MEDITATION AND BRAIN ACTIVITY FROM THE BIOSCIENCE-

BIOETHICAL PERSPECTIVE

Irina Pollard, Dept Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109,
Australia
e-mail ipollard@rna.bio.mq.edu.au

Published in Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 14(1):2004;28-33

Abstract

Spirituality draws people to places of worship, prayer, meditation, sacred dance,

mountain tops or other inspirational activity. Some of us find spirituality through
religion; others find it through science, music, art or a connection with Nature, while still
others find it in their personal values and principles. No matter how it’s defined, this
elusive entity describes the way we find meaning, hope, comfort and inner peace in our
lives. Having some sort of mystical or religious experience is not an uncommon human
experience and for some the experience may be so intense that it changes their life
forever. But what does this experience mean? Is it a trick of the brain’s structure, the
subconscious self, or a manifestation of the presence of a higher being? The scientific
exploration of spiritual consciousness and the brain-generated sensations unique to this
experience, has provoked both skepticism and critical acclaim. Experiments on the
human brain have, however, led neuroscientists to accept that ‘spirituality’ is somehow
hardwired within. Hence our preoccupation, through the millennia, with relationships
between Nature, science, medicine, ethics and spirituality. But how is spirituality related
to health? No one really knows but since body, mind and spirit are connected, the health
of any one of these affects the health of the others. This review adopts a bioscience-
ethical perspective. It discusses recent observations that have forced scientists to rethink
the workings of the human brain and its ability to be rewired in the regulation of common
emotions such as happiness, anxiety, fear, sadness and depression. An analysis of the
meditating Buddhist mind will form a point of comparison. In conclusion, a fresh
concordance between secular-based science and spiritual practice provides new
possibilities for the advancement of mental and social wellbeing.

1. Introduction

The essential evolutionary characteristics of Homo sapiens are intelligence -

particularly creativity - and communal lifestyle. Scientists believe that creativity more
than any other element was responsible for giving us our dominant status in the union of
life. Creativity is also believed to have given rise to exceptional artistic expression,
ethical consciousness and technological supremacy. In biological terms human
uniqueness resides primarily in our brains with its products being co-operation in family
and tribal units, long education, self-consciousness, sophisticated language and culture.

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 The human brain’s evolution can be divided into three distinct ancestral stages.
These are; the primitive or ‘reptilian’ brain which embodies an essential core of survival
functions, the primitive mammalian brain which embodies the first layer of the cortex
responsible for the social and family behaviors of mammals, and the new mammalian
brain with its extensive cortical development making possible the reasoning and abstract
intelligence found in the primates, particularly human. The fossil record shows that
human brain size has more than doubled in the past 2 million years to a volume of some
1,500 cubic centimeters. This steady growth in brain size made possible a steady growth
in intelligence, and an increasing mastery of the world. But size isn’t everything. What
also matters is how the brain is structured, with the human brain’s uniqueness lying in its
flexibility. Flexible intelligence is demonstrated by the ability to solve problems in
surprisingly diverse and unexpected ways, which can then be shared with the rest of the
clan. It is believed that the analytical, conscious mind was born out of intellectual
flexibility helped along by an innate life-long love for learning, exploring and playing.
An early hallmark of human evolution was the capacity to reason, to reflect on actions
and to engage in sophisticated discourse. The evolution of self-consciousness presaged
consciousness of other and the development of ethics seen as the rules of adaptive
conduct (Pollard, 2002a).
Cognition is a collective term for the psychological processes involved in the
acquisition, organization and use of knowledge. It includes perception, memory,
attention, problem-solving, language, thinking and imagery. Interaction between the child
and its environment changes not only the child’s behavior and/or physiology, but also its
experience of the environment. Memory allows experience to become knowledge.
Emotion, on the other hand, deals with highly individual feelings that defy any attempt at
objective definition and, consequently, has long been ignored in human biology. Yet,
emotions have an experiential component that is an essential part of human nature and
which play a fundamental role in growth and development, social relations, and in overall
wellbeing. Because of their adaptive value, emotions evolved relatively early in evolution
with their expression being located in old parts of the brain; notably, the thalamus,
amygdala and hypothalamus. These structures lie between the brain stem (the oldest part
mainly controlling movement) and the neocortex, the most recent part, mainly related to
higher cognitive functions such as perception and thought (Figure 1). As a result an
emotional activation can travel much faster through subcortical routes to produce an
immediate response to a stimulus. In addition, emotional activation does not
automatically require cognitive mediation and may escape intellectual processing and
recognition. This implies that the origin of emotions and their attendant feelings may be
difficult to recognize and acknowledge.

