iscussing the future of anything is always challenging, especially

D
the future of language teaching. The conservative temptation is to

assume that things will carry on much as they have in the past

and that the future will be recognizable from clues in the present.

After all, classrooms have maintained their familiar organization

for a thousand years. Why then should methodology alter radically if the classroom stays

the same? The alternative is to predict a science-fiction future in which, given one’s

ecological or technological bias, the future is nothing like the present.

My own predictions, then, will address both temptations. Some of the predictions

assume the carrying on and refinement of current trends; others appear more like

science fiction in their vision.

The recent past Next phases in language

The 20th century has seen an immense teaching methodology
amount of activity in language teaching In assembling my methodological
methodology. Grammar Translation, the Direct predictions, I have borrowed ideas from other
Method, Audio-Lingualism—all preceded commentators and have created some
what some have called the Age of Methods, scenarios of my own. Some of these
comprising most of the final decades of the predictions are based on experience of the
last century (Richards and Rodgers 1986). last century. Others are somewhat
During this period a number of new methods idiosyncratic but draw on material already
clamored for attention and vied for adherents. existing outside the immediate purview of
Inevitably a reaction set in to what some language teaching. I propose ten scenarios
saw as scatter-fire approaches to language which may, individually and collectively,
teaching, leading to an “anti-methods” view shape the teaching of second languages in
of language teaching methodology. Long
the next decades of this new millennium.
(1989) stated that “methods don’t matter
These speculations are presented in several
because they don’t exist”; Nunan (1991)
brief outline sketches. I have given the
supported criticisms of the profession and its
millennial candidates identifying labels in a
preoccupation with methods; Brown (1994a)
somewhat tongue-in-cheek style, perhaps
opined that “The era of methods is over”; and
Woodward (1996) noted that the profession is reminiscent of yesteryear’s method labels.
now in a period of “post-method thinking.” The methodogical predictions are as
Several alternatives were offered to the follows:
view that methods were at the heart of 1. Teacher/Learner Collaboration: Using
methodology. Brown (1994a) argued that matchmaking techniques to link learners and
methodology should comprise putting into teachers who have similar styles and
practice certain general principles of good approaches to language learning
language teaching derived from research or 2. Method Synergistics: Crossbreeding
observation. Another view was that meth- elements of various methods to find those
odology should build on conscious modeling practices which best support effective learning
by less experienced teachers of the practices 3. Curriculum Developmentalism: Viewing
of expert or experienced teachers, whatever methodology as an integrated component in a
these practices might be (Freeman 1992). larger view of instructional design

2 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
 4. Content-Basics: Assuming that METHODS AND LEARNER ROLES
language learning is a by-product of a focus
Method Learner Roles
on meaning, on acquiring some specific
topical content Situational Language Teaching (SLT) Imitator
Memorizer
5. Multi-intelligencia: Basing instruction
Audio-lingualism (AL) Pattern Practicer
on a “multiple-intelligences” view, in which Accuracy Enthusiast
different approaches play to different learner
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Improvisor
talents Negotiator
6. Total Functional Response: Recon- Total Physical Response (TPR) Order Taker
structing the Notional/Functional idea with Performer
some new systemic twists The Silent Way (SW) Inventor
7. Strategopedia: Teaching learners the Problem Solver
strategies they need so that they can learn on Community Language Learning (CLL) Collaborator
their own Whole Person
8. Lexical Phraseology: Recrafting both The Natural Approach (NA) Guesser
the nature and substance of language Immerser

learning (LL) to focus on lexical phrases and Suggestopedia (S) Relaxer

True Believer
collocations
9. O-zone Whole Language: Engaging all
aspects of language study—literature, METHODS AND TEACHER ROLES
language history, linguistic analysis, and so
Method Teacher Roles
forth—in support of second language learning
Situational Language Teaching (SLT) Context Setter
10. Full-frontal Communicativity: Error Corrector
Engaging all aspects of human
Audio-lingualism (AL) Language Modeler
communicative capacities—expression, Drill Leader
gesture, tone, and so forth—in support of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Needs Analyst
second language learning Task Designer
Total Physical Response (TPR) Commander
Teacher/learner collaborates Action Monitor
The classification of learning styles (e.g., The Silent Way (SW) Pantomimist
Kolb 1984 and Willing 1998) and teaching Neutral Observer
styles (e.g., McCarthy 1984) has received Community Language Learning (CLL) Counselor
Paraphraser
considerable attention in recent years;
however, relatively little attention has been The Natural Approach (NA) Actor
Props User
paid to how to match learner and teacher
styles, either theoretically or practically. My Suggestopedia (S) Autohypnotist

