Journal of South American Earth Sciences, VoL 7, No~ 314, pp.

271-278, 1994
Copyright © 1994 Elsevier Science Ltd & Earth Sciences & Rc,scmc~ Institute
Pergamon Prinlcd in Great Britain. All rights rc~rv~l
0895-9811/94 $7.00 + 0.00
0895-9811(94)00022-0

Ridge collision tectonics in terrane development

E. NELSON l, R. FORSYTHE 2, I. A R I T 1

1Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines,

Golden, Colorado 80401 U.S.A.
2Department of Geography and Earth Science, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, NC 28223

(Received November 1992;Accepted November 1993)

Abstract--Some allochthonous terranes form along active continental margins when slivers of forearc crust (or more extensive
crust) are displaced along arc-parallel strike-slip faults. Such faults can be generated or reactivated in response to either oblique
subduction or ridge collision (collision between an oceanic spreading ridge and the leading edge of the forearc). The mechanical
and thermal effects of ridge collision are important factors in the origin and crustal development of some forearc sliver terranes.
Some of the effects of ridge collision are well illustrated in the South American forearc near the Chile triple junction (46° S) where
the Chile Rise is colliding today. Impingement of the Chile Rise, in conjunction with oblique subduction, has caused an elongate
forearc sliver terrane to move northward away from an extensional zone at the collision site. The terrane is bounded on the east by
the arc-parallel Liquifle-Ofqui fault system (LOF) which coincides roughly with the forearc-arc boundary, and on the south by the
Golfo de Penas extensional basin. Fault fabrics, recent seismicity, and paleomagnetic results indicate a component of right-lateral
strike-slip movement on the LOF. Neotectonic geomorphology and pre- and post-seismic vertical strain data from the 1960 Con-
cepcfon earthquake indicate a west-down dip-slip component of movement. Three-dimensional finite element models of ridge
collision in this region substantiate these shear strains and development of an arc-parallel fault at about 150-200 km from the
trench.
Development of the forearc crust during Miocene and younger collision also involved intrusion of silicic magmas and emplace-
ment of the Pliocene(?) Taitao ophiolite within about 15 km of the trench. The ophiolite and the silicic magmas constitute anom-
alous additions to the forearc crust, and record tectonic events leading to the origin of the allochthonous terrane carrying them.
Similar ophiolite/silicic plutonic associations may help unravel the origins of other allochthonous terranes.
Resumen--Algunos terrenos aloctonos son formados en margenes continentales activas cuando fragmentos de la corteza de la
zona de el frente de arco (o m ~ extensa eorteza) son desplazadas a lo largo de fallas rumbo-deslizantes paralelas al arco. Tales fal-
las pueden ser generadas o reactivadas en respuesta a una colisi6n oblicua o la colisi6n entre un centro de expansi6n oceanico
(ridge) y el borde de el frente de arco (forearc). La mecfmica y efecto termal de la colisi6n son factores importartantes en el origen
y desarrollo de algunos terrenos en las zonas de frente de arco. Algunos de estos efectos son bien ilustrados en las zonas de frente
de arco cerca de el punto triple de Chile (46° S) en Sur America. Donde la colisi6n ocurre actualmente en relaci6n con una sub-
ducci6n oblicua, la cual a causado un elongado terreno en la zona del frente de arco que se desplaza hacia el norte alejandose de
una zona de extensi6n en el sitio de colisi6n. El terreno es limitado al este pot el sistema de fallas de Liquifie-Ofqui (LOF) que
aproximadamente coinside con el iimite arco-frente de arco y por el sur por la cuenca extensional de el golfo de Penas. Resultados
de sismicidad, paleomagnetismo y fabrica indican un componente de movimiento de rumbo lateral-derecho para LOF. La geomor-
fologfa neotect6nica y datos de esfuerzo vertical pre- and post sismo del terremoto de Concepci6n de 1960 indican un componente
de movimiento hacia abajo en un piano inclinado hacia el oeste (west-down dip-slip component). Modelos tridimensionales de
colisi6n en esta regi6n pruevan el desarrollo de esfuerzos y fallas paralelas al arco 150 - 200 km de la fosa.
El emplazamiento de la ofiolita de Taltao (plioceno?) y la intrusi6n de magmas silicieos estan tambien en relaci6n con el desar-
rollo de corteza en el frente de arco y colisi6n durante el tiempo Mioceno y m ~ reciente. La ofiolita y los magmas silicicos con-
stituyen adisiones an6malas a la corteza de el frente de arco y registran eventos tect6nicos primarios al orig6n de el terreno
aloctono. Similares asociaci6n ofiolita / plutones silicicos pueden ayudar a entender los origenes de otros terrenos aloctonos.

