sandalwood at Bua Bay.
- Was picked up by the ship El Plumier ( was sailing to Manila in the Philippines)
1804 – Slater found a market for sandalwood & passed on the news to Simeon Lord, the owner of the schooner, Marcia.
1805 – First cargo of Sandalwood from Fiji
1808 – 1809 Sandalwood trade reached its peak
1813 – Very little sandalwood left and traders turned their attention to beach- de-mer.
1830s – Bech –de-mer trade reached its height.
ITEMS USED FOR TRADE BY EUROPEANS FOR SANDALWOOD
• Iron hoops and bars

• Fishing hooks
• Bottles
• Clothes
Chiefs learnt skillful bargaining. Often the price included the use of a trader, his ship, his men and muskets in war against a
neighbouring chief.

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EFFECTS OF THE SANDALWOOD TRADE
• Brought in a source of wealth ( items brought in the Europeans)

• I-Taukei were eager to sell their sandalwood for the traders, “tabua”, iron, goods and tools
• Jealousy among other chiefs without access to traders and European goods
EFFECTS ON ECONOMIC LIFESTYLE
• New western items were traded in the exchange of goods by the tribes. ( It had greater gain for Fiji than for
Europeans)
• These new items brought other benefits to Fiji.
• Fijians became exposed to European diseases such as measles and the common cold.
• Men were away from their village a long time cutting trees and loading them on trader’s ships.
• Fijians started to get jobs on board the trader’s ships like temporary pilots, cooks and translators.
• Woman had to make do while men were away from the village
BEACHCOMBER

[Source: http://www.untoldentertainment.com/blog/2010/09/23/beachcomber]
Beachcombers were such men as shipwrecked sailors, runaway convicts and ship deserters.
They brought with them not only their immoral ways of life, but also firearms and alcohol thus more serious changes were
brought by these people which influenced the Fijian way of life.
REASONS FOR ESCAPING FROM SHIPS
• To escape poor conditions on board

• Low wages
• Severe punishment

EFFECTS OF BEACHCOMBERS
They lived with Fijians and also brought them new ideas of Western Technology, including fire arm sled led to the change in
the communal lifestyles because these people lived with the Fijians. They settled and married in villages. They fought
amongst themselves.

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CHARLES SAVAGE: 1808
• Beachcomber who survived a shipwreck and found his way to Bau.
• Savage took a supply of muskets and ammunition from the wreck
• Bau was then able to conquer its rivals and establish itself as one of the
most powerful links in Fiji.
• With his ability to speak both Tongan and Fijian made him become accepted
as the Vunivalu of Bau’s Whiteman.
[Source: http://www.123people.ca/s/s/charless+savage&usg]
WHALING
[Source: http://www.rte.ie/news/2013/06261/458936-japan-australia]
• The whaling era in the Pacific lasted from 1789 – 1860.

• It was dominated by Whalers from the New England coast of North America.
• By 1840 there 700 American whaling ships in the Pacific. They provided employment for the people in the Pacific.
• Even though Fiji was a long distance from the whaling areas, it established a small whaling settlement using the
sheltered harbor at Levuka by 1830.
• The Rotumans obtained whales teeth from the whalers and used them for trading with i-Taukei during inter – island
voyages.

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BECHE – DE-MER (a.k.a. TREPANG OR HOLITHURIUM)
Bech de mer trading became popular in Fiji after sandalwood trade. It was a thriving activity to many Fijian villages and
many villagers decided to live their village and move to areas where work is provided. The activity had a great impact to the
villagers and at the same time interrupted their village organization.
[Source: http:www.reef.crc.org.au/research/fishing_fisheries/statusfisheries/images/Bech-de-mer_Holothuria]
IMPACT OF BECHE DE MER
• Many decided to live near the bech –de –mer station. It meant an increase in some Fijians. ( people escaped from
village / community work )
• Led to increasing competition between Vanua and Matanitu for access to bech-de-mer station.
• Change in communal lifestyles because temporary villages were started near trading stations
• Concentration on getting bech-de-mer and neglecting daily task.
MISSIONARIES
The first missionaries to reach Fiji were two Tahitians, Hanea and Atai of the London Missionary Society(LMS). After being
driven out of Lakeba, they established themselves in Oneata in 1830 and soon built a small group of converts.
[Source: http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/wordscpe/Cargill/Mission3])

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MISSIONARIES DATE/MOVEMENT/PURPOSE OF COMING INFLUENCES ON FIJIAN LIFE
WILLIAM CROSS • 1835 – They arrived in Lakeba where they CONFLICTS

were accepted by Tui Nayau.
• Generally, missionaries showed little
• They were no converts respect for Native Custom & Tradition –
this made the Fijians resentful.
• They had come to spread Christianity.
• Most of the missionaries were narrow
• Were responsible for producing the first minded and they forced their converts to
DAVID GARGILL book in Fijian – an extract from St. give up much of their natural way of life.
Matthews Gospel. They made women wear dresses down
to their ankles – the women left them on
• 1837 – W. Cross went to Bau but found
that Cakobau was engaged in war. when they were damp. As a result
people got influenza and pneumonia.
• He moved to Rewa where he was Chief Namosimalua pretended to accept
welcomed by Tui Dreketi Christianity but only to escape from the
threat of naval guns. He thought that
• Cross moved to Viwa ( where he set a first being a Christian would protect him
( WESLEYAN printing press) against this powerful threat of a
MISSIONARIES)
Christian God.
• One man, one wife – Fijians found that

hard to accept.
• Missionaries destroyed temples and

JOHN HUNT idols of Fijian Gods and this caused
more resentment among the Fijians.
• 1838 – J.Hunt and T. Jaggar arrived in
Lakeba and set up another printing press BENEFITS
• They educated Fijians – trained

teachers, translated scriptures from
other books, published a dictionary &
grammar & set up schools.
&THOMAS JAGGAR
• Brought medicines
• Raised the importance of women in

everyday life.

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DR LYTHE • 1839 – Dr Lythe joined Hunt in Taveuni.
• 1840 – 4 Wesleyan stations were set up in

Lakeba, Rewa, Viwa & Somosomo. Many
chiefs accepted Christianity for it preached
that war and many expensive and
oppressive Fiji customs were wrong.
• 1841 – Ma’afu accepted Christianity,

followed by Tui Nayau and other chiefs.
• 1854 – Cakobau was converted to

Christianity.
[Source:http://www.upload.wikimedia.org/Wikipedia/commonsa/3/36/Jaggar_and_Thurston_at_Kilaue.jpg.imgfurl]
Discussion
How did Fiji benefit from the coming of the missionaries?
UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITION
I led the
“USExEx”expedition
to the Pacific
In 1840, an American expedition of (four) 4 ships arrived in Fiji. Led by Commodore Wilkes carrying out expedition work in
the Pacific and included many scientists and artist and a language expert. It was called the USXX – the United States
Exploring Expedition.
In the three months which they spent in Fiji waters, the Americans produced the first reasonably complete chart of the Fiji
group.