first prediction is that this kind of

“matchmaking” will occupy considerably
Shorthand identification of learner roles
more attention in instructional planning in the
and teacher roles were created as shown in
future. As an example of how this might work,
the two charts above. In application, teachers
I have borrowed some material on method
were encouraged to characterize their own
analysis from Richards and Rodgers (1986).
In a paper on learner and teacher styles and teaching style (or a teaching style to which
strategies in methods (Rodgers 1979), I they aspired) and to characterize the learning
synopsized the characterizations of learner style(s) they found predominant among their
roles and teacher roles for each of the eight students. With this information, they then
methods analyzed in the text. I then suggested matched styles to learner roles and teacher
a matchmaking procedure by which roles in the charts. Close matches led to a
individual teachers might consider the discussion of how teachers and students
appropriateness of recommended methods might be matched and to an examination of
depending on how they characterized procedures associated with the methods
themselves and their students. In other words, suggested as a result of the learner and
I tried to suggest how teachers might identify teacher matches. Such procedures were
“good-fit” methods to adopt or adapt for use assumed to be likely nominees for individual
in their own teaching/ learning situations. teacher adoption or adaptation. (For those

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 3
 unfamiliar with the major features of these particular insights. Although the search for
methods, I refer you to Richards and Rodgers commonalties across methods has been
[1986] or to Nunan’s [1988] one-page outline discouraged, such commonalties do exist. For
of the text.) example, one sub class of methods proposes
If such matchmaking becomes that a prolonged listening period should
theoretically viable, a major challenge for the precede production, and the other, that
future will be how to put such information production should be a first target. One set of
into practice in ELT classes. This problem methods regards L2 learning as similar to L1
challenges other notions of how individual learning, and the other set views L2 learning
differences in learning and teaching can be as significantly unlike L1 learning. However,
analyzed and accommodated (e.g., these supraordinate commonalties are too
Strategopedia and Multi-intelligencia below). abstract to help a language educator
searching for insights into the language
Method synergistics learning process or for suggestions for
Methods have been criticized for claiming improving classroom teaching.
universality of application as well as In several earlier papers (Rodgers 1989,
uniqueness in their individual properties and 1990), I examined method statements and

Classroom external
Birth—Native intelligence and aptitude
Bloom—Optimal biological period(s) for language learning
Background—Home and community past experience
Bath—Immersion in a second language situation
Badge—High status of second language in the community
Bridge—Desire of the learner to join a new culture
Bedroom—Language acquired from love partners
Bread—Financial rewards for language learning
Bullets—Physical threat for not learning a new language
By-product—Language learning in association with other important learning

Classroom internal
(Refer to methods and learner roles on the previous page for method abbreviations)
Brains—Requiring use of problem-solving, thinking capacities in connection with LL (SLT, CLT, SW, NA)
Breezy—Experiencing LL in a minimum stress, low affective filter environment (SW, TPR, CLL, NA, S)
Buddies—Undertaking LL with practice and support of partners (CLT, CLL)
Belonging—Being part of a supportive LL community (SW, CLL)
Biography—Building LL around personal details and interests of the learners (CLT, CLL)
Bugling—Providing attention calls and surprises to keep learners alert and interested (TPR, NA)
Body—Involving physical as well as mental self (SW, TPR)
Bargaining—Creating situations in which language is used to negotiate meaning (CLT)
Baskets—Providing mental categories for sorting and remembering language learned (TPR, CLL, S)
Belief—Convincing learners of their LL success (CLL, NA, S)
Bluff—Creating opportunities for learners to demonstrate more language competence than they actually
have (TPR, CLL, S)
Bounds—Setting LL goals which are clear, useful, and obtainable (CLT, NA)
Beyond—Demonstrating out-of-class payoffs for LL (CLT, CLL)
Beat—Orchestrating language presentation and practice with rhythm (S)