In each of the brain’s two hemispheres the overlying cortex is divided into four
anatomically distinct lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. These lobes have
specialized functions:

a) The frontal lobe is largely concerned with planning future action and
with the control of movement.

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 b) The parietal lobe is largely concerned with somatic sensation, forming a
body image, and with relating one’s body image with extra-personal
space.

c) The occipital lobe is largely concerned with vision.

d) The temporal lobe is largely concerned with hearing; and through its
deep structures – the hippocampus and the amygdala – with aspects of
learning, memory and emotion.

Intellectual development in humans advanced not just by overall enlargement of

the cerebral cortex, but particularly by expansion of the most recent part to emerge in the
evolution of the brain - the prefrontal cortex housing the frontal lobes. The frontal lobe is
the largest of the four lobes constituting each of the two cerebral hemispheres and, as
summarized above, is devoted exclusively to higher functions. It is responsible for
voluntary control over most skeletal muscles and significantly influences personality. It is
also associated with higher mental activities such as planning, judgment and
conceptualization. Intelligence is the product of co-operative functions where the frontal
lobe’s contribution is creative and voluntary initiative, resulting in our unique ability to
respond to challenging situations with novel solutions. As a consequence, evolution of
rational will also provided us with the basis of freedom, which could then be used in
symbolic activity (art, for instance), or to initiate planning, make purposeful use of the
imagination, and solve problems by reasoning. The net result was not only unparalleled
biological advancement as a species, but also ruthless technological power. The problems
that this awesome power created may have provoked a survival strategy based on
reasoning, ethical reflection and the development of moral rules (Pollard, 2002a).
Together the frontal lobes and the limbic emotional brain allow us to mingle
thought and feeling, cognition and emotion, providing an adaptive mix of intellectual and
emotional brain power. The functional compartments of the emotional brain include the
thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus and pituitary gland (Figure 1). The
thalamus processes incoming information from the senses (eyes, ears, nose, touch etc.),
and relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex after the information is appraised.
The hippocampus, central to the operations of memory consolidation and learning, is
where the thalamus’s information is sorted and significant emotional memories are
adapted for long-term storage. Anterior to the hippocampus is situated the amygdala
which processes emotional experiences and reactions. The amygdala originally played a
central role in the acquisition and processing of fear, anger, flight and defense (all stress-
mediated) but now is also crucial in processing emotions indispensable for social
communication. It is here that judgment on the emotional significance of all incoming
information is made and emotional memories are stored, conveniently close to the
elaborate connections to and from the prefrontal cortex. The amygdala is intimately
connected to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus, together with other brain circuits, is
concerned with motivation and reward mechanisms. Through the endocrine system it
controls most of the body’s housekeeping needs such as brain clocks, temperature
regulation, appetites for food, sex, aggression and pleasure. Attached to the hypothalamus

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is the pituitary gland, which orchestrates the messenger hormones influencing the
homeostatic stability of every organ in the body including the brain itself (Pollard 2003a).

Figure 1. The functional compartments of the limbic or emotional brain (thalamus,

hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus and pituitary gland) embedded within the brain's
other major anatomical divisions. The emotional brain is central to working memory,
depression and also serves as the prime target for consciousness-changing/mood altering
substances (reproduced from Pollard. I. From Happiness to Depression. Today’s Life
Sciences 15:2003;22-26 page 23, with permission).