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An agreement was made between Wilkes and Tanoa of Bau
• Tanoa and other chiefs agreed to give protection to foreign ships and to supply them with water and provisions.
• Crews of wrecked ships were to be protected
• Alcohol was not to be brought ashore
• Deserters were to be captured and returned to their ships
• No seamen were to remain ashore after nine o’clock in the evening.
• Ships were required to pay three dollars for port charges and seven dollars for a pilot’s services.
EUROPEAN PLANTERS AND SETTLERS
• Permanent settlers in Fiji after 1860 became involved more directly with Fijian life and Politics (they wanted land
and labor for their plantations and settled government which would give them a firm title to their land as well as
protection).
• Most Europeans arrived in Fiji in 1860s as there was the boom in cotton prices (a.k.a the GREAT FIJI RUSH). Fiji’s
climate and cheap land attracted settlers and planters.
• In between 1860 – 1871, the numbers increased from 30 to 2760.
REASONS FOR COMING TO FIJI
• Attracted many who had failed to make good on the goldfields of Australia and New Zealand or in the towns of the
colonies
• Some saw an opportunity to make their fortune by investing money in Fiji (as a result, the Polynesian company was
formed comprising of Europeans and Settlers who invested in Fiji). They bought men to run shops and other
services so Levuka then Suva sprang up as pioneer towns.
• 1868 – 1871 – Levuka changed from a village for i-Taukei to a European style town. It served both as a business
centre for Fiji and a place to which Europeans came for social and cultural events.
• Wooden houses were built and proper furniture was brought in.
• Fijians were not included in activities as before, and the gap between the two races grew.
Levuka town in the 1890
[Source: http://www.fijimuseum.org.fj/online_exhibitions_historicallevuka]

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WILKINSON & THURSTON
These two planters saw the only way to maintain a stable society was for the Europeans and Fijians to trust each other and
work together. They tried to create a government with both Fijian and European members.
LAND
Land was sold to the Europeans by the i-Taukei in many parts of Fiji. At times, the same piece of land was sold many times
and this caused a lot of disputes over titles. Sometimes chiefs sold land belonging to another tribe in order to attract the
white settlers to the area and obtain the protection of his guns. As a result, the settler could then find himself attacked by the
real owner and could often get driven off the land in dispute.
LABOUR
Labour was needed for the plantations and this led to the LABOUR TRAFFIC where labourers were shipped from other
Pacific Islands and Melanesian Islands (often against their will) to work in plantations. The two new groups were from Kiribati
(then called Gilbert Islands) and the Solomon Islands.
ACTIVITY
i. Draw a timeline showing the events that occurred from 1859 to 1871.
ii. Explain what is meant by the Great Fiji Rush.
2.3 THE RISE OF MA’AFU AND CAKOBAU

In 1829 – Tanoa (Naulivou’s sons) succeeded his father’s title. Bau controlled the coastal areas and by 1830, the Island
Kingdom of Cakobau became the most powerful in Fiji. Bau became powerful because of;
• Intermarriages between Bauan chiefs and chiefly families of neighboring Vanua, especially Rewa and Cakaudrove.
• The increasing number of Vasu to Bau
• Bau’s influence spread and its huge canoes enabled Bau to intervene in disputes and carry out raids along the
northern and western coasts of Viti Levu and in Lomaiviti.
In 1837, Cakobau remained the real power in Bau (Tanoa was old and weak). Cakobau restored his father’s power.
Tanoa died in 1852 and was succeeded by his son, Seru who took the name Cakobau.

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MA’AFU
• In 1847 – Ma’afu (King Taufa Aha’u in Tonga) came to Fiji in an expedition to

Vanua Balavu to investigate the killing of a preacher..
• He was the Protector of Wesleyan missionaries and he too Vanua Balavu by force
after the murder of 17 Wesleyan converts.
• Ma’afu power stretched from Lakeba to Yasawa, Beqa and Kadavu, Bua and
Macuata.
• He became a threat to Cakobau because of his growing power.
CAKOBAU
• 1843 – Cakobau succeded in capturing Rewa and placing his own King, Cokanauto,
in charge of the captured part. He could not seize the Rewan chief, Qaraniqio, who
had fled to the hills.
• 1852 – Cakobau went to Macuata to fight Ritova who had refused to recognize
Bauan claims; he stripped Ratu Mara Kapaiwai (a great grandson of Tui Nayau) of
his canoe to make him less powerful.
• Ratu Mara had good terms with the Europeans at Levuka who blamed Cakobau for
the attacks by Lovoni tribesmen on Levuka. At the same time, the Ovalau tribes
revolted.
• 1854 – Cokanauto died, Qaraniqio returned, recaptured Rewa, and held off all
Cakobau’s attempts to win it back.
• On the same year, Cakobau was so downcast that he was persuaded to accept Christianity and to renounce his old
heathen beliefs.
• This led to further trouble for many of the allies who, disliking Christianity, went over to the enemy.
• 1855 – Qaraniqio died and the Rewan chiefs, tired of war, sought peace. Cakobau agreed but rebel Bauans at Kaba
disagreed.
• Led by Mara they opposed Cakobau’s conversion to Christianity.
• This resulted to the Battle of Kaba which was seen as a victory for Christianity over heathenism, a victory which led to a
series of mass conversions of Fijians to Christianity.
• The battle was won by the unorthodox tactics of the Tongans. They insisted on charging at a time when the normal
tactics would be to and thus made the enemy confused.
• The Bauan Kingdom became the leading kingdom of Fiji.

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ACTIVITY
(i) Why did Tanoa’s son adopt the name Cakobau?

(ii) When did Ma’afu come to Fiji?
(iii) Why did the Island of Bau become the most powerful in Fiji by 1830?
(iv) Paragraph
In a paragraph: Explain two main causes of the battle of Kaba.
: State how the battle was fought
: Discuss the significance of the battle.
(v) Draw a timeline showing Cakobau’s success during his time of leadership.
THE AMERICAN CLAIM

• Cakobau had ordered a ship from America and had hoped to use it to trade in bech-de-mer. The sum was not paid.
• 1849 – The house of a Johns Williams accidently burnt during the celebration of America Independence Day on
Nukulau Island.
• The Fijians, rather than putting out the fire, looted the house. Williams claimed that he had lost properly valuing at
£5000 pounds.
• 1853 – Levuka was burnt down by the Lovoni tribesman and many Americans were victims.
• 1855 – Williams house was burnt down again and again and he appealed to American government for help. This
time the American claim grew from £5000 to £45000.
• 1858 – The U.S.S Vandalia came to Levuka and Cakobau was called on board. He was forced to sign a promise
that would pay the debt, this time within one year.
THE FIRST OFFER
• Apart from his inability to pay the American debt, Cakobau was also worried over Ma’afu’s growing power which
had now spread to Beqa and Rakiraki.
• Cakobau approached the British consul, W.T.Prichard with an offer to cede Fiji to Great Britain.
• Cakobaus conditions were;
a. He should be allowed to keep the title Tui Viti
b. Britian should pay the American debt in return for eighty- two thousand hectares of land (200,000 acres).
Britain refused the offer
• Pritchard did not like the Tongan expansion in Fiji and also he was worried over the increased activity of German
traders in the South Pacific.
• Pritchard went to England to urge the British government to accept the offer.