4 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
practices in an attempt to extract those Learner Considerations: Learner considera-
assumptions about language learning that tions involve the ages, proficiency levels, and
were critical to learner success. The result of developmental stages of the learner or learners.
these analyses of the general literature are Considerations include societal expectations
summarized in the “Big B’s” chart on the and learners’ self-perceptions, prior learning
previous page. experiences and preferred learning styles,
The chart identifies features that positively strategies, environments, and groupings.
influence the learning of second languages. Administrative Considerations: Admin-
Features at the top of the chart are outside the istrative considerations comprise the choice of
context of the classroom and the control of the instructional models and the scale, pace, and
teacher. These are labeled “classroom style of educational delivery. Plans for and
external” features. The more relevant claims execution of teacher and learner selection,
are in the second half of the chart, which evaluation, and promotion, as well as
shows those positive features that are within environmental development and institutional
the context of the classroom and the control of image, are also administrative considerations.
the teacher. These are called “classroom
Successful educational program design
internal” influences.
and delivery demands successful integration
We know that teacher beliefs significantly of all four sets of considerations rather than a
affect teaching success. Teachers with a dominance by any one set.
strong belief in the positive influence of one It is important to note that what has been
or more of these factors will then look to the called Communicative Language Teaching
methods that support these factors as sources (CLT) has, in fact, reflected preoccupation
of ideas for their classroom. with different kinds of considerations at
various points in its brief history. The
Curriculum developmentalism
changing nature of CLT has made definition
A curriculum development model that has and description of CLT often difficult to
been used quite extensively in project design formulate and confusing to follow (e.g.,
in the institution where I was associate director Yalden 1983). In its first phase, the “Wilkins
is called the KILA Model. It is diagrammed Period,” CLT concerned itself with attempts
below. Educational design comprises four to redefine the knowledge base, principally
kinds of considerations, which we have by defining language organization in terms of
called Knowledge, Instructional, Learner, notions and functions rather than in terms of
and Administrative considerations. Successful grammatical structures. In the second phase,
educational design is achieved only in the the “Munby Period,” CLT focused on
area in which all considerations are in determining learner needs through various
congruence and synchrony. mechanisms proposed for needs assessment.
The components of t he model are briefly In its third phase, the “Prabhu” Period, CLT
explained below (for more complete
discussion of the model see Rogers 1989).
Knowledge Considerations: In language
education, knowledge considerations involve
the input/output assumptions about what
language is, as well as specification of the
content—the topical range—of the instruc-
tional language examples or texts presented
and the student responses anticipated.
Instructional Considerations: Instructional
considerations reflect the input of teachers
and other staff involved with instruction.
They also include methods, materials,
programs, technologies, and educational
environments, as well as time and scheduling
techniques and plans for reporting on
learning progress to all stakeholders.

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 5
 was defined by the kind of instructional about something, what is the “about
techniques employed—group work, task something” that we are supposed to teach? In
accomplishment, meaning negotiation, caring most academic situations, language teachers
and sharing, and so forth. So, CLT focused on are neither invited nor equipped to use a
knowledge considerations—notions and second language to teach mathematics,
functions (Wilkins 1976)—in Phase 1; science, history, physical education, or other
learner considerations—learner needs traditional academic content areas. Some
specification (Munby 1979)—in Phase 2; and teach, in a second language, content, such as
instructional considerations—task-based astrology that does not compete with the
instruction (Prabhu 1987)—in Phase 3. CLT academic curriculum. This brings its own set
is still seeking an integrated realization of of problems. If content is inherent in
these considerations. language use, and if content-based
As the diagram suggests, methodology or approaches to language learning and teaching
methods represents only a small subset of seem to promise more effective routes to
those considerations in the area I have second language mastery, then we must ask
labeled “Instructional.” The view proposed ourselves what content is best for the
in this section is that we now require a language class. The natural content for
methodology designed in consonance with language people is language itself and
other instructional considerations, just as literature. We are beginning to see a
these instructional considerations need to be resurgence of interest in literature and in the
in consonance with the other three elements topic of language as “the basic human
of the KILA Model. technology,” as sources of content in language
Despite some early proposals in respect to teaching. More such attention will develop in
the curriculum developmental view for the future.
language education (e.g., Richards 1984) and The second question is “How much
some more recent texts on this topic (e.g., content?” As in other ELT matters, there is
Johnson 1989; Brown 1996), the curriculum often a polar, all-or-nothing approach to
development perspective in language content-based approaches. Often there is a
education, particularly in methodology, has hidden assumption that language learning
been rarely mentioned and is unformed in gains are only appreciable when content
conceptualization. blocks comprise entire courses or blocks of
courses, as in immersion or sheltered
Content-Basics immersion teaching. However, much shorter
The Content-Basics perspective assumes blocks of interesting, meaning-structured
that language learning is a by-product of a units are also highly productive in language
focus on meaning—on acquiring some learning.
specific topical content. This view has Samuel Johnson (1755), in the discussion
supporters who hold that to teach language as of his plan for the famous Johnson dictionary,
if it were a set of patterns or rules or provides persuasive support for the use of
interactions apart from content is not only individual sentences as content blocks. A
misguided, but impossible (Crandall 1997). major feature of the Johnson dictionary was
Content-based instruction has not the set of sentence quotations accompanying
adequately addressed two key questions, each word entry. These provided “special
which future ELT teachers must address. precedents” drawn from great writers.
These questions are “What content?” and Johnson considered these sentences as
“How much content?” necessary and sufficient contexts to
A late 20th century maxim of language exemplify the best use of word entries in
teaching was “Don’t teach about language, speech and writing. Johnson’s practice of
teach language.” Content-based instruction using sentence citations to show word
proponents say, “Don’t teach a second meaning became standard for most of the
language, teach content in a second major English dictionaries. So sentences, as
language.” But language appears to be the Johnson proved, can be interesting, useful,
natural content for language teachers to and content-rich.
teach. If we are not to teach about language The centrality of L2 input as the driving
(e.g., grammar), but are to teach content force in language development is a product of