INTRODUC~ON teaus ( B e n - A v r a h a m , et al., 1981; Cady, 1987), a n d g r e a t

o p h i o l i t e s h e e t s s u c h as t h e S e m a i l o p h i o l i t e . Other
THE BIRTH OF ALLOCHTHONOUS TERRANES can a l l o c h t h o n o u s terranes, h o w e v e r , are initially p a r t o f a c o n -
o c c u r in t w o f u n d a m e n t a l l y different settings. Some tinent, but b e c o m e d e t a c h e d t h r o u g h s t r i k e - s l i p a n d / o r rift
a l l o c h t h o n o u s t e r r a n e s are b o r n in i n t r a o c e a n i c s e t t i n g s d i s p l a c e m e n t . T h i s t y p e o f t e r r a n e b e c o m e s a c c r e t e d to a
a n d e v e n t u a l l y b e c o m e a c c r e t e d to a c o n t i n e n t as a result continent, either by convergence and collision, or through
o f p l a t e c o n v e r g e n c e a n d collision. E x a m p l e s o f this type c e s s a t i o n o f strike slip m o v e m e n t . Many terranes of this
o f t e r r a n e are v o l c a n i c i s l a n d arcs, s e a m o u n t s , o c e a n i c pla- second type form along active continental margins when

Address all correspondence and reprint requests to Eric Nelson, Dept. of Geology, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, 8040 I.
P r e s e n t e d a t the Fifth Circum-Pacific T e r r a n e Conference, Santiago, Chile, 11-14 N o v e m b e r 1991.

271
272 E. NELSON, R. FORSYTHE, and I. ARIT

(1986) suggested that collision of continental fragments

during pure boundary-normal convergence could generate
arc-parallel strike-slip faults, and Ben-Avraham et al.
(1981) discussed how collision of tectonically inactive
bathymetric features, such as oceanic plateaus and extinct
ridges, can cause similar mechanical effects. Forsythe and
Nelson (1985) proposed that collision of an oceanic
spreading ridge (here termed ridge collision) could cause
both mechanical and thermal effects in the forearc. It is
suggested here that the mechanical and thermal effects of
ridge collision are important factors in the origin and
crustal development of some forearc sliver terranes.
b)
Some of the effects of ridge collision are well illus-
trated in the South American forearc near the Chile triple
junction (46°S) where the Chile Rise spreading ridge is
colliding today (Fig. 2). This paper summarizes the fault
geometries and related kinematics in this region, which
suggest that a forearc sliver (or slivers) is moving laterally
away from the ridge collision site. Three-dimensional
finite element models of the ridge collision process in this
Fig. 1. Models for generation and/or activation of arc-parallel
strike-slip faults, a) Oblique subduction model; ~x= convergence
direction, ~ = dip of subducting slab, d = thickness of crust along
arc-parallel fault, b) Plan view of indenter model, in which a
rigid-plastic medium is indented by an infinite rigid plane (gray
block). The orientation of potential slip lines follow maximum
shear stress trajectories (45° to ~It-max).

