Lecture 2

Knowing the Foundation of Life

 Objectives
• After finishing this lecture, you should be able to:
– Explain why cells are the foundation of life;
– List the different types of cells;
– Distinguish between prokaryotes and eukaryotes;
– Describe the different components of cells;
– Explain how cells reproduce by mitosis;
– Explain the process of meiosis, and
– Explain the process of gametogenesis
 Outline of Topics
1. Life and its Properties
2. Levels of Organization
3. Cell, Cell cycle of the Eukaryote
4. Chemical Components of a Cell
5. Organic Marcomolecules of Living Organsims
6. Types of Cell and Cell Parts
7. Cell Cycle and Reproduction
a. Mitosis
b. Meiosis
8. Gametogenesis
a. Animal Gametogenesis
a) Spermatogenesis
b) Oogenesis
b. Plant Gemetogenesis
a) Microsporogenesis
b) Megasporogenesis
 What is life?
• Life: 'The property manifested in functions
such as metabolism, growth, response to
stimulation, and reproduction, by which
living organisms are distinguished from
dead organisms or from inanimate matter.'
(Webster's Dictionary)
 What is life?
• Life: 'The state of being which begins with
generation, birth, or germination, and ends with
death; also, the time during which this state
continues; that state of an animal or plant in
which all or any of its organs are capable of
performing all or any of their functions; used of
all animal and vegetable organisms.' (Gray's
Medical Dictionary)
 What is life?
• Life: As described in the Catholic
Encyclopedia - for those interested in a
more philosophical definition...
 What Properties are Associated
with Life?
• Life is difficult to define, but all living organisms
are alike in these aspects:

1. Cellular Organization: All living organisms are

composed of one or more cells - the basic unit of life
... "Life is Totally Cellular"
2. Heredity: All living organisms possess a genetic
system based on the replication of DNA (or a related
molecule, RNA), that specifies the information to
make cellular proteins.
What Properties are Associated
with Life?
3. Growth and Development: All living organisms
assemble matter (chemical elements) into simple
or complex compounds, and use the energy
derived from these compounds to grow and
change over time. The process of using chemical
energy to do cellular work is called metabolism.
4. Reproduction: All living organisms are
programmed to produce new generations of cells
or new multicellular organisms similar to
themselves.
5. Response to Environment: All living organisms
sense changes in their surroundings (using
receptors), make controlled responses (behavior),
and keep their internal environment relatively
constant (homeostasis)
Life is organized on many structural
levels:
• At each level of organization, novel
properties emerge that were not present at
the previous level.
 Levels of Organization
• Biosphere - regions of air, water and soil on Earth where living
organisms exist
• Ecosystem - a community and its physical environment
• Community - groups of different species living in the same
area
• Population - groups of individuals of the same species living in
the same area
• Multicellular Organism - an individual composed of cells
arranges into tissues and organs
• Organ System - groups of organs performing a common task
• Organ - groups of tissues performing a common task
• Tissue - group of specialized cells
• Cell - Smallest living unit
• Organelle - compartments inside cells
• Molecule - 2 or more atoms bonded together
• Atom - smallest unit of an element
• Subatomic Particle - proton, electron, neutron
 What is a Cell?
• Building blocks of life-why?
• All the processes involving growth, reproduction,
and maintaining the well-being of the organism
happen at the cellular level

• Unit of structure and function

• All living organisms come from previously existing
cell
• Thus, it is also the unit of reproduction
• Allows the continuity of life and
• The transfer of genetic materials from one
generation to another
 How important the cell is?
• The most basic life processes such as:
– Reproduction
– Growth
– Disease immunity, and
– Nutrient utilization
• Take place at the cellular level
Chemical Components of the Cell

• Inorganic- water and mineral ions

• Organic –proteins, carbohydrate, nucleic acid
and lipids
• Cell contains:
• 75 to 85 % water
• 10-20% protein
• 2-3% inorganic salts
• Organic compounds-stand out as the
molecule of life
 Organic Macromolecules in Living
Organisms
• Nucleic Acids – repeats of nucleotides
• RNA
• DNA
• Polysaccharides –polymers of glucose
• Monosaccharides- glucose, fructose, ribose
• Dissaccharides – sucrose, lactose
• Polysaccharides-carbohydrates
• Proteins- polymers of amino acids
• Fats/lipids- polymers of fatty acids
Types of Cell
• In spite of the diversity of living organism, there are
only two types of cell.
• Prokaryotic cell
• Pro –means before
• Karyon- means nucleus
• Having no distinct nucleus
• Ex. Blue green algae, bacteria
• Eukaryotic cell
• Having a distinct nucleus
• Ex. Multicellular cells
Comparison Between Prokaryote & Eukaryote

(Robertis and Robertis, 1987)

Comparison Between Pro and Eukaryotes
(Robertis & Robertis, 1987)