6 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
the comprehensibility, interest, authenticity, with follow-up inquiry by language educators
and relevance of the input to the learner. (see, e.g., Christison 1998). Gardner claims
Sentences and longer texts can be judged his view of intelligence (or intelligences) is
against these criteria. Consider the following culture-free and avoids the conceptual
sentences of somewhat parallel grammatical narrowness usually associated with models of
structure in terms of these criterial attributes. intelligence (e.g., the Intelligence Quotient,
IQ testing model). The chart below shows
Gardner’s eight native intelligences and
suggests classroom activities that parallel
each of these particular intelligences.
However, most teachers cannot create
eight learning centers in their classes to
accommodate the diversity of talents in their
The first sentence is comprehensible but students. If the only intent of such schema is
not authentic, interesting, or relevant. to raise teacher awareness of learner
Sentence two is comprehensible and diversity and interest and to encourage
authentic. Sentence three is comprehensible, teachers to plan instructional diversity in
authentic, and interesting (at least to me). keeping with this awareness, this goal is
My point is that the relationship between reasonable. But is it enough?
content sized words, sentences, texts, As noted, the Multiple Intelligences
courses, programs, and degrees of language Model is one of a number of models of
learning are still unknown. Until the data are student learning styles. The challenge for the
clearer, we might well follow the tenet, future consists of determining the validity of
“Every bit of content helps.” That is, every these models for LL, developing sensitive yet
use of meaningful, relevant input contributes practical means for assessing individual
to language development. This means that learning styles, and finding realistic ways in
when educators choose or create any which such information can provide more
materials for language teaching practice, effective LL experiences to the full range of
these materials need to be interestingly learners within the constraints that define
content-rich. most of the world’s ELT classes.

Multi-intelligencia Total functional response

The framework here is borrowed from I offer this somewhat tongue-in-cheek
Howard Gardner (1983), who proposed a designation for a reemerging interest in
view of natural human talents that is labeled functional foci in LT methodology. Wilkins’s
the Multiple Intelligences Model. This model (1976) earlier Notional/Functional proposals
is one of a variety of learning style models met with a number of criticisms (e.g.,
that have been proposed in general education Widdowson 1979, Long and Crookes 1993).

Intelligence Type Appropriate Educational Activities

Linguistic: lectures, worksheets, word games, journals, debates
Logical: mathematical: puzzles, estimations, problem solving
Spatial: charts, graphic organizers, drawing, films
Bodily: “hands-on,” mime, craft, demonstrations
Musical: singing, poetry, Jazz Chants, mood music
Interpersonal: group work, peer tutoring, class projects
Intrapersonal: reflection, interest centers, personal values tasks
Naturalist: field trips, show and tell, plant/animal projects
(Adapted from Christison, personal communication, 1998)