slivers of forearc crust (or more extensive crust) are dis-

placed along arc-parallel strike-slip faults (Fitch, 1972;
Dewey, 1980; Jarrard, 1986b).
Two primary mechanisms have been proposed in the
origin or reactivation of arc-parallel strike-slip faults. The
first mechanism is oblique subduction, which occurs when
converging plates have a relative velocity vector oblique
to the gross trend of their mutual boundary (Fitch, 1972).
During oblique subduction, with vector-boundary angles
about 35-550 (Fitch, 1972), a portion of the slip is parti-
tioned along steep, arc-parallel strike-slip faults in the
hanging wall of the subduction zone (Fig. la). The forma-
tion of such faults is favored by low slab dips, strong inter-
plate coupling, and relative thermal softening in the
magmatic arc (Beck, 1983; Jarrard, 1986b). Woodcock
(1986) showed that approximately 60% of plate bound-
aries have a velocity vector that is markedly oblique
(>22 °) to the boundary normal, and Jarrard (1986a, 1986b)
showed that active arc-parallel strike-slip faulting occurs
behind about 67% of modern continental margin subduc-
tion zones. These statistics indicate a fairly high potential
of forming allochthonous terranes by oblique subduction.
This mechanism has been invoked in a number of situa- Fig. 2. Location map showing major tectonic features along the
tions to explain lateral displacements of forearc slivers Chile margin. West of Chile trench: double line is oceanic
(e.g., Fitch, 1972; Beck, 1983; Jarrard, 1986b; Busby- spreading ridges separating Nazca (NAZ) and Antarctic (ANT)
Spera and Saleeby, 1990). plates. Oceanic fracture zones are labeled. East of Chile trench:
LOF = Liquifie-Ofqui fault system; GP = Golfo de Penas basin
The second mechanism is indenter tectonics (Tappon- (showing mapped normal faults); TO = Taitao ophiolite (on the
nier and Molnar, 1976), in which arc-parallel strike-slip Peninsula Taitao adjacent to triple junction); PM = Puerto Montt;
faults are generated or reactivated in response to collision AY = Aysen; IO = Istmo de Ofqui. A-A' is line of cross section
between a bathymetric high on the subducting plate and in Fig. 7b. Arrows show relative plate convergence vectors north
the leading edge of the forearc (Fig. lb). Woodcock and south of triple junction.
 Ridge collision tectonics in terrane development 273

site, with stress field, slip line, and strain solutions, were Mechanical Effects of Ridge Collision
performed to test the applicability of the indenter model to
Mechanically, impingement of the Chile Rise has
faulting kinematics in the forearc. Finally, the various caused large scale deformation of the forearc upper crust.
effects of ridge collision are summarized and shown to Forsythe and Nelson (1985) proposed an indenter kine-
impart a distinct geologic history on the allochthonous ter- matic model in which an elongate forearc sliver (Chiloe
rane (forearc sliver). block) is moving northward, away from an extensional
zone at the collision site (Fig. 3). Two major tectonic fea-
tures accommodate this movement: 1) normal faults in the
Chile Triple Junction Golfo de Penas basin, and 2) the Liquifie-Ofqui fault sys-
tem (Fig. 2). The crustal sliver, which can be considered
The Chile triple junction, separating the Antarctic, an allochthonous terrane, is bounded on the east by the
Nazca and South American plates, marks the site where arc-parallel LOF which coincides roughly with the
the actively spreading Chile Rise is entering the forearc-arc boundary or, in places, with the arc axis. The
sediment-filled Chile trench (Fig. 2). Spreading ridge seg- LOF is mapped primarily as a system of subparallel linea-
ments are approximately parallel to the trench, and conver- ments linked with listric (in plan view) splays (Fig. 2).
gence vectors are approximately 0-30 and 22 ° from the Although the history of movement on the LOF is poorly
boundary normal south and north of the triple junction known, both dip slip (down-to-the-west) and strike-slip
respectively (Minster and Jordan, 1978; Fig. 2). Conver- (right lateral) displacements are suggested by field evi-
gence rates north and south of the triple junction are dence, seismicity, and paleomagnetic studies. Right-lat-
approximately 9 cm/yr and <2 cm/yr respectively (Minster eral slip (possibly as old as Oligocene) is suggested by
and Jordan, 1978). Offshore geological and geophysical field studies on mylonitic rocks near the northern mapped
data indicate that the triple junction has migrated north extent of the fault system (Herv6, et al., 1979). Garcia et
along the continental margin over the last 15-20 Ma (Her- al. (1988) proposed, on the basis of paleomagnetic studies
ton et al., 1981; Cande et al. 1987), and that at least two in the region north of Puerto Montt, right-lateral offset
short ridge segments have collided with the forearc in the along the LOF of 400-500 km at least since 50 Ma. They
region of the triple junction over the past 6 Ma. Much of also noted that vertical-axis block rotations associated
the variation in the morphology of the continental shelf with this shear affect rocks as young as 3-4 Ma, indicating
and slope is thought to reflect the response of the continen- very recent activity on the fault system. In the region
tal margin to the collision of ridge and transform segments between Puerto Montt (42 ° 30' S) and Puerto Cisnes (44 °
(Cande et al., 1987; ODP Leg 141). Also, a number of 45' S), Cembrano (1990) and Herv6 et al. (in press)
magmatic and tectonic phenomena in the Andean forearc mapped Tertiary(?) mylonitic fabrics and Miocene grani-
near the triple junction are believed to be near-field effects toids and ophiolitic rocks along the LOF. These features
of these Pliocene and younger ridge collisions (Nelson and are consistent with an origin by protracted transtensional
Forsythe, 1989)• wrench faulting• Near the southern end of the LOE in the