The frontal lobes, the amygdala, and the hippocampus are all extensively
interconnected with the body; particularly with the immune system, the endocrine
(hormonal) system and the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system. Understanding this
interconnectedness also provides an understanding of how the mind influences the body
and how emotions impact not just on mental health but also on our physical health and
wellbeing.

2. Western Dogma: Historical Perspective

Until fairly recently the prevailing dogma in neuroscience was that the brain
contained all of its neurons at birth and their number remained unchanged by life’s
experiences. It was believed that the only changes that did occur over the course of one’s
life were alterations in synaptic (interneuronal) connections and accelerating cell death

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with aging. However, in the early 1990s, prominent neuroscientists began to discover that
new neurons are being generated throughout one’s entire lifespan (Eriksson et al, 1998;
Van Praag et al, 1999) and, contrary to popular dogma, these newly differentiated
neurons are associated with new learning and memory. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI) studies have confirmed that, for example, the brain region which controls finger
movement in the hand increases in size in string players engaged in specific ‘fingering’
exercises. Furthermore, those who start their training earlier in life and practice longer
show more pronounced changes in the brain (Elbert et al, 1995). The term which
describes this important discovery is ‘neuroplasticity’ and expresses the reality that the
brain continually changes as a result of our experiences, whether through fresh
interneuronal connections or through the generation of new neurons.
Thus modern neuroscience is establishing what already seems intuitive; that the
environment constantly impacts on brain development and that the brain remains
functionally plastic throughout life, adjusting its neurophysiologic/psychologic
development to the prevailing conditions. As a rule, western medicine has considered the
child’s social development and cognitive development to be separate, but we now know
that there is an inseparable interconnectedness to these processes. To optimize adaptive
neurophysiological growth and maturation prenatally and during infancy, the brain
develops chronologically much earlier and faster than any other part of the body (Bogin,
1999). Despite the brain’s rapid overall development, it is also the last organ to mature
anatomically, allowing the prefrontal area to continuously reflect the progressive mental
and social landmarks of a child’s life. For example, children raised in nurturing
environments develop physiological responses important in the regulation of emotions,
and vice versa. Since the prefrontal area remains very plastic shaping its circuitry to
match the experiences and learning children undergo, the early years of life are windows
of opportunity for mastering helpful planning skills and emotional awareness for adaptive
living. Children equipped with good planning skills by the time they enter school at the
age of five or six, are much less likely to suffer from developing aggression and anxiety
disorders (Spring, 2000). Various lines of thought and research agree that insufficient
emotional stimulation and/or an excess of negative stimulation in the early stages of life
are likely to result in a higher risk of mental health troubles. Exposing children to an
atmosphere of genuine love and compassion within family and school environments
significantly increases overall health and wellbeing – essential if we are to look forward
to a more humane and peaceful future. However, there is also hope for those not raised
under ideal conditions because, as this review reveals, the human brain has the ability to
be rewired in the regulation of common emotions such as happiness, anxiety, fear,
sadness, depression and, therefore, spiritual wellbeing.

3. The Neuroscience of Emotion

Modern science is beginning to unravel the mysteries surrounding human

spirituality by elucidating the neurological mechanisms which reinforce traditional
customs and rituals. Such a new-found concordance between science and spiritual
practice is opportune because, in order to survive adaptively, present-day culture is
increasingly dependent on our ability to cope with new possibilities requiring emotional
flexibility. In an age of rapid technological advances, intelligent flexibility makes