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 7
 However, new leads in discourse and genre universal than grammar patterns, and thus
analysis, schema theory, pragmatics, and some positive transfer can be expected
Hallidayan systemic/functional grammar between L1 and L2 text structure. Most
anticipate a return to the foreground of influential, however, seems to be the link
functionally based approaches to language between form and function at the text level.
teaching. The general relationship between Knowing the form of a sentence will not tell a
language functions and text genres can be person much about its meaning. Knowing the
sampled in my adaptation of a model of form of a text will tell the reader considerable
language functions proposed by Roman about the kind of meaningful material likely
Jakobson (1960) (See below). Jakobson and not likely to be included in the text.
claims that there are six elements involved in Thus, I anticipate increased attention to
any communication act and that associated language functions, genre, and text types in
with each element there is a focus function. both L1 and L2 instruction.
For example, if the focus in communication
of any message is predominantly on the Strategopedia
message sender, the function is likely to be One of the objections noted to methods as
an emotive function (how I feel about this). a focus of methodology is that methods are
One pedagogical proposal has led to a seen as too top-down and too insensitive to
widespread recasting of the first and second learner interests and needs. The most clearly
language program in Australian schools built learner-centered approach sees the learner as
around text genre. Students are taught both the initiator of the act of learning. To prepare
reading and writing within the framework of learners to assume this new role, a school of
five basic text genres identified as report, practice has developed with the purpose of
procedure, explanation, exposition, and equipping learners with appropriate learning
recount. This increased interest in strategies to take on responsibility for self-
pedagogical treatment of functional text types direction and a teaching approach directed to
is, in part, due to increased attention to top- this goal called learner training (LT). The
down processing in reading and listening. If claim for Strategopedia to be a new force in
students are aware of the type of text they are LT methodology is clearly framed by Holec
reading or listening to, they are better able to (1995:265), who maintains that “to teach the
predict text sequence and text content. It also learner to learn, that is to enable him to carry
appears that text types may be more out the various steps which make up the

COMMUNICATION ELEMENTS, FUNCTION FOCI, AND GENRES

Rodgers after Jakobson

Sender element (emotive function focus)

Genres: Valentines, Graffiti, Love/Hate Notes, Letters to the Editor
Content element (referential function focus)
Genres: Textbooks, Recipes, Encyclopedias, Atlases
Code element (metalinguistic function focus)
Genres: Grammars, Dictionaries, Thesauri
Composition element (poetic function focus)
Genres: Novels, Short Stories, Poems
Contact element (phatic function focus)
Genres: Vows, Pledges, Pep Cheers
Receiver element (persuasive function focus)
Genres: Advertisements, Sermons, Infomercials

8 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
learning process, is considered the best way
of ensuring that learning takes place.”
A number of taxonomies of learner
strategies have been proposed, most of which
have considerable overlap, one with the
other. Oxford’s categorization was one of the
first proposed and is arguably the best
known. Oxford (1990) posits the six kinds of
strategies as shown in the diagram.
Such strategies include, at the most basic
level, memory tricks, and at higher levels,
cognitive and metacognitive strategies for
learning, thinking, planning, and self-
monitoring. Research findings suggest that
strategies can indeed be taught to language
learners, that learners will apply these
strategies in language learning tasks, and Lexical phraseology
that such application does produce
Lexical phraseology is based on an
significant gains in language learning (see,
alternative view to the Chomskian premise
e.g., O’Malley and Chamot 1990).
that sentence creation is largely innovative,
For example, the researched and highly
and any model of language must account for
successful Keyword Technique is a memory
the capacity of every human being to create
strategy that supports the learning of L2-L1
and interpret sentences that they have never
vocabulary pairs through visual imagery.
produced or heard previously. In contrast, the
Consider this L2-L1 pair: pato (Sp.) = duck
lexical phraseology view holds that only “a
(Eng.). A verbal link might be made between
minority of spoken clauses are entirely novel
the Spanish L2 item pato and the English
creations” and that “memorized clauses and
sound-alike pot. Then a visual image is
clause-sequences form a high proportion of
created that links pot with the English L1
the fluent stretches of speech heard in every
meaning duck, in this case a duck wearing a
day conversation…. The number of
pot for a helmet or a duck crying while being memorized complete clauses and sentences
cooked in a pot. Through the keyword link known to the mature English speaker
pot learners quickly associate pato = duck. probably amounts, at least, to several
Such methods tested in some 600 published hundreds of thousands” (Pawley and Syder
studies have often proved three to four times 1983).
as efficient as alternative techniques for The large-scale computer studies of
storing and retrieving L2-L1 as well as L1-L2 language corpora, such as the Cobuild study
vocabulary pairs. at Birmingham University, have examined
However, this and other strategies such patterns of phrase and clause
contradict the long-held axioms of language sequences as they appear in samples of
learning which hold that vocabulary should various kinds of texts, including spoken
be learned in context and that memory tricks samples. The Cobuild corpus comprises over
will interfere with fluency and ultimately 200 million words online. Studies of lexical
with ability to acquire advanced competence collocation based on these corpora have
in L2. Some of language teaching’s most provided hard data to support the speculative
favored commandments will quietly inquiries into lexical phraseology of
disappear in the near future in order to researchers such as Pawley and Syder
support institutionally sanctioned training of (1983). For language teachers, the results of
learner strategies, such as the Keyword such inquiries have led to conclusions like
Technique. More generally, increasing those of James Nattinger (1980:341):
emphasis on learning training in course “Perhaps we should base our teaching on
books, curriculum design, and teacher the assumption that, for a great deal of the
training suggests that Learning Training will time anyway, language production consists of
be a major methodology theme of the future. piecing together the ready-made units