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• He believed that Fiji could be important both as a naval base and as a centre of trade for ships going between
Panama and Australia.
• On his return, he called a meeting of all leading chiefs, at which he persuaded Ma.afu to give up his claims in Fiji
and to give back the lands he conquered.
• Ma’afu and the other chiefs agreed to the offer of cession and signed a document which promised protection for
all Christians, the stopping of cannibalism and infanticide, and which recognized the rights of Europeans to hold
land and to trade.
• Pritchard set up courts to resolve conflicts. This was an attempt to bring law and order into Fiji.
• Soon his work became unpopular due to poor decision making.
BRITISH REACTION TO THE OFFER
• There was much support from outside Fiji to see that the British accept the offer. The Methodists of New South
Wales were anxious to see law and order restored, the Wesleyan Missionary Society and the Aborigines Protection
Society both strongly advised the British Government to accept the offer.
• The strongest pressure came from the cotton manufacturers who were interested about the prospects of new
sources of raw materials.
• The Legislative Assemblies of both NSW and Victoria sent petitions to the British Government urging to accept the
offer.
• They were worried not only over the lawlessness in the group but also over another power – the US or France
taking possessions and be a threat not only to the safety of British ships in the South Pacific but also the security of
Australia itself.
• Therefore Colonel W.J.Smythe was sent to Fiji in 1859 to investigate on the situation on :
a. Whether Fiji would be a useful port of call, for ships between Panama and Australia?
b. Whether the islands were suited for large-scale cotton production?
c. Would it be possible to stamp out the savage practices of the i-Taukei?
d. Would the acquisition of Fiji add to Britain’s power in the South Pacific?
e. Could the scattered European settlement be maintained?
f. What was the system of land tenure in Fiji?
g. Would the Fijians readily sell land to the Government and to individuals?
THE SMYTHE REPORT
Dr Seeman, a famous botanist accompanied Smythe to Fiji to look into the possibility of growing cotton. Although Seeman
made a favorable report about the ‘cotton’ that could be grown in Fiji Smythe thought otherwise. In his report he wrote the
following;
a. Cakobau had no claim to be King of Fiji and that the land he offered was not his and was doing it solely to
escape the American debt.

94
b. Fiji would not be useful as a port of call for ships going between Panama and Australia for it was a normal
route.
c. The waters around Fiji were full of reefs and were a danger to shipping.
d. The cost of government would be high and there would be only a small income to pay for it.
e. The Fijians themselves were mostly heathens and hard to control.
THE OFFER REJECTED
As the result of Symthe’s report, the British Government, in 1862, rejected the offer of cession.Pritchard was dismissed from
his post and Fiji was now thrown in to a state of political turmoil.
ACTIVITY
i. Why was Colonel W.J. Symthe sent to Fiji?

ii. Briefly discuss his report.
THE 1865 CONFEDERATION
The rivalry between Cakobau and Maafu was scaled down in 1864 when Ma’afu was threatened with possible intervention
by the Americans if his actions prevented Cakobau from paying his debt. He decided to establish his rule as peacefully as
possible.
The suggestion was taken up in 1865 by Captain Jones to form a Confederation which would rule over the whole group.
After years before this experiments broke down- the chiefs lacked the experience in this type of government and the
European secretaries who attached themselves to the individual rulers attempted to control through the interest of the
planters.
THE CONFEDERATION OF NORTH AND EAST
In place of the old Confederation two new governments sprang up. In the east, Ma’afu formed the confederation of the North
and East, while the Kingdom of Bau was formed in the west by Cakobau.
Ma’afu introduced a new system of land holding in which individual allotments were made to each adult male in return for
taxes of coconut oil. This proved to be effective and Ma’afu was quick to punish his subjects who did not make full use of
their allotments. He deprived them of their land, often leasing it to Europeans and so profiting from the rents

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THE KINGDOM OF BAU
The constitution of the Bau Kingdom stated that Cakobau was to be king of all parts of Fiji not included in the Conference of
the North and East. He could make his own laws, levy his own taxes and call meetings of chiefs when he wished. The
constitution soon failed - when asked to pay taxes most settlers refused and soon there was no money in the treasury thus
the Bau Kingdom failed.
THE POLYNESIAN COMPANY
In 1868, an Australian group (the Polynesian Company) agreed to pay the American debt in return for a grant of land of the
same size as that offered to the Britian in the first offer of cession. Cakobau also agreed to the following terms:
¾ Letting the company have full rights to make laws for i-Taukei and settlers in the land granted to them.
¾ The company was allowed to acquire the sole rights over currency and banking, customs duties and harbor
charges, courts and trading activities in the kingdom
¾ That Cakobau would plant an area of land in cotton for the company
¾ Giving guarantee to assist the company to stay in Fiji.
J.B Thurston, the acting British Consul felt that the company was taking advantage of the situation Cakobau was in, and
strongly opposed the terms and the amount of land the company would acquire. The company eventually paid the American
claim but its great plans were never to come into being.
THE LAST ATTEMPT
In the late 1860s as more Europeans settlers came, the search for a form of government became more intense. There was
divided opinion among the Europeans as to what part the Fijians should play in any government. This made it difficult to find
a suitable form of government. In March, 1869 another attempt was made to set up Cakobau as King. Again this failed
because the Europeans would not pay the taxes and the British subjects could not be subjects both of Cakobau and the
Queen. The attempt was weakened further when the traders at Levuka refused to support Cakobau. Meanwhile the labour
traffic was increasing and there was a great deal of gambling and drinking among both the Europeans and the i-Taukei in
Levuka. As a result, an attempt was made to set up a form of government in Levuka. It failed because it had no power to
enforce its laws.
KING CAKOBAU
• In Levuka, on 5 June 1871 Cakobau was again proclaimed King of Fiji.

• Athough there was some form of objection to the new form of government all the chiefs including Ma’afu
acknowledged Cakobau as King.
• The Constitution set up a Legislative Assembly, an executive cabinet of ministers (majority were Europeans ), with
Cakobau as King and Ma’afu as Viceroy.
• It established freedom of worship, freedom of speech, fair justice and no slavery.

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Cakobau’s flag - 1871
(Source: http://www.hubert- herald.nl/Fiji_bestanden/image014.jpg)
THE FAILURE OF CAKOBAU’S GOVERNMENT
By mid- 1873 Cakobau’s government collapsed due to the following reasons:

• A failure to reach agreement among the subjects of the kingdom on how much Fijian participation there should be
in the government.
• Participation of Europeans in the government
• The Europeans in the government were not qualified either by experience or by character to govern the country
• Ministers spent money recklessly leaving the government in debt
In February 1873, the Burns family, who had settled on the Ba River were murdered by a mountain tribe threatened to break
away from the government.
Economically Fiji was in a bad way. The price of cotton had fallen and many settlers were in difficult.
The Fijians were discontented.
The government ruled more in the interests of the settlers who regarded the Fijians as a source of cheap labor.
Fijians were sentenced to work for the planters if they failed to pay a poll tax.
In 1873 – Ma’afu threatened to leave the Kingdom after expressing his dislike of European control.
The government had failed to solve the planter’s problems in the way that the planters would have liked them solved.
In January 1873, Thurston made another appeal to Britain asking if the British Government would consider annexing Fiji.
This time it was successful. Fiji was annexed in 1874.
VOCABULARY
ACTIVITY
Cession Explorer
i. State two reasons why the offer of cession
Expedition Missionary
was rejected in 1862.
ii. Give two reasons why land ownership was Shipwrecked Intervention
a constant cause of conflict between Fijians
and Europeans. Great Fiji Rush
iii. How did John Williams lose his property?