LOF
... (.ili ' .
. "

.... ....:
• i

~_. ' . ' • " ~•' ........ :.'.. : ..'.• " ~ i... t// \
I \ I

• : ":..'. SAM

• '. / / / \ / \ f \
;
I\1~ \ //J i
" ,"
, \ ~ , .,\
\~\ i

Fig. 3. Perspective block diagram illustrating ridge collision and associated tectonic features in South American plate• See Fig. 2 for
abbreviations•
SAES 7/3-4- D
274 E. NELSON, R. FORSYTHE, and I. ARIT

triple junction region, aftershocks from the 1960 Con- Finite Element Models
cepcion earthquake (Fig. 8; Plafker and Savage, 1970;
Three dimensional finite element modeling was per-
Chinn and Isacks, 1983; Cifuentes, 1989), and recent seis-
formed, using the program MCS/NASTRAN (Schaeffer,
micity (unpublished data) suggest recent motion on the
1988), for this ridge collision setting in order to model the
LOF. Chinn and Isacks (1983) determined a strike-slip
development of arc-parallel faults. Local and regional
focal plane solution for a 1965, Ms=6.0, earthquake (or
scale models were constructed (Fig. 5), and loads were
aftershock) along the trace of the LOE Lastly, the pattern
applied in order to simulate both indenter and oblique sub-
of curved fault splays along the LOF (Fig. 2) are inter-
duction tectonics. The range of parameters used is given
preted as Riedel (R) shears (see Petit, 1987; Sylvester,
in the Appendix. The number of finite elements varied
1988), and are consistent with a component of right-lateral
from 500 to 700, with more than 2000 grid points. Both
slip on the fault system.
stress and strain solutions were generated in both static
Geomorphic features along the LOF on the Istmo (Isth- and transient cases (Fig. 6).
mus) de Ofqui (Fig. 1), including a major topographic The predicted regional stress field in the forearc region
break (Figs. 4, 7b), a -10-20 m-high Quaternary fault is shown in Fig. 6a. Maximum horizontal stress (GH-max)
scarp, and sag ponds suggest a component of down-to-the- trajectories are normal to the trench in the triple junction
west slip and protracted activity. In addition, ductile region, but become subparallel to the trench to the north.
deformation fabrics with right-lateral slip indicators Approximately 150 km east of the trench t~lt.raax-trajecto-
exposed along the fault in this same region (unpublished ries change orientation from NNE to ENE, and eventually
data; E Herv6, pers. comm.) may record an older slip his- become EW at the eastern boundary of the model. Poten-
tory. Thus the LOF appears to have had a long, possibly tial right-lateral faults, drawn at 30 ° counterclockwise
complex, history, part of which may be related to ridge from GH-max,show a pattern consistent with the geometry
collision and oblique subduction. of the LOF in the South American plate about 150-200 km
The forearc sliver is bounded to the south by the Golfo east of the trench, i.e., generally north-trending but curv-
de Penas, which has been interpreted as a pull-apart basin ing to the west towards the south near the triple junction
(Fig. 2; Forsythe and Nelson, 1985). The Golfo de Penas (Fig. 6a). In addition, the pattern of maximum shear stress
is the largest embayment on the continental shelf of Chile, contours in plan view (Fig. 6b) shows a similar pattern.
and marine seismic profiles across this basin show recently The results of transient finite element modeling show a
active normal faults bounding graben structures (Fig. 2; pattern of vertical strain north of the triple junction in
Mordojovich, 1983; Forsythe and Nelson, 1985). The which maximum uplift occurs along the leading edge of
strike of these faults is approximately perpendicular with the continent, and maximum subsidence occurs approxi-
that of the LOF along the eastern margin of the Golfo de mately 160-200 km east of the trench (Fig. 6c). This pat-
Penas, suggesting that the normal faults represent exten- tern of vertical strain is consistent with field data within
sion fractures (or T-fractures) consistent with right-lateral the forearc sliver: uplift along the western margin and sub-
slip on the LOF (see Sylvester, 1988, Fig. 6). sidence along the eastern margin (Fig. 7b). Elevations