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evolutionary sense. However, in order to access a level of newfound freedom and
wellbeing, we may also have to break with outmoded belief systems and constraints, even
if this means losing or reworking some aspects of our valued heritage.
Research has established that individuals who have high levels of brain activity in
the left prefrontal cortex, experience feelings such as happiness, enthusiasm, joy, high
energy and alertness. When these same people are provoked or threatened, they
experience only transient amygdala activation and raised circulating cortisol, which
quickly returns to baseline levels. On the other hand, individuals with a high level of
activity in the right prefrontal cortex, relative to the left, are more prone to feelings of
sadness, anxiety and worry. An extreme rightward tilt in the ratio of activity in these
prefrontal areas predicts a high likelihood of clinical depression or an anxiety disorder at
some point in life; people in the grip of depression have the highest levels of activation in
those right prefrontal areas (Goleman, 2003). Most individuals, however, fall into a
middle ground where moment-to-moment adaptive regulation plays an important part in
the generation of physical harmony and mental balance. When emotional stability is
threatened, compensating mechanisms are activated in order to regain fitness by adapting
to the changing conditions. This adaptation is known as 'reactive homeostasis', the
‘General Adaptation Syndrome’ (GAS) or the ‘fight or flight’ response (Pollard, 1994). It
has long been known that when cortisol is present at high levels over prolonged periods,
it leads to degenerative diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes, cancer,
disorders such as posttraumatic stress syndrome and depression (Pollard, 2002b; Pollard
2003a). Stress hormones such as cortisol have particular adverse morphological effects
on the hippocampus because this structure is a primary glucocorticoid target site. As a
consequence, chronic stress and resulting withdrawal from social engagement, can
damage neurons in key brain regions such as the hippocampus and its memory storage
mechanisms (Sapolsky, 2000).
Each of us has a characteristic ratio of right-to-left activation in the prefrontal
areas. This ratio represents a mean emotional set point around which our daily moods
swing. Mood is the consistent extension of emotion in time, while emotion is typically
transient and responsive to the thoughts, activities, and social situations of the day. Mood,
or the state of emotional balance, influences the way an individual interacts with and
perceives the world. It is important to appreciate, however, that when we experience
emotions we build a circuitry of neural connections by exercising that part of our brain
corresponding to those emotions. As the same emotion repeats itself, the brain circuitry
associated with that emotion strengthens (just as exercise strengthens muscles) and
becomes, over time, our default pattern of emotion or temperament. Importantly, if we
experience strong negative emotions without equally positive ones, the negative ones will
dominate, and will show up in an increased activity in the right side of the prefrontal
lobes. Alternatively, by experiencing strong positive emotions these will show up in an
increased activity in the left side of the prefrontal lobes and strengthen the parts of the
brain that calm anger and fear and elicit happiness. However, right/left brain science is
not that simple and we still have much to learn about brain configuration.

4. Adaptive strategies: Mindfulness Meditation, Yoga, Guided Imagery and

other forms of Contemplative Practice

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 Loosely defined, meditation is a method of mental training which involves
focused attention for the purpose of spiritual development and self-actualization. It has
long been accepted that ‘tuning out’ on a regular basis reduces stress and can make one
calmer, healthier and happier. Meditation is a well recognized complementary health-
enhancing strategy whose key objectives include empowerment to cope with loss and
depression, and to sustain a sense of fulfillment in life. Decades of tests with monks and
yogis in western labs have revealed remarkable abilities to control respiration, brain
waves, or core body temperature (Delmonte, 1984). Psychologists are now beginning to
focus more on the normal rather than abnormal, by studying everyday adaptive qualities
and their effects on health and wellbeing.
Many empirical studies have shown that forms of contemplative practice, such as
meditation, are effective in overcoming and treating stress-related states. The
contemplative customs practiced in many cultures evoke decreases in heart rate,
breathing and blood pressure. Compared to controls, individuals who meditate enjoy
significantly increased alpha brain wave activity (low frequency brainwaves that occur
during relaxation), increased orderliness of brain activity (Khare & Nigam, 2000), and a
unique form of consciousness different from relaxation states (Dunn et al, 1999).
Meditation also has a positive health effect in cancer treatment (Tacon, 2003), with a
notable study showing tumor cell growth rates to be significantly decreased in prostate
cancer patients who practiced Zen Buddhist meditation (Yu et al, 2003). Other studies
have added new details of possible mechanisms by which meditation may relieve the
physiological symptoms of stress. Meditation stimulates the release of nitric oxide, which
is an antagonist of the stress hormone noradrenaline released in preparation for the fight
or flight response. Nitric oxide dilates noradrenaline-constricted vessels and restores
efficient blood flow (Moncada et al, 1991). Nitric oxide is also linked to the release of
endorphin – our natural body opiates that counter pain and produce feelings of wellbeing.
For details of the neural basis of meditation and its effects on body and brain chemistry,
see the review by Newberg and Iversen (Newberg & Iversen 2003). Further details can be
found in Daniel Goleman’s book written for the general interested reader (Goleman,
2003).
So far modern science has focused on formulating ingenious chemical compounds
to help us overcome stress and its toxic consequences but, through Buddhist meditation
and related practices, it is possible to access alternative methods. To this end a major
significant scientific investigation was planned during meetings in Dharamsala, India,
between the Dalai Lama and a group of western scientists and philosophers (Goleman,
2003). The Tibetan leader held a series of discussions with chosen authorities from
disciplines such as psychology, philosophy and neuroscience. The aim was to examine
what science could learn about the mind and body, particularly emotions, from
Buddhism’s 2,500-year tradition of meditation. As analyzed above, the mind-body
complex is intricately connected and the state of the mind has direct effects on overall
health and wellbeing – an observation acknowledged for centuries by Eastern
philosophers, particularly Buddhist. For example, in Tibetan medicine two of the most
important factors affecting a patient’s ability to heal are the mindset of the doctor and the
mindset of the patient. The Dalai Lama proposed that the medical and emotional benefits
of meditation should be investigated in controlled laboratory experiments; and, if so
established, meditation should be divorced from its religious roots and made universally