Prokaryote Eukaryotes

Nuclear envelop absent Present

DNA naked Combined with

protein
Chromosome single Multiple

Division amitosis mitosis

Ribosome 70s 80s

 Examples of Cells

Red blood cell

Human nerve cell

Bacterial cell
Sperm cell
A Generalized Cell
Nuclear Nucleolus Chromosomal
Golgi Nucleus
envelope DNA
body

Polyribosomes
Ribosome
Rough ER
Cytoplasm
Membrane protein
Plasma membrane
Smooth ER
Lysosome

Microfilaments Centrioles
Mitochondrion Microtubules

(b) Animal cell

 Animal and Plant Cells

Plant cell

Animal cell
Eukaryotic cell cycle:
cell growth, mitosis, and interphase

A growing cell undergoes a cell cycle

that is comprised of essentially to
periods:

•Interphase – non apparent division

•M-phase - period of division

G1: prepares for chromosome

replication.
S: DNA replicates and new
chromosomes (sister chromatids)
are formed.
G2: Cell prepares for mitosis and cell
division.
M: Mitosis
 The Cell Cycle
DNA Synthesis

Interphase

S
Synthesis

G1 G2
Gap 1 M Gap 2
Mitosis

Growth
Gene expression
Differentiation

Two Gene expression

daughter Quality control
cells
Actual division process
Mitosis:
Replication of DNA (chromosome duplication) followed by one round of
cell division. Results in two “identical” cells, with exception of the
mutations that might occur during DNA replication.

Meiosis:
Replication of DNA (chromosome duplication) followed by two rounds of
cell division. Results in 4 haploid daughter cells (gametes) that possess
1/2 the amount of DNA of the parent cell.

Mutations also arise during meiosis.

Crossing-over and random occur during meiosis.

Lead to new combinations of DNA.

Mitosis (somatic cells):
1. Occurs in haploid (1N) and diploid (2N) somatic cells.
2. Continuous process - 4 cytologically distinct stages.

Prophase Chromosomes shorten, thicken, and become visible by

light microscopy.

Centrioles move apart and mitotic spindle begins to form.

Centrioles migrate to opposite sides of nucleus and

nuclear envelope begins to disappear.

Metaphase Nuclear envelope disappears completely. Replicated

chromosomes held together at the centromere are
aligned on equator of the spindle (metaphase plate).

Anaphase Centromeres split and daughter chromosomes migrate to

opposite poles. Cell division (cytokinesis) begins.

Telophase Nuclear envelopes reform, chromosomes become

extended and less visible, and cell division continues.
 Mitotic Cell Division

Interphase Prophase Prometaphase

Metaphase Anaphase

Telophase
Duration of Mitosis in Living Cells
(Burns, 1983)
 Some Key Points
• Mitosis ultimately produces two
daughter cells genetically identical to
the mother cell
– Barring rare mutations
• Processes requiring mitotic cell
division
– Development of multicellularity
– Organismal growth
– Wound repair
– Tissue regeneration
 How Does One Make a Haploid
Gamete?
• Answer – meiosis
• Haploid cells are produced from diploid
cells during gametogenesis
• The chromosomes must be distributed
to reduce the chromosome number to
half its original value
• but simultaneously sorted to assure
that each chromosome (& its genes) is
represented in each gamete
Meiosis (germ cells):
1. Occurs at a particular point in the life cycle.

2. Two successive divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II) of a diploid (2N)

nucleus after one DNA replication (chromosome duplication) cycle.

3. Cell division (cytokinesis) results in 4 haploid (1N) cells from a single

parent cell.

• Animals: gametogenesis -> gametes

• Plants: sporogenesis -> meiospores

Types of Life Cycle

• Terminal or gametic meiosis

• Found in animal, humans, & some lower plants
• Intermediate or sporic meiosis
• Found in plants
• Initial or zygotic meiosis
• Occurs in some algae, fungi, and diatoms
 Meiosis
• Meiosis begins after a cell has progressed
through G1, S, & G2
• Meiosis involves two successive divisions
• Meiosis I
• Prophase I Leptotena
• Metaphase I Zygotena
• Anaphase I Pachytena
• Telophase I Diplotena
• Meiosis II Diakinesis
• Prophase II
• Metaphase II
• Anaphase II
• Telophase II
Meiosis II:
1. Similar to mitotic division.
2. Also four stages:

Prophase II Chromosomes condense. .

Metaphase II Spindle forms and centromeres align on the

equatorial plane.

Anaphase II Centromeres split and chromatids are pulled to

opposite poles of the spindle (one sister chromatid from each
pair goes to each pole).

Telophase II Chromatids complete migration, nuclear

envelope forms, and cells divide, resulting in 4 haploid cells.
Each progeny cell has has one chromosome from each
homologous pair, but these are not exact copies due to
crossing-over.
 Periods of Prophase I

A tetrad 2
bivalents

A physical exchange of chromosome pieces

Meiosis I:
1. Chromosomes are reduced from diploid (2N) to haploid (1N).
2. Four stages

Prophase I Similar to prophase of mitosis, except that

homologous chromosomes pair and cross-
over. Spindle apparatus begins to form, and
nuclear envelope disappears.