Fig. 4. Photograph looking

north along Liquifie-Ofqui
fault system on Istmo de
Ofqui (see Fig. 2). Note lin-
ear topographic break with
sag pond at the base.
 Ridge collision tectonics in terrane development 275

near the southern end of the block (-46°30'S) are highest

(-850m) only 5 km from the Pacific coast and decrease

\ progressively toward the east to sealevel (or lower in

places) along the LOF (approximately 150-200 km east of
the trench; Fig. 7b). This pattern of vertical strain is also
similar to post-seismic sealevel data collected by Plafker
a} and Savage (1970) and Barrientos and Ward (1990, and
personal comm.) in the region between Puerto Montt and
the Peninsula Taitao following the 1960 Concepcfon earth-
II ~ lO01an
quake. These data generally show a pattern of uplift along
the continental margin, subsidence to the east, and uplift
farther east (Fig. 7a).

TRIPLEJUNCTION Kinematics of Forearc Slivers

The Golfo de Penas extensional basin is interpreted to

b)
\\\\\ bound the southern end of the forearc sliver. This interpre-
tation is supported by three lines of evidence: 1) the geom-
I
FOREARC REGION
I etry of the LOF and normal faults within the Golfo de
Penas, 2) the orientation of modeled stress trajectories in
I I the region of the triple junction (Fig. 6), and 3) the coinci-
dence of the southern boundary of aftershocks from the
1960 Concepcfon earthquake with the Golfo de Penas
Fig. 5. Geometry of local finite element model, a) Block diagram
showing schematic representation of finite elements in 3-D mod- (Plafker and Savage, 1970; I. Cifuentes, pets. comm.).
els. Plates: ANT = Antarctic, NAZ = Nazca, SAM = South The LOF is interpreted as a complex zone of strike-slip
American. b) Plan view of load application along leading edge and dip-slip faulting that coincides with the magmatic arc
of forearc. (or forearc-arc boundary), and bounds the eastern margin
of the forearc sliver.
Vertical strain data in the forearc and arc have been
modeled in terms of movement along the subduction slab-
continent interface, but may also reflect movement along a
steeply-dipping eastern boundary of the proposed forearc
sliver. Plafker and Savage (1970, their Fig. 12) modeled
the vertical strain pattern during and following the 1960
Concepcfon earthquake as related to movement on a con-
vex-upward subduction slab-continent interface fault that
increases in dip down the slab. The observed zone of
b) major uplift was related to thrust motion at the trench. The
adjacent zone of subsidence was related to "elastic exten-
sion and horizontal attenuation of the crust immediately
behind the fault block" (p.1023), implying that a forearc
.2I sliver is somehow detached from the continent along its
eastern boundary. However, they noted (p. 1024) "[the
down-dip] curvature [of the thrust fault] is not indicated by
the spatial distribution of aftershocks...", and were unable
a) to explain the slight uplift east of the zone of subsidence.
Although their model neglected the effects of strike-slip
motion on the vertical deformation, they noted that there
CHILB ~TRENCH was evidence for a component of lateral slip along the
fault.
Barrientos and Ward (1990) presented a variable slip
plane model for the subduction slab-continent interface to
explain the vertical strain pattern. Their slip plane dips
20 °, is 900 km long and terminates at the Peninsula Taitao,
Fig. 6. Results of finite element models, a) Solution showing tra- and extends over 400 km down dip; most of the slip is con-
jectories of maximum horizontal stress (OH.max, short lines) and centrated in the upper 150 km of the slab (Barrientos and
orientations of potential right-lateral faults (heavy dashed lines; Ward, 1990, their Fig. 6). Their model shows two north-
30° to ~JX-max). b) Contours of maximum shear stress (units in
south belts of relatively high, but variable, dip slip on the
MPa). c) Contours of vertical strain (in meters). Arrows in b and
c show approximate location of triple junction (indenting oceanic fault plane separated by a belt of no dip slip (Fig. 8). This
ridge). belt of no dip slip (essentially the belt of zero elevation
276 E. NELSON, R. FORSYTHE, and I. ARIT