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available. Moreover, the Dalai Lama promised that should science disprove the benefits
of meditation, he would be willing to rethink thousands of years of Buddhist tradition; in
his own words “If science proves facts that conflict with Buddhist understanding,
Buddhism must change accordingly”, and “We should always adopt a view that accords
with the facts.”

5. Brain Activity of Tibetan Buddhist Monks During Meditation

A. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) tests

The data collected in this series of experiments suggests that meditative practice is
effective in generating neuroplasticity, inhibiting destructive emotions and fostering
positive ones. Standard magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines are widely used in
hospitals and offer a graphically detailed snapshot of the structure of the brain. The more
sophisticated functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) machines provide an
ongoing video record of how specific zones of the brain dynamically change their level of
activity from moment to moment. Conventional MRI lays bare the brain’s structures,
while fMRI reveals how those structures interact as they function.
During the meditative state the brain shows very high levels of activity in the left
prefrontal cortex region. This was first demonstrated by fMRI in the meditating mind of
Lama Öser in his role as test subject whilst in the ‘compassion’ meditative state
(Goleman, 2003). In compassion meditation, the meditator focuses on compassionate
thoughts for specific individuals, other species or for all of humankind. This Tibetan
Buddhist monk’s left prefrontal brain lit up to a level indicating a very high level of
‘happiness’. Even when he was not meditating, the left prefrontal cortex showed
unusually high activity. Such investigations provide support for practical neuroplasticity
– the ability of the brain to be molded by experience – and force scientists to rethink their
understanding of the human brain and it ability to be rewired for health. Importantly,
these preliminary tests show that as well as helping people manage destructive emotions
like anger, hatred and jealousy, meditation may also have profound effects on promoting
happiness. Not long ago the prevailing scientific dogma was that people have a preset
capacity for happiness being determined by biology and changing little whether a person
wins the lottery or experiences a debilitating accident. The thinking was that if someone
was prone to unhappiness and has more activity in their right prefrontal cortex, winning
the lottery might temporarily spike activity in the left cortex, but it will not tip them into
the company of happier, left-brain people in the long run. It now seems that happiness is
not as static as previously believed. The human community at large can benefit from
classical mental techniques which produce greater self-control and help cultivate an
internal calmness and happiness. This may even be our natural state if only we can shut
out layers of emotional turmoil and redundant mind chatter.
It is possible, however, that a naturally happy temperament, a monk’s stress-free
ordered lifestyle, or the result of a disciplined rigorous meditation protocol was
responsible for the shift in Öser’s emotional temperament. That years of meditation in a
closed community are not needed to experience positive effects, was shown with a series
of studies (Davidson et al, 2003) with employees at Promega - a biotech firm in
Wisconsin. Prior to the study, it was established that the workers exhibited high levels of