97

UNIT 2
CURRENT AFFAIRS
[Source:http://www.google.com/imgre?imgurl;http://www.fijirugbyblog.files.wordpress.com/2007/07/02;http://.www.free-
covers.org/covers/59787/jpg&imgrefurl

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TOPIC
2.21 LOCAL CURRENT AFFAIRS
2.22 INTERNATIONAL CURRENT AFFAIRS
LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL THEMES TO BE INCLUDED IN 2.21 AND 2.22.
As a Form three student, it is important to be aware of what is happening around us. There are many events that we can
identify as important which may somehow contribute to our wellbeing as a family, society and community or even as a
nation.
Activity
(i) In a group, identify one of the major event that took place in your community and
a. Explain the reason behind the event
b. Who benefitted from the event?
c. Some lessons one can learn from the event.
(ii) Collect pictures of local events and place them in the following category
a. Social
b. Political
c. Economical
d. Sports
(iii) In your group, list down important people in your country and
I. Write their names
II. Where they work and the position they hold
III. Their contribution to the community or to the country.
Each activity can be conducted during a lesson

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2.2 INTERNATIONAL CURRENT AFFAIRS
The world is becoming a global village and we need to be aware of what is happening around us. Students must therefore
be informed of important events, changes and development that are occurring around them.
Some of the major events include

a. Sports – rugby, soccer, netball, tennis, and many more
b. Conflicts, wars and crisis
• Bosnia (1992-1995)
• Israel-Palestine (1948)
• Iran-Iraq War (1980-1998)
c. Natural Disaster
• Earthquakes and tsunami in Japan (2011)
• Volcanic eruption
• Tornado
• Flooding (Australia, China)
• Tsunami (Aceh, Samoa)
d. Social Problems
• HIV/AIDs Money laundering
• Malnutrition Traffic in body parts
• Crime Malaria
• Poverty
Create a special noticeboard for ‘Current Affairs’. Put pictures and cuttings from newspaper.
Once a week a student should report to the class on Fiji Current Affairs, Regional Current Affairs and
World Current Affairs
Once a month, have a class discussion on the topic”The major event in the last month was…………”
Create a poster of portraits of key people in Current Affairs (eg. President Obama)

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CHAPTER THREE: PLACE AND ENVIRONMENT
Strand Outcome:
Develop an understanding of the interdependent relationship of people with different places

and environment and express how people are able to utilize and adapt this relationship for
their survival.
UNIT 1: MAPS AND TYPES OF MAP

1.1 What is Map 1.3 Forms and Uses of Maps
1.2 Why Study Maps 1.4 Varieties of Maps
UNIT 2: BASIC MAPPING SKILLS

2.1 Grid System 2.3 Basic Contour Patterns
2.11 Four Grid System 2.4 Cross Section
2.12 Latitude and Longitude 2.5 Map Reading Activity
2.2 Essentials of a Map 2.6 Fiji Islands map
UNIT 3: ENVIRONMENT AND ITS USES

3.1 Environment
3.11 Types of Environment
3.12 How Man Uses His Environment
3.13 Ways of Conserving the Environment
3.2 National Heritage

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UNIT 1
MAPS AND TYPES OF MAPS

[Source:http:www.map-world.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Fiji-world-map.jpg&imgrelfurl]

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TOPIC VOCABULARY
• WHAT IS A MAP
• TYPES OF MAPS
• ESSENTIALS OF A MAP
• USES OF MAPS
• DIRECTIONS
• SCALES AND CONVERSION
• USAGE OF KEYS
THINKING SKILLS • ELABORATING
• INTERPRETING AND
ANALYSING MAPS
What is a map?
Maps are representation of an area of the earth and they come in varieties of forms. Maps have different features which help
us to gather important information.
A map should has a legend (a guide explaining the map’s symbols), a notation of which way is north, and an indicator of
scale. We must keep in mind that no map is perfect and every map is unique. Maps are useful in Geography, History,
Sociology (about societies), Law, Science, Weather, Environment and many other subjects.
Why study maps?
• For direction purposes

• To identify features of the topography (rivers, mountains, deserts)
• To identify human impact/landuse (farms, roads, dams)
• To identify location (where I live, where a city is)
• Maps are basic tools in helping us to understand about places and people

103
Uses and functions of maps
• Maps may be used as an aid to detailed conservation or planning and development of an area of land.
Location Landuse Size and shape Oceanography Distance
Education Elevation

Biosphere
Conservation
Transport, Communication & Distribution Direction Weather Relationship with humans’
Forms of Maps
• GIS (Global Information System – electronic map)
• Wall maps
An atlas is a collection of maps bound in a
• Atlases
book; it may include additional information,
• Globes such as illustrations, statistical tables,
topography, and other important information
about a place or places.
TYPES OF MAPS
• Maps can be classified in a different ways according to scale. Large scale map and Small scale map. For example,
1 cm on a map equals 100km or 1000km or just 1km
• Large Scale Maps shows features of a small area in great detail
• Small Scale Maps show features of a large area in less detail.
• There are several types of maps. Each map shows different information. Most maps include a compass rose, which
indicates which way is north, south, east and west. They also include a scale so you can estimate distances. Here's a
look at some different types of maps.

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Varieties of Maps
1. Climate Maps
http:www.fao.org/ag/AGp/AGP/doc/counproof/southpacific/Fiji.htm
Give general information about the climate and precipitation (rain and snow) of a region. Cartographers, or mapmakers, use
colours to show different climate or precipitation zones

105
2. Physical Maps
http//www.vidiani.com/maps_of_fiji/detailed_physical
A physical map shows natural features of the land such as mountains, rivers, lakes, streams, and deserts.

106
3. Political Maps
A political map shows human-made features and boundaries such as cities, highways, and countries.
[Source:http://www/mapsofworld.com]

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4. Economic/Resource Map
Feature the type of natural resources or economic activity that dominates an area. Cartographers use symbols to show the
locations of natural resources or economic activities.
http://www.conseruation.org/FMG/Articles/Pages/fiji-fresh_water-to-ref.
( Economic and resource map for Viti Levu Island)

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5. Relief Map
• It portrays various elevations in different colors.
• On these maps, mountains are displayed as red or brown while lowlands are shown in shades of green.
[Source: http://onlinemaps.blogspot.com/2009/04/Fiji-relif-map]

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6. TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
• Include contour lines to show the shape and elevation of an area. Lines that are close together indicate steep
terrain, and lines that are far apart indicate flat terrain.
[Source: http://mappery.com/maps/fiji-topographic-map.thumb.jpg&imgrefurl]

110

UNIT 2
BASIC MAPPING SKILLS
[Source: http://blog.richmond.edu/openwidelookinside/files/2009/10/follow=that-map.jpg&imgrefurl]

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THE GRID SYSTEM
• The Grid System is used to locate places on the map.

