Unit V11

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Unit VII brings the topics of memory, thought, and 31 Studying and Building Memories
language together under the umbrella of cognition.
The first half of the unit discusses how memories are 32 Memory Storage and Retrieval
encoded, stored and retrieved, as well as theories
of retrieval failure and forgetting. Elizabeth Loftus'
work on the reliability of eyewitness testimony is pre-
33 Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Memory
sented in the section on memory construction, and Improvement
tips to improve memory are provided. The unit con-
tinues with an overview of how thoughts are derived, 34 Thinking, Concepts, and Creativity
how we process and make sense of concepts in our
world, and how creativity results from myriad cog- 35 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
nitive processes. The aids and detriments to problem
solving are reviewed followed by a presentation of 36 Thinking and Language
the mechanisms of decision making. Finally, the unit
closes with a review of language formation and the
relationship between language and thought.

Tip #7
Form Study Groups

It is often said that we learn best by teaching others. And nowhere is that
truer than in studying for your psychology exams! If you are looking to
improve your understanding and retrieval of key psychological knowledge,
form a small study group of like-minded students. Include a variety of
people because sometimes a classmate may really understand a concept
you struggle with and sometimes you are the one who can readily explain a
tough concept. Arrange a place to meet and practice quizzing each other
on the material. Remember to include applications of the terms and theo-
ries, not just definitions. Use the extremely helpful and practical suggestions
from Modules 31 and 33 to help you remember key concepts. One group
member can make a study outline, one can lead the review, one can develop
quiz questions and roles can rotate at the next study session. And of course,
don't forget the pizza!

178
 While You Read 179

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Module Summary
Module 31 offers a definition of memory and explains how psychologists describe the
human memory system. The module distinguishes between explicit and implicit memories
and explains how sensory, short-term, and working memory function. A section on the dif-
ference between effortful processing and automatic processing is presented and a descrip-
tion of the levels of processing and their effect on encoding closes the module.

Before beginning the module, take a moment to read each of the following terms and
names you will encounter. You may wish to make vocabulary cards for each.

Key Terms Key Names

memory automatic processing Richard Atkinson
encoding implicit memory Richard Shiffrin
storage iconic memory George A. Miller
retrieval echoic memory
parallel processing chunking
sensory memory mnemonics
short-term memory spacing effect
long-term memory testing effect
working memory shallow processing
explicit memory deep processing
effortful processing

While You Read

Answer the following questions /prompts.

1. Compare the definition of memory to the definition of learning (from Unit VI).
180 Module 31 Studying and Building Memories

2. How has research on memory's extremes helped us understand how memory works?

Efi
1. The analogy of a computer system is often used to illustrate the different parts of memory. The keyboard is
where we encode new information, the CPU (or main hard drive) is where we store information, and the moni-
tor is where we retrieve information.
encoding: keyboard
storage: CPU
retrieval: monitor
Now create your own analogy and explain why each part of the memory system corresponds with the
analogy you have selected.
encoding:

storage:

retrieval:

2. How could a ifie cabinet full of file folders fit the analogy above?
encoding:
 - -
_

While You Read 181

storage:

retrieval:

3. Define and give an example of parallel processing.

4. Define the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory and the information-processing model. Compare how
Atkinson and Shiffrin's model of memory is similar to and dissimilar from the information-processing model.
Which model do you most agree with and why?

5. Give an example of how you encoded, stored and retrieved a psychology term or concept from any previous
unit.

6. Imagine you are trying to remember a math formula. Using Figure 31.2, show how each of the stages in the
model would be applied to memorize the math formula.
182 Module 31 Studying and Building Memories

7. Explain why "working memory" is a more useful term for the way we process memory.

8. Teachers are sometimes asked to put their classroom lecture notes online for students to view later. According
to Sparrow et al., why might this result in decreased memory for the material?

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1. Explain how explicit and implicit memories are produced and processed. Be sure to discuss how the two
types of memory are different.

2. How do the terms declarative and nondeclarcitive apply to explicit and implicit memory? Provide your own
example for each category.

ma
1. In your own words, explain how we automatically process:
Space:

Time:
 While You Read 183

Frequency:

2. How can effortful processing become more automatic over time?

1. Define sensory memory.

2. Discuss how echoic and iconic memory operate in sensory memory. Provide examples of each in your own
life.

1~~
1. Compare the capacity of short-term memory to that of working memory.

2. What have we learned about our ability to focus on more than one event at a time? Support your answer with
an example from your own life.
184 Module 31 Studying and Building Memories

1. List and give three examples of effortful processing strategies.

2. Explain how organizing new material into categories helps us recall it.

3. Explain why chunking and mnemonic devices are useful in aiding memory. Provide an example of how you
have used each of these in your own experiences.

4. How does the spacing effect relate to distributed practice and recall?

5. Discuss why it is more advantageous to practice retrieval of information than to reread material.

6. Explain how you can put the principles of distributed practice, the spacing effect and the testing effect to use
in studying for the test on this unit.
 After You Read 185

1. Explain, using examples and definitions, how shallow processing differs from deep processing.

2. How does meaning help aid retrieval or reduce the encoding time and effort?

3. Discus how the self-reference effect aids recall.

After You. :[11.

Module 31 Review
Complete the Matching Questions below to see if you have mastered the basics.
Terms Definitions
1. short-term memory A. activated memory that holds a few items briefly
2. working memory before the information is stored or forgotten
B. a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a
3. explicit memory photographic or picture-image memory lasting no
4. effortful processing more than a few tenths of a second
5. iconic memory C. the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse
of the memory system
6. echoic memory D. the immediate, very brief recording of sensory
7. long-term memory information in the memory system
8. implicit memory E. a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimu-
li; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can
9. sensory memory still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
10. automatic processing E a newer understanding of short-term memory
that focuses on conscious, active processing of
incoming auditory and visual-spatial informa-
tion, and of information retrieved from long-term
memory
G. memory of facts and experiences that one can
consciously know and "declare"
H. encoding that requires attention and conscious
effort
I. retention independent of conscious recollection
J. unconscious encoding of incidental information
such as time, space and frequency
 Ir
186 Module 31 Studying and Building Memories

11. Explain how chunking could be used to remember this long string of letters:
TSAFBICIAIRSNSADOJDOE

12. Devise a mnemonic device to remember the four lobes of the brain (learned in Unit II).

13. Janice, a classmate in your psychology class, wants to improve her memory for the material in the course. She
has been staying up late, pulling all-night study sessions the night before tests, and getting up early to reread
the chapter before quizzes. Use the concepts of the spacing effect, the testing effect, and deep processing to
advise Janice of a better way to study.

14. Katrina is a talkative student in your class. The teacher is halfway through a detailed explanation of the
causes of the Civil War when Katrina leans over to tell you about a joke she saw online. The teacher stops in
the middle of her explanation and accuses Katrina of not listening. Katrina defensively retorts,,"I was listen-
ing and I can prove it. You just said the most significant cause of the Civil War was the inequity in wealth
between the slave-holding states and the non-slave-holding states." The teacher apologized because that was
indeed what she had just said. Katrina smirked in victory, but as a psychology student, you understand that
something else occurred. Explain why Katrina was able to repeat word-for-word what the teacher had been
saying.