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right-brain activity and reported feeling ‘stressed-out’ and unhappy with their jobs. After
eight weeks of meditation training and practice, the activity in the left side of their brains
increased significantly, and the workers reported feeling happier, with a renewed sense of
enthusiasm for their life and work. The control group showed no change. While more
long-term research is required to eliminate confounding factors, the findings are very
optimistic in that meditation practice can alter an individual’s emotional setting towards
the positive, which may then become the mind’s default state.

B. The Electroencephalogram (EEG) tests

The next set of tests utilized the electroencephalogram or EEG machine which
measures brain activity waves. Most EEG studies use 32 sensors on the scalp to pick up
electrical activity in the brain – and some may use as few as six. But in this unique set of
experiments, Öser’s brain was monitored using two different EEG caps - 128 sensors and
256 sensors. The first cap captured data while Lama Öser went into the meditative state;
the second was used synergistically with the earlier fMRI data (Goleman, 2003). While
the fMRI can detect brain changes within a millimeter, the computerized EEG can detect
changes in the brain in a thousandth of a second. The various brain readings acquired
with the powerful EEG sensors were analyzed using software called source localization
which pinpoints the neural location of a signal. Specifically, source localization can
penetrate sites deep within the brain, unlike ordinary EEG measures which can monitor
only the topmost layer of the brain. The strength of the EEG is speed – just as the MRI’s
is spatial precision.
The EEG findings reinforced the previous data in that Öser’s brain shift during
compassion reflected extreme wellbeing, reinforcing scientifically a general
acknowledgement that volunteer work or assisting friends in need, benefits not only the
receiver but also the person giving it. The very act of concern for others’ wellbeing, it
seems, creates a greater state of wellbeing within oneself. Likewise, it seems, that the
person doing a meditation on compassion for others is also the immediate beneficiary
(see section ‘Meditation and the Immune System). It is surprising therefore, that
compassion is an emotional state which is, for the most part, ignored by modern
psychologists - we may be well served to focus less on what can go wrong and highlight
physiological states when things go right. Psychology’s negative spin may reflect the lead
of medicine, which has traditionally focused on disease rather than on health.
If the main motivation for the practice of compassion is self-interest – then this is
an important evolutionary insight. Another insight comes from the realization that
individuals who use humor to cope with stress have a more resilient immune system and
age more gracefully. Moreover, psycho-immunologists have confirmed what we all know
instinctively, that the immune system is boosted by helping others and, ingeniously, just
hearing about other people’s good work appears to boost our immunity. The scientific
evidence again confirms the point that not only are we physiologically constructed to
need others, we are also constructed to want to be needed (Pollard, 2003b). That is,
during critical periods in our evolution, Homo sapiens’ social drive for personal survival
became interdependent with our collective survival. Put in anthropomorphic terms ‘our
immune system knows that helping others ultimately helps our own wellbeing’ – the
result ‘I feel less fear, more happiness’ (Pollard, 2002b). This biological insight also

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seems to be the common substance of all religious faiths, whether Hindu, Muslim,
Christian, Jewish, Buddhist or any other. In all cases, religious faith is preoccupied with
rendering service to the Deity and fellow human beings. And in the final analysis, we do
know that people who score high on measures of positive emotions also report engaging
in more altruistic actions.

C. Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography or SPECT tests

Positron emission tomography or PET scanning is a computerized radiographic

technique that employs short-lived radioactive substances to examine the metabolic
activity of various body structures such as the biochemical activity of the brain. In PET
studies the patient either inhales or is injected with a suitable substance, such as glucose,
carrying a radioactive tag that emits positively charged particles or positrons. When these
positrons combine with negatively charged electrons normally found in the cells of the
body, gamma rays are emitted. The gamma rays are then converted into color-coded
images that indicate the intensity of the metabolic activity of the region of the brain
involved; that is, the tracer binds to brain structures in proportion to the blood flow and
so is indicative of brain activity. By measuring the distribution of the tracer, a snapshot of
brain activity at the time of tracer injection can be obtained, allowing meditating brain
scans to be compared with those taken whilst the subject was simply at rest. When
studying Öser’s meditating brain Andrew Newberg and his colleagues (Newberg et al,
2001) used single photon emission computed tomography or SPECT tests - a variation of
computed tomography scanning in which the gamma-ray detector rotates around the body
allowing the subject to meditate in relative peace rather than being exposed to the
claustrophobic whirr of a scanner chamber. SPECT and PET technologies rely on the
same technological/biological principles described above.
During meditation, SPECT tests showed intense activity in parts of the brain that
regulate attention and deep concentration while parietal lobe activity decreased. This
change was not observed when the subject was merely relaxing. As spelt out in the
introductory, the parietal region of the brain is where the distinction between self and
others originates. Broadly speaking, the left-hemisphere side of the parietal region deals
with the individual’s sense of body image, while its right-hemisphere equivalent handles
its context – the space and time inhabited by the self. The results suggest some form of
synchronization between the subjective feeling of oneness and the disconnection of
parietal activity from the usual touch and position signals that help create body image.
Meditation, apparently, turns off key sensations from the outside environment, generating
a condition where sights and sounds don’t disturb. As the spatial and temporal context
disappears, the meditator may also feel a sense of infinite space and perhaps even
eternity. The above experiment was repeated using Franciscan nuns in prayer as subjects
(Newberg et al, 2001). The nuns – whose prayer centers on words rather than images as
in Buddhism – showed activation in the language areas of the brain but they too shut
down the same parts of the brain that regulate oneness when the prayers reached their
peak. It is well documented that there are two sensations unique to all religious
experience and which are shared by people of all faiths - the sense of oneness with the
Universe and feelings of awe and wonder that accompanies such an experience.

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 5. Meditation and the Immune System

The discipline of psychoneuroimmunology investigates how loss of personal

control - disempowerment - causes unhappiness which, in turn, adversely modifies
hormonal secretory profiles, causing a cascade of secondary effects leading to the gradual
degeneration of the body. The ability to control decisions depends on changed behavior,
which requires relevant information within the context of empowerment (Pollard, 2002b).
Negative emotions not only affect our happiness and mood levels, they also affect
our health and wellbeing. As we have seen, the prefrontal lobes, along with two other
areas of the brain that play crucial roles in the initiation of emotions – the amygdala and
the hippocampus – are closely tied to blood pressure, hormones and the immune system
(Pollard, 2003a). In the experiment described in section 5A, Davidson and colleagues
(Davidson et al, 2003) conducted additional tests with the Promega workers by giving
them influenza vaccinations after their initial eight-week meditation course. When
subsequently their blood was tested for infection-fighting flu antibodies, the meditation
group had significantly larger amounts of the antibodies compared with the control
group. Interestingly, the larger the leftward tilt in a person’s brain activity, the greater the
beneficial response to the flu vaccine indicated by the level of antibodies in the
circulatory system. A follow-up check four months after meditation classes ended
revealed that the meditation group retained a significantly increased left-sided activation
compared with before their meditation course. Subsequently a correlation was observed
between high antibody titers and decreased likelihood of flu infection.