• When the grid is drawn on a map, the horizontal lines are called northing and the vertical lines are called easting.
For example:
Grid
Grid
Vertical (easting) horizontal l( Northing)
Vertical + Horizontal = Grid
A grid reference usually consists of six digits such as 020030.
020- Easting AND 030- northing
For example:
00 01 02 03 04 05
0005 01 02 03 04
04
A
A
03
*P
02
OINT A
*POINT A == 010
010 030- NOTE THAT EASTING COMES BEFORE NORTHING.
Point 01 B
Point B=
B= 040 010
030 010 B
00
030- NOTE THAT EASTING COMES BEFORE NORTHING.

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WORK TO DO
ACTIVITY 3: 1
Easting
Easting
i. Locate on the following points on the grid. Northing
Northing
a. 110 225
b. 135 234
c. 120 215
ii. Write down the grid reference of point B, C, D and E
FOUR FIGURE GRID REFERENCE
• Sometimes it is difficult to give the exact location of certain places or features.

• For example, cattle grazing, large area of forest, a village or lake.
• In these cases we use a four figure grid reference, unlike a six figure grid reference which represents a particular
point; a four grid reference represents a complete square.
For example:
33
32
31
50 51 52 53 54 5433(grid
5333(grid reference
5132 (grid reference)
• The reference is taken from the bottom left hand corner.

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ACTIVITY 3:2
I Shade in different colors the square which have the following grid reference (use the grid from Activity 3.1)
a. 1221
b. 1323
c. 1422
d. 1520
LATITUDES AND LONGITUDE
What are latitude and

longitude lines?
• Lines of latitude and longitude make up a grid system that was developed to help determine the location of points on the
Earth.
• These lines run both north and south and east and west across the planet.
• Lines of latitude (those that run east and west)

begin at the equator, which is zero degrees.

114

[Source: http://www.academicung.edu/geology/leveson/core/graphics/mapgraphics/gif&imgrefurl]

115
Lines of Longitude
They begin at the town of Greenwich from 0-180°East, and from the middle of the Pacific 180°-0° West. They extend to the
North Pole and the South Pole, which are 90 degrees north and 90 degrees south, respectively.
Lines of longitude (those that run north and south) begin at the Prime
Meridian, which is the imaginary line that runs through the Royal
Observatory in Greenwich, England.
International Date Line
The lines of longitude extend both east and west from the Prime Meridian (also GMT, Greenwich Mean Time), which is zero
degrees, and converge on the opposite side of the Earth at 180 degrees (also called the International Date Line).

116
Longitudes run north to south
Latitudes run east to west
ACTIVITY
(I) Use an atlas – identify which latitude and longitude run through Fiji.
(ii) Longitude is used for measuring time. 1º of longitude represents 4 minutes.
1. Work out the time different between a place on longitude 30º and another place on longitude 60º.
(iii) Why is a day ‘lost ‘ when crossing the International Date Line from West to East?
(iv) Use your atlas - on which latitudes and longitudes are the following cities located?
a. Suva d. Wellington
b. London e. Sydney
c. Los Angeles f. Bombay
(iv) Copy and complete.
Name 3 countries in each of the following heading:
Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere Eastern Hemisphere Western Hemisphere

117
ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF MAPS
Each map should have the following :
• TITLE – A description of the location, be must be written outside the frame and in BLOCK LETTERS.
• FRAME – ruled in black
• DIRECTION/ NORTH POINT
• SCALES – must be inside the frame
• KEYS/ LEGENDS- A standard set of symbols which show the special features which apply to the map. The key
should be clear, complete and self- explanatory.
A. SCALES AND DISTANCES
Maps are drawn from actual objects seen on the land. Since the objects are always larger, there must be a reduction in their
sizes when reproducing it on paper. This relationship between the sizes of the drawing and that of the object on the ground
is known as scale.
The scale of a map can be expressed in many ways.
a) Statement – the scale is expressed or written in words or sentences. For example: One centimeter on the map
represent one kilometer on the ground.
b) Representative Fraction – scales may be represented as a fraction .For example: 1»100 000 (The numerator is
always one- represents the distance on the map and the denominator represents ground distance).
c) Ratio – scales may also be expressed as a ratio. For example: 1: 100 000. (This means that one unit on the map
represents 100 000 units on the ground.
ACTIVITY
I. Use the scale 1: 50 000, calculate the actual distance in kilometers if the following measurements are given:
(a) 2.5 cm _________________ (b ) 7cm ____________
( c ) 10cm ___________________ ( d ) 20cm ____________
ii. The scale of a map is 1:100,000
a. What is the actual distance represented by 1 centimeter on the map in:
(I) centimeters ( ii ) meters (iii ) kilometers

118
iii. Write the following scales as a:
a) Statement
b) Ratio
c) Representative fraction
(i) 1cm – 200m ( ii ) 1cm – 10km ( iii ) 1cm – 500m
B. DIRECTION
• Directions must be indicated on a map or plan by means of an arrow pointing to the north. The north point is found
by using an instrument known as the compass.
• A compass has four main points known as the cardinal points. They are North, South, East and West. Besides
these cardinal points other directions may be added in.
In the eight- point compass, the north-east, south- east, north- west and south –west directions are shown. This can be
subdivided to produce a sixteen- point compass as shown above
C. BEARINGS
A bearing is a compass direction given in degrees.
• Bearings are calculated by measuring the angle from the North in a clockwise direction.
• It is always written in three digits. For example: A bearing of 45º will be written as 045º East.
In a compass there are 360 degrees. If a compass is pointing North, North is 0º, East is 90º, South is 180º and West is 270º

119

A modern compass card
ACTIVITY 3.4
Study the diagram of a modern compass card, and then convert the following compass points into bearings.
NE - ESE -
SE - WNW -
NNW - SW -
SSE - WSW -
NNE - ENE -
NW - SSW -
D. MAP SYMBOLS
• Symbols are used on maps to represent features which exist on the ground. In many cases these features are
easily recognized- building, streams, trees and roads for example.
• Other symbols represent features that may not be seen. Contour lines, for example, will not be seen lying on the
ground although they are one of the most important and useful symbols on the map.

120
• In the opinion of the cartographer, symbols are used to show information and are designed so that they can easily
be identified with the feature they represent on the map.
• The use of color is an additional aid to identification. For example: blue for water, green for vegetation, black for
man-made culture, yellow for deserts
• Below is an example of some common symbols used on topographical maps.

121
(Source: http:// www. Csuchico.edu/bib/maps/ MAP 3.GIF)

122
HEIGHTS AND LANDFORMS ON MAPS
Maps use different methods of illustrating relief, the most common is to use contour lines.
CONTOUR LINES
• So far this is the best way of representing relief. (height below and above sea level).
• A contour line is an imaginary line joining all places (height above and below sea-level).
• It is drawn at intervals and their values are usually in meters.
• The difference between successive contour lines is known as the vertical interval (V.I).
A CONTOUR MAP
V.I=100m(200-100)
N contour lines
ͳͲͲ
ʹͲͲ
͵ͲͲ
ͶͲͲ

Heights above sea level are shown in three ways:
¾ Contour lines
¾ Spot heights – these are points on a map with the exact heights above sea level (are usually marked by a dot with
the height written next to it, usually in meters.