Metaphase I Chromosome pairs (bivalents) align across

equatorial plane. Random assortment of
maternal/paternal homologs occurs (different
from metaphase of mitosis).

Anaphase I Homologous chromosome pairs separate and

migrate toward opposite poles.

Telophase I Chromosomes complete migration, and new

nuclear envelopes form, followed by cell
division.
Stages of Meiosis I
 Meiosis
• Telophase I & cytokinesis of meiosis I is
followed meiosis II
• Meiosis I has reduced the number of
chromosomes in the daughter cells to the
½ the diploid number
• However, each homolog is still composed of
2 recombinant sister chromatids
– The genetic content is still 2n
• Meiosis II reduces the genetic content to n
Stages of Meiosis II

1 of each type of
chromosome (n) in each
daughter cell (gamete)
Significant results of meiosis:

1. Haploid cells are produced because two rounds of

division follow one round of chromosome replication.

2. Alignment of paternally and maternally inherited

chromosomes is random in metaphase I, resulting in
random combinations of chromosomes in each
gamete. Number of possible chromosome
arrangements = 2n-1.

3. Crossing-over between maternal and paternal

chromatids during meiosis I provides still more
variation. Moreover, the crossing-over sites vary
from one meiosis to another.
Gametogenesis-producing mature gametes
or spores
• Usually the immediate end products of meiosis are not fully
developed gametes or spores
• A period of maturation commonly follows meiosis
• In plants
 One or more mitotic divisions are required to produce
reproductive spores
• In animals
 The meiotic products develop directly into gametes through
growth and differentiation
 Gametogenesis
 Animal gametogenesis
 Spermatogenesis – formation of sperms
 Oogenesis – formation of ova
 Plant gametogenesis
 Microsporogenesis –formation of pollen grains
 Megasporogenesis- formation of embryo sacs
 Animal Gametogenesis

• Spermatogenesis
• Spermatogenesis is the process of
forming sperm cells by meiosis (in
animals, by mitosis in plants) in
specialized organs known as gonads
(in males these are termed testes).
• Sperm production begins at puberty at
continues throughout life, with several
hundred million sperm being produced
each day.
• Once sperm form they move into the
epididymis, where they mature and are Human Sperm (SEM x5,785).
stored. This image is copyright
Dennis Kunkel at
• Human males produce 200,000,000 www.DennisKunkel.com,
sperms per day.
Animal Gametogenesis
• Oogenesis is the process of forming an
ovum (egg) by meiosis (in animals, by
mitosis in the gametophyte in plants) in
specialized gonads known as ovaries.
• The ovary contains many follicles composed
of a developing egg surrounded by an outer
layer of follicle cells. Each egg begins
oogenesis as a primary oocyte.
• At birth each female carries a lifetime supply
of developing oocytes, each of which is in
Prophase I.
• A developing egg (secondary oocyte) is
released each month from puberty until
menopause, a total of 400-500 eggs.

1 m (oocytes) 300 t (oocytes) 400-500 eggs

At birth 7 years at puberty ( 12-60 years)

ANIMAL GAMETOGENESIS

Sperms
penetrating an
egg

Age 16- maximum level of production

What’s Baby’s Gender?

22+Y
22+X

22+X

44+XY
44+XX
I am a boy I am a girl
 • Johan Hamm (1677) – first observed
sperm
• Lazzaro Spallanzani (1784) – filtered dog
semen to separate the sperm from other
material and showed semen was capable
in initial pregnancy
• Carl Ernstvon Baer (1827)- discovered
mammalian egg
• Martin Barry (1843) – observed the actual
fertilization of the a rabbit ovum by a sperm
One million – oocytes in a new born baby
Ave discharge of semen- 250-500 million sperms
300,000 – at 7 years due degeneration
Human male produces 200 millions sperms per day
400 oocytes- reach maturity bet 12-50 year
Plant Gametogenesis
• Microsporogenesis

– Pollen grains (from the greek palynos for

dust or pollen) contain the male
gametophyte (microgametophyte) phase of
the plant.
– Pollen grains are produced by meiosis of
microspore mother cells that are located
along the inner edge of the anther sacs
(microsporangia).
– The outer part of the pollen is the exine,
which is composed of a complex
polysaccharide, sporopollenin. Inside the
pollen are two (or, at most, three) cells that
comprise the male gametophyte.
– The tube cell (also referred to as the tube
nucleus) develops into the pollen tube.
– The germ cell divides by mitosis to produce
two sperm cells.
– Division of the germ cell can occur before or
after pollination.
Formation of Pollen Grain & Embryo Sac
An embryo sac
Pollination & Fertilization
Formation of Seeds in Plant