6. Spirituality, Health and Wellbeing

Spirituality is the way humans find meaning, hope, comfort and inner peace in
their lives. Some find spirituality through religion; others find it through science, music,
art or a connection with Nature, while still others find it in their personal values and
principles. Exactly how spirituality relates to health is unclear but since the body, brain,
mind and spirit are connected, the health of any one affects the health of the others. The
experiments described in this review demonstrated in scientific terms that a spiritual life,
whether gained from religion, meditation, prayer or other positive ideology, can provide
comfort and strength which contributes to healing and a sense of overall wellbeing.
Spiritual health may not cure advanced illness, but it may slow its progression, help you
to feel better, prevent certain illnesses and provide the means to cope with illness or
death. Thinkers have repeatedly emphasized that spirituality is a construct that, although
related to religion, is a distinct phenomenon (Benjamin & Looby, 1988). On the other
hand, opinion polls indicate that religion is part of the lives of many, so understanding the
role of religious beliefs in life’s coping processes is very important (Pargament et al,
1994). What is certain is that spirituality, however expressed, provides a significant
moderating effect for both depression and anxiety (Young et al, 2000) and is an integral
component of recovery from a variety of psychological difficulties such as substance
abuse, gambling or other self-destructive behavior (Le et al, 1995). Thus in practical
terms, spirituality provides a buffer from stressful life events that are perceived as
negative, particularly in providing protection against organic disease and depression.

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Spirituality also provides the relationship between ethical development and purpose in
life.
Technological advances have offered humans, especially those living in
industrialized communities, innumerable opportunities to enjoy a more comfortable,
healthier and efficient lifestyle. The rapid expansion of scientific knowledge and medical
skills has provided options that could not have been anticipated by those living one or
two generations ago. It’s appropriate, while enjoying the modern biomedical revolution,
to reassess both ancient and modern insights with a view to integrating the essentials of
healing and wellbeing. In biological terms, health and ill-health are not alternative states;
rather they are part of the same continuum. Traditional wisdom is supported by a rapidly
growing research-based literature, particularly that of stress physiology. Researchers,
since the early 1950s, have identified key factors in the generation and maintenance of
physical, psychological and social wellbeing. The early ground-breaking studies paved
the way for more recent wisdom, the most notable being that a sense of control over our
lives promotes wellbeing more powerfully than an appropriate command over lifestyle
behaviors such as smoking, diet and exercise (Pollard, 2002b).
However, when it comes to the commitment to transform society, it will not come
through some fixed ideology but through general education with a scientific basis – and
this is where bioscience ethics can assist. By linking scientific endeavor and its
application into adaptive forms of bioethical consensus, bioscience ethics has become the
practical interface between science and bioethics. Its major elements are increased
understanding of biological systems, responsible use of technology, and reassessment of
ethnocentric debate in tune with new scientific insights (Pollard, 2002c). Bioscience
ethics does not displace bioethics; rather it wishes to democratize major scientific
advances to promote the development of informed secular ethics free from out-of-date
constraints. Analysis of the scientific evidence free from any specific morals or religion is
important when trying to effectively engage the public. In science, new data can at any
time overturn established theory, law or dogma. This is how scientific research provides a
self-corrective mechanism. New understanding gained from research generates ethical
maturity which, in turn, increases justice and freedom, demonstrating that the truth
requires more than mindless conformity to extant moral consensus or following the
‘right’ dictates of the time. Bioscience and bioethics involve not only respect for rights
and responsibilities, but also includes abstract qualities such as truth, gratitude, guilt,
love, communication, consensus and compromise – effective mechanisms for dealing
with ethical pluralism. Fundamental to this process, if the bioethical discussion is to be
relevant to our knowledge-based lives, is the expectation of high biological standards.

I would like to end this review with a quote from the foreword of Daniel
Goleman’s book ‘Destructive Emotions and How We Can Overcome Them: A Dialogue
With the Dalai Lama’ Page xiv:

“With the ever-growing impact of science on our lives,

religion and spirituality have a greater role to play in
reminding us of our humanity. What we must do is
balance scientific and material progress with the
sense of responsibility that comes of inner development”

12
Primary Acknowledgement

This is the text of my article as presented at the inaugural meeting of the ‘Eco
Conference 2003 – Nature, Science, Technology and Religions: Our Common Bioethical
Issues’ held in Chennai November 25-29. The conference was organized by the ‘Eco
Vision Department (CSI Madras Diocese)’ and Professor J. Azariah from ‘All India
Bioethics Association’.
I am grateful to Roger Hiller and Morgan Pollard for their interest and
constructive evaluation of the manuscript.

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