123
¾ Triangulation points (stations) – these are sites which overlook the country side and is used for surveying the land.
( It is shown by a small triangle with a dot inside it) Triangulation points are also referred to as Trigonometric Points
(stations).
spot height
Ͳ
ͷͲ

ȈͳͺͲ
ͳͷͲ
Triangulation
Ͳ
ʹͲͲ
ͶͲͲ
͹ͳͲ
͸ͲͲ
BASIC CONTOUR PATTERNS
• Notice that when contours are closer together, they represent a steep slope, while those that are widely spaced,
represent the gentle slope.
• Where contours have crossed a valley, the lines will bend upstream direction. If there is a ridge they would bend in
a downhill direction.

124
• First, we will examine all the contour patterns in isolation, once we have practiced drawing them then we can
assemble them together forming a complete landscape.
1. Steep/ Scarp Slopes
The contour lines are drawn closer together.
2. Gentle/ Dip Slope
The contour lines are widely spaced.

125
3. Escarpment

126
4. Concave Slope
A concave slope has a shallow gradient at the base and a steep gradient at the top.

127
5. Convex Slope
A convex slope has a steep gradient at the base and a shallow gradient at the top.

128
6. Plateau
A plateau is a landform with a flat top

129
7. Cliff
A cliff is a very steep slope, even vertical

130
8. Ridge
A ridge is usually found between two valleys.
9. Knoll
A knoll is an isolated hill. It is indicated by almost circular contour lines.

131
10. Valley
On a topographic map valleys can be recognized by a V shaped contour pattern.

132
11. Spur
A spur is a figure of high land pointing in to low land or it is a high land jutting out towards the lower ground.

133
12. Saddle
A saddle is a gap between two mountain peaks.

134
CROSS-SECTIONS
A cross- section shows the side view of a landform. From the cross- sections the shapes of hills, mountains, valleys and
other features of the landscape can be learnt. It is useful to know how to draw cross sections.
How to draw a cross section from a given contour map
Step i
1. Work out the vertical scale

2. Join points A and B with a straight line.
3. Place a straight edged paper along line AB.
4. Mark on the paper every point where it cuts across a contour line.
5. Write the heights of each contour line below each mark.
Step ii
1. Draw the axes on which you will draw your cross section.
2. Make sure that the x-axis is exactly the same length as line AB.
3. On the y-axis, mark the height scale from 0-500m. (One centimeter on the y-axis should represent 100 meters.)

135
Step iii
1. Place the strip of paper with the contour markings along the x-axis, lining the points A and B.
2. Draw a vertical line from each of the marks until it touches the correct height on the vertical scale.

136
Step iv
1. Join the dots with a smooth curve.
Step v
1. Finally shade the landform and do not forget to check that the y-axis is fully marked and your cross-section has
a title.
(Source: Look at Map and Shah:2003)

137
ACTIVITY
A. Study the Sovi Area and answer questions ( I ) – ( xi ).
i. Express the scale as a representative fraction.
ii. In which direction is Vusa River flowing?
iii. What is the height of point X?
iv. Calculate the distance coversd by Sali road.
v. Name two exports from Sovi area.
vi. Identify two uses of Vusa River.
vii. State two outdoor activities that tourists could enjoy at Mali Resort.
viii. State a problem faced by the people of Waci Village.
ix. State a source of income for the people of Kito and Tuva Villages.
x. State two social services provided at Mavu Town.
xi. ( a ) Draw a cross- section from Point A to Point B.

( b ) Locate and label the following features on the cross-section.
1. Dalo farm 3. Tai Village

2. Forest area 4. Vusa River

138
139
THE FIJI ISLAND MAP
LOCATION AND NAME
The Fiji archipelago lays central position among the island groups of the South- west Pacific Ocean mid-way between the
Kingdom of Tonga and Vanuatu.
(source: http:// www.asiapac.org.fj/cafepacific/images/pacmap.gif)
The islands lie between longitude 176º 53´ east and 178º 12´ west and the 180º meridians runs through Taveuni although
the International Date Line is bent conveniently to form Fiji time.

140
(Source: http:www.gfiner_search/countries/image)

141
ACTIVITY
MAPPING

142
ACTIVITY 2
I Sketch the outline map of Fiji and locate and name the following:
a. The Garden Island of Fiji

b. The old capital of Fiji
c. The island in the Lomaiviti group that produces Bio-Coconut fuel
d. The salad bowl of Fiji
e. The capital of Suva
ii. Sketch the outline map of Fiji. Locate and name the following:
a. The Kings road
b. The Queens road
c. The Hibiscus Highway
d. The province that is influenced by the Polynesian group.
e. The South- East trade wind
iii. Sketch the outline map of Fiji. Locate and name the following:
a. An International port of entry in Nadi
b. Lautoka Wharf
c. Nabouwalu port
d. Bouma Historical site
e. Bligh water
iv. Sketch the outline map of Fiji. Locate and name the following:
a. An island on the north-west of Viti Levu

b. Bureta airstrip
c. Matei airstrip
d. The Lomaiviti group
e. Udu point.

143

UNIT 3
ENVIRONMENT AND ITS USES
CONCEPTS
SETTLEMENT
COMMUNICATION
ENVIRONMENT
CONSERVATION
NATIONAL HERITAGE

144
3.0 Environment
Environment is our surrounding. It includes living and
non- living things. It also provides for our survival and
therefore it is important that we take good care of it.
June 5th is World Environment

Day. If we take care of our earth, it
will take care of us
As a class, brainstorm on the usefulness of protecting our environment and why we

must take good care of it. Also discuss ways you can take good care of the earth.
People have made good use of the environment to suit their needs and wants. Different people have different opinions on
the use of environment. It is important that precautionary measures are taken if our environment is to be sustained. In this
way, there is a chance for future generations to enjoy the same environment that we are enjoying today
3.1 Types of Environment
Environment can be classified into two groups
(i) The physical environment

(ii) The cultural environment
Physical Environment
This includes our environment and everything that exists around naturally, such as rivers, vegetation, mountains, animals,
plants and insects that live in this environment
Cultural Environment
This environment includes people and their activities, for example, roads, settlements, infrastructure and many more. Today
we often use the word Biosphere – it means the natural and physical environment (and atmosphere) as well as humans.