a) v

..... 43.5"-44.5"
44.5"-45,5'

7-
>~
.. J
l,J,.I "1. ,.°°*°°°'

°'Ooo,oo ......... ,,o°'°°

b)
VE =Sx Valen~n

~nlzunfla LOF
~t~

coast 50 100 150km

Fig. 7 a. Profiles of elevation change along two transects north of the triple junction following 1960 Concepcion earthquake (from Bar-
rientos and Ward, 1990). b. Topographic profile from triple junction to the east, crossing the Liquifie-Ofqui fault system. See Fig. 2 for
location of profile line.

change) also coincides broadly with the lineament of the

LOF (sensu lato, i.e., including the lineament along the
eastern shore of Canal Moraleda and Golfo Corcovado;
Figs. 2 and 8). The belt of minor uplift to the east coin-
cides with the axis of the magmatic arc (Fig. 8). Barrien-
tos and Ward (1990) favored in-place growth of aseismic
slip along their model fault plane to explain the eastern
belt of slip. However, the belt of no slip and the adjacent
eastern belt of slip (corresponding with the zone of minor
uplift) could be interpreted to reflect movement along a
steep fault plane with components of dip slip and strike
slip. This interpretation is supported by field evidence for
strike separation along the LOF, by a strike-slip fault-plane
solution from Chinn and Isacks (Fig. 8; 1983), and by neo-
tectonic geomorphologic features indicating dip slip at the
Istmo Ofqui (Fig. 4). This fault system would thus act as
the eastern boundary of the forearc sliver, allowing com-
partmentalization of strain on either side of it. The uplift
east of this boundary could also be related, in part, to isos-
tatic response of the thickened and thermally buoyant
magmatic arc. Dip-slip components of movement have
been documented on other arc-parallel faults, such as the
Atacama fault in northern Chile (Scheuber and Andries-
sen, 1990).
Vertical uplift along the leading edge of the forearc
appears to increase toward the south (Barrientos and Ward,
1990, their Fig. 5). This uplift pattern is probably an effect
of the decreasing age of subducting oceanic lithosphere as Fig. 8. Contours of fault plane slip (in meters) from variable slip-
the triple junction is approached (Cande and Leslie, 1986). plane model of Barrientos and Ward (1990). Stars show location
Younger oceanic lithosphere will result in a lower dip of of Quaternary volcanos; strike-slip focal-plane solution 0965,
the subducting slab and more uplift near the triple junction Ms = 6.0) along LOF from Chinn and Isacks (1983).
(DeLong and Fox, 1977). Abbreviations listed in Fig. 2.
 Ridge collision tectonics in terrane development 277