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 9
 appropriate for a particular situation and that this search will be one of the major LT
comprehension relies on knowing which of enterprises of the coming decades.
these patterns to predict in these situations.
Our teaching, therefore, would center on O-zone Whole Language
these patterns and the ways they can be Whole Language has been a major theme
pieced together, along with the ways they vary of language arts (L1) instruction in United
and the situations in which they occur.” States schools for the past two decades, and
If, indeed, the mature English speaker more recently has been of some interest to
knows “several hundreds of thousands” of ELT educators (Rigg 1991) and the subject of
such ready-made expressions, what should considerable discussion. Whole Language
the language teacher and learner do in advocates appear to share the view that
response to this knowledge? Is massive language education should consider language
memorization possible or recommended? Is in its broadest, most varied sense and should
prolonged immersion in an L2 environment incorporate literary study, process writing,
the only answer? authentic content, and learner collaboration
The practical implications for language in language teaching. They feel that such foci
teaching of these observations on the make conscious attention to specific skill
repetitive habits of native speakers in their development undesirable and unnecessary.
speech and writing have only begun to be An alternative view of this phenomenon is
explored. One author proposes an “L1/L2 incorporated in the chart, “The Seven A’s.”
contrastive approach” to the study of lexical My claim here is that a more comprehensive
collocations, suggesting that “the teaching of view of language assists the language learner
lexical collocations in EFL should in grasping what language is and what the
concentrate on items for which there is no broadest goals of language learning are,
direct translational equivalence in English thereby helping the learner attain these
and in the learners’ respective mother goals. Fuller development of these ideas is
tongues” (Bahns 1993). found in Rodgers (1979).
Some ideas for grouping and sequencing Renewed interest in some type of “focus
lexical phrases and clauses for L2 study have on form” has been a major theme in second
been offered (e.g., Willis 1990; Hunston, language acquisition (SLA) research in the
Francis, and Manning 1997; Lewis 1993). last decade. Variously labeled as
However, these are preliminary proposals and consciousness-raising, noticing, attending,
do not adequately address the enormity of the enhancing input, and so forth, it asserts that
learning task that earlier-quoted students will not learn what they are not
commentaries suggest. Lexical phraseology is aware of. One approach is to bring more
an approach in search of a methodology, and language focus to bear on literary texts
through the use of parallel texts or
comparative translations. Comparative study
ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION (THE SEVEN A’s ) of two English translations of the same short
Aspect Instructional focus
story is an example of parallel texts. Study of
Language as abilities Tool skills: reading, writing, the two translations highlights contrasts in
listening, speaking the linguistic choices made by the translators
and the responses made to these choices by
Language as art Literature, creative writing
the student as reader. Ultimately, students
Language as artifact Structure of English might compose one or more texts of their
History of English own, which would parallel in some way the
Language as analysis Problem solving, critical
texts examined. In pairs, one student might
linguistics act as presenter/interpreter of one of the two
short story translations, and a partner might
Language as acculturation Interpersonal/intercultural
Understanding/communication
act as presenter/interpreter of the other. A
short example follows:
Language as affect Intrapersonal understanding
Humanistic, self-awareness Parallel Texts: Opening sentences from two
translations of a Korean short story.
Language as activation Communication competence
1a. “Cranes” by Hwang Sun-Won
Persuasion to action
(translated by Kevin O’Rourke)