145
3.12 THE USE OF ENVIRONMENT
Everyone on earth has the right to use the resources provided by the environment. However, there are certain ways in which
different groups of people use the environment. As a result, we are starting to experience environmental problems like
pollution and global warming. Some groups are also concerned about the use of the environment (Greenpeace) and have
decided to design policies and take actions in order for everyone to take care of the environment and its resources.
DISCUSSION
Apart from the list below, identify some other ways humans use their
environment
Some of the ways in which humans use their environments are:

a. Farming g. Sight-seeing, building parks and tourist attraction
b. Constructing roads h. Strip mining
c. Fishing and water sports i. Deforestation
d. Extracting raw materials j. Developing settlements, towns and cities
e. Waste dumping
f. Nuclear testing

146
ACTIVITY 3.1
(i) Conduct a survey on how people are using their environment in your area. State whether they are managing or
destroying their surroundings.
(ii) In a paragraph, explain why and how people try to manage their environment in different ways

a. Snowfelds b. Reef c. Forest
(iii) Study the three pictures above and describe how they can be used by humans without causing destruction.

3.13 WAYS OF CONSERVING THE ENVIRONMENT
Continuous use of environment without proper care can cause serious damage to the environment. Fortunately, there are
also ways in which we can make sure that our environment is not affected by our action. Taking proper care of the
environment means using proper conservation method.
a. Shifting Cultivation e. Soil Conservation Methods

b. Agro forestry f. Contour Planting
c. Rotational Grazing g. Use of Appropriate Fishing Methods
d. National campaigning h. Sustainable Development (Ecotourism)

147
(i) Select one of the conservation methods above and discuss how it is carried out and explain its effectiveness.
(ii) Discuss the impact of population on the environment.
(iii) .What is the role of the government in trying to conserve the environment?
(iv) Students to work in groups and demonstrate their conservation skills within the school compound.
(v) Discuss the message sent by the two pictures below. [Teacher to facilitate discussion}
Source: Internet
(v) Apart from the government, name two other organizations who are involved in the conserving of our environment.
3.14 MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Our ocean is part of our environment so it is also important that we look after it and conserve it just like our land and forest.
The ocean is a habitat for marine life and also a source of food for people.

148
Message from Irina Bokova, Director-General of UNESCO, on the occasion of World Oceans Day, 8
June 2011
Oceans shape the earth’s climate and influence the distribution of the globe’s ecosystems and biodiversity. This 2011 World
Oceans Day is an opportunity to celebrate the importance of oceans for the well-being of the planet and humanity and to
take a step forward in championing their cause.
The ‘blue economy’ of oceans is central to our daily lives. At least one in four persons relies on sea food as their primary
source of protein. Half of the world’s population is settled on the first 50km of coastal areas. Ninety percent of the world’s
trade is carried by shipping. With technological progress, economic activities in coastal zones and deeper waters continue to
intensify and to diversify.
The importance of oceans is not matched by our knowledge. More than 1,500 people have climbed Mount Everest, and 12
have walked on the moon, but only two divers have descended to and returned from the deepest part of the ocean.
UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission has promoted marine science and research for fifty years, but
the fact remains that oceans are still relatively unexplored.
Knowledge of oceans has long been driven by the need to access and exploit their resources. This must change. The
challenge today is to use marine science to understand and protect oceans, in order to better manage their ecosystems and
biodiversity for present and future generations.
The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, to be held in June 2012 in Brazil, provides a unique
opportunity to tackle this challenge. We must work now to prepare concrete commitments on oceans for the 2012
Conference.
We have one year to consult with all major actors, to coordinate visions and to secure new political commitment on ocean
sustainability. The challenge is high, but so is our collective responsibility to develop a new approach to oceans that
champions their central role for the planet and our lives. These are the stakes of this World Oceans Day.
DISCUSSION POINT!
With your teacher, discuss ways in which you can conserve the marine environment/ocean.

149
3.1.5 Resources
The environment also contains resources that are useful to people. There are different types of resources that can be
found in our environment like, mineral resources, gas, oil, timber and water. These are known as natural resources.
Within the cultural environment, people invent machines and technology in order to extract these mineral resources.
Matching: Resource
Match column A to column B
Column A Column B
Natural Resources include tools, machinery and other equipment used to

convert natural resources into goods and services.
Capital Resources are the materials supplied directly by nature
For each Resource type choose its correct example by identifying the nine pictures below.
1. _________________________________________
2. _________________________________________
3. _________________________________________
4. _________________________________________
5. _________________________________________
6. _________________________________________
7. _________________________________________
8. _________________________________________
9. ________________________________________

150
3.21 NATIONAL HERITAGE
Cultural heritage ("national heritage" or just "heritage") is the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group
or society that are inherited from past generations, maintained in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future
generations. ...
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_heritage
Why preserve our national heritage?
• Tourist Attraction
• For future generation
• Provides evidence of living in the past
• To protect unique aspects of our natural environment
• Raise public awareness on the importance of heritage and the consequence of its loss

151
Examples of National Heritage in Fiji
Koroniyatu National Heritage Levuka – World National Heritage
Bouma National Heritage Park- Taveuni
ACTIVITY Students to work in pairs and choose a

national heritage site which interest them and
(I) Research Work answer the following:
• Name the National Heritage Site

• State its location
• Briefly describe its history
• What made it a National Heritage?
• Why is it important to conserve this
site?
State an advantage of having a National

Heritage in Fiji.

152

(ii) Puzzle
Look for the given words by circling the letters in the grid.
Conserve Dredging Sustainability Heritage Resources
Go green Pollution Forest Habitat Waterway
G A I N E G A T I R E H R S
A O K I L I N I T R E D Q A
E L G A H A B I T A T S A V
V I O R I V E T O C U I W E
R N A R E S O U R C E S P W
E L L O T E R R A Z F O R O
S U S T A I N A B I L I T Y
N W S E A W E E D L I N S T
O X E L P E A L U T P T E R
C O Y A W R E T A W O X R E
A Z W E E D I X L E U K O E
V I Z A P O I N T A T E F S
E G O G N I G D E R D W B Z
(iii) Group Work
Carry out a rubbish auditing activity, analyze your finding and make recommendation on how to
a. Design a solution to the problem

Celebrating Forests for People
b. Improve on activities already carried out in school
c. Maintain a clean and healthy environment. Celebrating Forests for People

153

“MY FIJI MY WEB OF LIFE” – Discuss as a class

154
GLOSSARY

Candidate
Candidate
Achieved Status Person nominated to represent a certain group of people
Status a person earned through hard work and in an election.
achievement
Caste
Acquitted Grouping of people according to work and occupation-
Found not guilty in the court of law mainly used in India
Anthropologist Cession
Researchers who study about human beings especially Formal giving up of rights, property or territory
their origin, development, customs and belief
Arbitration Commission/Court Citizen

An independent party who hears and resolve cases. Person who is legally recognized by a country and is
protected by it
Ascribed Status
(1) Status with which a person was born in or (2) directly Civil Law
the outcome of family background which cannot be Laws that deals with private rights of individuals as
readily altered by achievement distinguished from criminal law. It deals with the private
rights of individuals
Assertiveness
Being positive and confident. Collective
Belong to all members of the group
Atlas
Book containing maps of places and countries and other Complex
geographic information Many different parts connected together
Confidence
Self-assurance rising from an appreciation of one’s
B ability
Conservation
Ballot Paper (1) Preservation of items to avoid wastage and misuse of
Used for voting to indicate choice in an election resources or (2) preserving of natural environment,
wildlife ,ecological, historical and cultural sites and
Beliefs artifacts
What one feels is right or a set of rules which exists in a
particular society of culture Constitution
Sets of rules and regulations that govern a country or
organisation.
Contempt of Court
Showing disrespect to the court of law
Convicted
Found guilty of a criminal offence in the court of law