Geological D e v e l o p m e n t o f Forearc Sliver Terranes Taitao ophiolite, southern Chile. Actas, VI Congreso Geol6gico Chil-
eno, Vi~ladel Mar 1,615.
The recognition o f ancient forearc sliver terranes asso-
Barrientos, S.E. and Ward, S.N., 1990. The 1960 Chile earthquake: inver-
ciated with ridge collision depends not only on recogniz- sion for slip distribution from surface deformation. Geophysical
ing tectonic features associated with their boundaries, but Journal International 103, 589-598.
also on r e c o g n i z i n g other g e o l o g i c features a s s o c i a t e d Beck Jr, M. E., 1983. On the mechanism of tectonic transport in zones of
with ridge collision. In southern Chile, a number of rela- oblique subduction. Tectonophysics 93, 1-11.
tively short r i d g e s e g m e n t s and o c e a n i c fracture zones Ben-Avraham, Z., Nut, A., Jones, D., and Cox, 1981. Continental accre-
have collided with the continental margin in the region o f tion: From oceanic plateaus to aUochthonous terranes. Science 213,
the present triple junction since the Miocene (Cande et al., 47-54.
1987). Nelson and Forsythe (1989) summarized a number Busby-Spera, C. J. and Saleeby, J. B., 1990. Intra-arc strike-slip fault
of near-field and far-field effects of these collisions. Two exposed at batholithic levels in the southern Sierra Nevada, Califor-
o f the m a j o r effects are the i n t r u s i o n and extrusion o f nia. Geology 18, 255-259.
silicic m a g m a s and e m p l a c e m e n t o f the Taitao ophiolite Cady, J. W., 1987. Preliminary geophysical interpretation of the oceanic
within 15 to 25 km o f the trench. The ophiolite, tenta- terranes of interior and western Alaska: Evidence for thick crust of
tively dated as approximately 3-5 Ma old (Mpodozis et al., intermediate density. In: Terrane Accretion and Orogenic Belts
1985), contains a complete ophiolite pseudostratigraphy: (edited by E.C. Leitch and E. Scbeibner), pp. 301-305. Geodynamics
Series 19.
ultramafic tectonites, l a y e r e d and m a s s i v e gabbros and
peridotites, sheeted dikes, pillow lavas, and terrigenous Cande, S.C. and Leslie, R.B., 1986. Late Cenozoic tectonics oftbe south-
em Chile trench. Journal of Geophysical Research 91,471-496.
elastic rocks d e p o s i t e d in a shallow marine to subaerial
e n v i r o n m e n t ( N e l s o n et al., 1993). G e o c h e m i c a l l y the Cande, S., Leslie, R.B., Parra, J.C., and Hobart, M., 1987. Interaction
ophiolite bears a m i x e d oceanic and continental (or arc) between the Chile Ridge and Chile Trench: Geophysical and geother-
mal evidence. Journal of Geophysical Research 92, 495-520.
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al., 1990; Allen et al., 1991). Two possible origins have Cembrano, J., 1990. Geologia del Batolito Norpatagonico y rocas meta-
morficas de su margen occidental. Unpublished thesis, Universidad
been proposed for the ophiolite: 1) it could be a block of de Chile, Santiago, 64p.
o c e a n i c crust o b d u c t e d d u r i n g r i d g e c o l l i s i o n , or 2) it
Chinn, D.S. and Isacks, B.L., 1983. Accurate source depths and focal
could have formed in a collision-related rift (or transten-
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E, 1988. Paleomagnetic reconnaissance of the Region de Los Lagos,
National Science Foundation Grants 8618725 and 9106638.
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Appendix
Range of parameters used in finite element models

CONTINENTAL CRUST O C E A N I C CRUST ASTHENOSPHERE

DIMENSIONS 1000×300×100 km 1000×300X100 km 1000×300×100 km

ELASTIC MODULUS 5×108 - 3XI012 Pa 1×107 - 1×10 j5 Pa 2×108 - 7×1015 Pa

POISSION'S RATIO .23-.27 .25-.3 .25-.33

DENSITY 2300-2900 kg/m3 2500-3200 kg/m3 3000-5000 kg/m 3

THERMAL EXPANSION
COEFF. IXl0 4 - IXI0 15/K 1×104 - IXl0 15/K 1×104 - IXl0 15/K

SUBDUCTION ANGLE 15°- 40°

CONVERGENCE ANGLE 078 ° - 055 °

APPLIED LOAD 1×105 - 1×1012 Pa