10 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
 “The village on the northern side of the much information non-verbally in
38th Parallel frontier was ever so quiet and conversations that often the verbal aspect of
desolate beneath the high, clear autumn sky. the conversation is negligible” (Brown
White gourds leaned on white gourds as they 1994a). Despite these cautions, language
swayed in the yard of an empty house.” teaching has traditionally chosen to restrict
1b. “The Crane” by Hwang Sun-Won its attention to the linguistic component of
(translated by Kim Se-young) human intercourse, even when the approach
“The northern village at the border of the is labeled “Communicative.”
38th Parallel was ever so snug under the In reflecting on the future of LT
bright high autumn sky. In the space between methodology, I have attempted to survey this
the two main rooms of the empty farm house, wider ground of human communication. The
a white empty gourd was lying against contexts for this consideration are framed in
another white empty gourd.” a diagram entitled “Communication Circles”
Examples of student activities based on that comprises a set of ten concentric circles
parallel texts. with increasingly larger circles representing
Think of the village as described in 1a increasingly more comprehensive views of
and 1b as two different villages. Which one communication phenomena.
would you choose to live in? Why? Within each circle are phenomena with
Write an opening sentence of a short story assigned communicative intent. To
in which you briefly introduce the village of understand the role of the phenomena in
1a as it might appear in winter rather than the inner rings in communication, and
autumn. particularly how these might be organized
for second language instruction, we need
Sentences A and B draw pictures of the
positions of the white gourds in the text. all the help we can get. Several 20th
What language influenced the positioning of century methodologists have begun to
the gourds? explore the relationship between language
and some of these other communicative
Full-frontal communicativity aspects. A major challenge will be finding
A number of commentators have the teaching techniques and instructional
reminded us that what linguists concern time for integrating such insights into the
themselves with represents only a very small LT classroom.
part of human communication. John Lotz, an
early director of the Center for Applied
Linguistics, often quoted “the fact” that
language constituted only 1 percent of the
information in human speech. Lotz (1963)
identified rhythm, speed, pitch, intonation,
timbre, and hesitation phenomena as the
more important meaning-bearers in speech.
One study done in the United States showed
that in the communication of attitudes, 93
percent of the message was transmitted by
the tone of the voice and by facial
expression, whereas only 7 percent of the
speaker’s attitude was transmitted by words
(Mehrabian and Ferris 1967). Another
Language = Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, etc.
researcher noted that “teachers find it hard
Speech = Tone, Hesitation, Speed, etc.
to believe that the average American speaks Face-to-Face Communication = Expression, Gesture, Distance, etc.
for only 10–11 minutes a day, and that more Language-Based Communication = Writing, Codes, Deaf Sign Language, etc.
than 65% of the social meaning of a typical Human Communication Systems = Hula, Indian Sign Language, etc.
two-person exchange is carried by nonverbal Human Communication = Film, Music, Painting, etc.
cues” (Birdwhistle 1974). Communication = Animal Communication, Extraterrestrial Communication, etc.
Recent commentators in language Behavior = Motion, Eating, Reproducing, etc.
Natural Phenomena = Storms, Eclipses, Droughts, etc.
teaching have echoed these earlier messages.
Supernatural Phenomena = Ghosts, Levitation, Mesmerism, etc.
Brown reminds us that “We communicate so

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 11
 Conclusion Long, M., and G. Crookes. 1993. Three approach-
es to task-based syllabus design. TESOL Quar-
In this article, I have provided an
terly, 26, pp. 27–55.
overview of ten potential paths that ELT Lotz, J. 1963. On speech. Word, 21, 2.
teachers might find themselves traveling in McCarthy, 1984. The 4Mat learning/teaching styles
the opening years of the new millennium. I system. New York: Learning Press.
know that teachers will be blazing many new Mehrabian, A., and S. Ferris. 1967. Inference of
trails of their own, and I encourage you all to attitudes from nonverbal communication in two
channels. Journal of Consulting Psychology,
share your experiences with your colleagues. 31, pp. 248–252.
Munby, J. 1979. Communicative syllabus design.
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12 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
Note: Technologists have been predicting the This article was originally published in the
disappearance of the textbook for almost a April 2000 issue.
century. In 1912, Thomas Edison boasted, “I
am spending more than my income [on]
getting up a set of 6,000 films to teach the 19
million children in the schools of the United
States to do away entirely with books.” Maybe
in the next hundred years it will come to pass.

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