155

Counseling
Giving advice or professional help to resolve personal or
physiological problems Easting
Horizontal line used in the grid referencing
Courtesy Environment
Polite speech or action Our surroundings; can be natural , or built
Criminal Law Etiquette

Law used in the court of law to govern those who commit Rules that govern proper way to behave or act
criminal activities. It regulates the conduct of individuals,
define crime and provides punishment for criminal acts Expectation
Hoping that something will happen
Creativity
Using talents and skills to create new things (being Expedition
innovative, artistic, inspirational, etc
Voyage or journey made for a particular purpose such as
Culture war or exploration
Way of life shared by a group of people in terms of
physical objects, beliefs, values and behavior
Customs
Unwritten rule or traditional way of behavior that is
practiced by specific group of people
First World
Advanced country in terms of development and
technology (industirliased capitalist society, usually
meaning Europe and USA)
Formal
Officially recognized
Determination
Process of making a decision (a judge’s final decision is Forgiveness
called a determination) State of being forgiven
Deviance Flexibility
Behavior that goes against custom or tradition (or laws) Able to change and respond to different circumstances
Dynamic Friendliness
Full of ideas – a process or change characterized by a Not harmful but favourable; happy relation between
change or activity people

156

J

Generation Gap Jury
Differences in ideas between age groups which may lead
to a lack of understanding

Great Fiji Rush
The increase in the demand for cotton and land in the
1860s after the civil war broke up between the northern
and southern America L

Grid System
System used in locating places through a network of
lines that cross each other to form a series of square Legend
ǡ
Goal
What a person aims to achieve in life
Loyalty

Hierarchy
M

Manners
ȋͳȌǡȋʹȌ
House Arrest
ǯ
Map

Migrate

Idealism

Modern

Interpersonal Conflict
Myths


157
N R

National Heritage Regulations
Sets of rules that govern organisations or ordinary life
(such as quarantine, road laws, money transfer)

Norms Relationship
Connection or bond between individuals or groups of
people
Northing
Responsibility
State of being responsible; an obligation

Reward
Incentive or prize given in return for a good deed.
O
Rigid
Organisation Being firm; not to sway easily, such as in decision
Organized body of people with a particular purpose making

Rights
Privilege given to a person by the state, or hereditary, or
P custom

Role Conflict

Conflict arises when a person plays more than one role;
Pattern
arise with the given responsibility.
Order in which a series of things occur

Personal Conflict
Conflict that occurs within one’s self, usually involving
another person S
Preferential Voting
Voting for whom you prefer from a list of candidates
Settlement
Place where people establish a community
Pre-history
Period of time before written records
Shipwrecked
Destruction of a ship at sea or against an island, reef or
Punishment
atoll
Penalty imposed for an offence
Sketch Map

Map drawn inn outline without the use of scale or actual

measurement

Social norms

Standard behavior expected by people in the society and
community

158
Social Structure
V
Formation or organization of a society or community
Society
Community of people living together, who share Values
customs, laws and organization Standard or qualities considered worthwhile desirable
Structure Virtues
Quality of being well organized; usually means that roles Power, strength and inner quality that helps us to work
and responsibilities are clearly laid out towards becoming a better person.
System Voyaging corridor

An organized scheme or method to achieve a result The passage between Australia and New Guinea where
people freely travel; wave of migration to the Pacific,
came down a passage from Papua New Guinea,
Solomon Islands, Vanuatu to Fiji
T W
Theory Writ
A set of principles which describe how events should Form of written command in the name of the court or
occur other legal authority directing a person to act or refrain
from acting in a spe
Third World
Developing countries, usually meaning Asia, Africa and
the Pacific
Totems
Natural object or animal believed by a particular society
to have spiritual significance and adopted by it
Trustworthiness
Being reliable, honest and responsible

159
REFERENCES
Curriculum Development Unit. 1997. Values Education for Primary and Secondary Schools in Fiji. Curriculum
Development Unit, Ministry of Education, Suva, Fiji.
Donelly, T.A., Kerr,G.J. and Quanchi,M.1994.Fiji in the Pacific.Heinemann Ltd., Sydney, Australia.
Dube, R.S.(ed.) 1990.Freedom and Control.Ministry of Education, Suva, Fiji.
Rabukawaqa,E.(ed) 1984.Look at the Map. Ministry of Education, Suva, Fiji.
Fiji Junior Certificate Examination. 2004. Ministry of Education, Suva, Fiji.
Fiji Junior Certificate Examination. 2009. Ministry of Education, Suva, Fiji.
Fiji National Action Plan for Human Rights Education 2003-2005:2003.

160

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SOCIAL SCIENCE

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT UNIT

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, NATIONAL HERITAGE, CULTURE & ARTS

SUVA, FIJI, 2013

SOCIAL SCIENCE YEAR 9

Copyright - Ministry of Education 2011

All Rights Reserved

No parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored

SOCIAL SCIENCE YEAR 9

Chapter 2: Time, Continuity and Change

Chapter 3: Place and Environment

SOCIAL SCIENCE YEAR 9

SOCIAL SCIENCE YEAR 9

CHAPTER ONE: SOCIAL ORGANISATION AND PROCESSES

UNIT 1: SOCIETY AND CULTURE UNIT 2: COMMUNITY LIVING

• Types of Society 2.2 Family Council

• Social Structure 2.3 Rights and Responsibilities

• Needs and Wants • Rights

1.2 Culture • Responsibilities

• Traditional Ceremonies, Customs and UNIT 3: NGO’s AND REGIONAL

SOCIAL SCIENCE YEAR 9

SOCIAL SCIENCE YEAR 9

Society refers to people in a

1.11 Types of Society

TYPES OF TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES

Hunting & Gathering Agricultural

SOCIAL SCIENCE YEAR 9

Features of hunting and gathering societies:

Some of the areas known for hunters and

SOCIAL SCIENCE YEAR 9

- Sheep and goats were easily caught, tamed and domesticated.

(i) Which type of society is practiced in the picture above?

(iii) List two important features of this type of society.

SOCIAL SCIENCE YEAR 9

Features of Horticultural Societies

• Very little human and technical input

Areas that practiced Horticulture:

• Tropical Rainforest of Latin America

What would be the

SOCIAL SCIENCE YEAR 9

Features of Agricultural Societies:

• Having surplus food supply

• Specialization/ division of labour emerged

• Social, political, economic institutions were established

• Trade developed ( local and international)

• Empire building and expansion of Territory

• Conflicts become inter- national

• Services improved - medical

SOCIAL SCIENCE YEAR 9

There are two major types of modern society:

• industrial societies (create products)

Hunters & Industrial Post Industrial

Pastoral [B] Modern Societies

TYPES OF MODERN SOCIETIES

SOCIAL SCIENCE YEAR 9

Features of Industrial Societies

b. Post industrial Societies (Advanced industrial Societies)

• Increased production and consumption.

• Constantly changing skills to meet new inventions, systems and materials.