College of Arts and Sciences Education

2nd Floor, DPT Building

Matina Campus, Davao City
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 118

BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: U.L.O. -1. Discuss the distribution, movement, , and fate of
toxins in the environment, explain some principles of toxicology, and summarize their
implications for the agriculture sector.

In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study environmental science ULO-
1 will be operationally defined to establish a standard frame in the field of natural sciences
about the global issues of environmental toxicology. Pollution as well occurrence of global
diseases affecting human health and also the implications of toxic substances to the food
and agriculture sector. You will encounter these terms as we go through environmental
science studies with how people, and development and intimately connected, and the
implications to ecological health and safety. It involves a broader understanding of toxic
and hazardous substances and their corresponding disposal and treatment processes.
Please refer to the definition in case you will encounter difficulty in the knowledge of
environmental science concepts.

1. Toxicology. A scientific discipline that overlaps with biology, chemistry,

pharmacology, and medicine involves studying the adverse effects of chemical
substances on living organisms and diagnosing and treating exposures to toxins
and toxins.

2. The disease is an abnormal condition that harms the structure or function of an

organism's system or part of its operation. A disease produces distinct signs and
symptoms and does not merely a consequence of physical injury.

3. Allergens it is an antigen that produces an abnormally potent immune response

where the immune system targets and fights a threat or an invader that could
potentially harm the body. Allergens are recognized by the immune system to cause
an allergic reaction.

4. Antigens, it is a substance that is present on the surface of a pathogen that binds to

an antigen-specific antibody (B cell antigen receptor). The presence of antigens
causes antibody formation (immunogens) and triggers the body's immune
response.

5. Neurotoxins it is referring to toxins that are destructive to nerve tissue. Neurotoxins

are an extensive class of exogenous chemical, neurological insults that can adversely
affect function in both developing and mature nervous tissue.

6. Mutagens are a physical or chemical agent that causes an increase in D.N.A.

modifications by altering the organism's D.N.A.

7. Teratogens. Any agent that can disrupt embryonic or fetal development causes a
child's congenital disability or may completely cease the pregnancy. These agents
include radiation, maternal infections, chemicals, or drugs.

8. Carcinogens are any substance or agents that promote cancer development

(carcinogenesis), causing genome damage or disruption of cells' metabolic
processes.

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9. Solubility. An ability of a solute to dissolve in a solvent and measured in terms of

the maximum solute amount dissolved to produce a saturated solution.

10. Persistent Organic Pollutants (P.O.P.s). Organic compounds are resistant to

biochemical, photolytic, and other environmental degradation processes. Because
of this, P.O.P.s are sometimes called "forever chemicals," which can bioaccumulate
with potentially detrimental effects on ecological and human health.

11. Acute effects. A physiological reaction in a human or animal body which cause
severe symptoms that could rapidly develop through acute exposure to toxic
substances. However, it may lead to chronic health effects if the cause is not
removed.

12. Chronic effects. An adverse effect on animals or the human body with symptoms
that develop slowly, due to prolonged and continuous exposure to low
concentrations of a hazardous substance.

13. Risk assessment. The combined effort of identifying and analyzing potential events
can negatively affect individuals, assets, and even the environment. It also makes
mindful judgments on the tolerability of the risk analysis and examines factors
influencing it.

14. Risk Management. The evaluation, prioritization, and identification of risks

followed by coordinated and economical application of resources to control,
monitor, and minimize the probability or impact of unfortunate events or to
maximize the realization of opportunities.

15. Soil horizon. A layer parallel to the surfaces of the soil whose biological, chemical,
and physical characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. Horizons are
defined in many cases by noticeable physical features, mainly color and texture.

16. Macronutrients. Nutrients that provide calories or energy and are required in large
amounts to maintain body functions and carry out daily activities.

17. Micronutrients. Nutrients in small quantities include vitamins, microminerals, and

trace elements such as iron, cobalt, chromium, copper, iodine, manganese,
selenium, and zinc molybdenum.

18. Pesticides. Chemical compounds used to eliminate pests, such as insects, rodents,
fungi, and weeds. These chemicals are also used in public health to kill disease
vectors (e.g., mosquitoes) and pests that damage crops.

19. Herbicides. Pesticides used to kill unwanted plants (weeds). There are selective
herbicides that explicitly target a weed/s by interfering with its growth without
harming the desired crop.

20. Insecticides it is any substances that formulate to eliminate or mitigate insects,

including ovicides, which are used against insects and larvicides to kill insect larvae.

21. Fungicides. Biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms (plants or

animals) used to kill parasitic fungi, or their spores can cause severe damage in

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agriculture, resulting in decreased yield, crop quality, and profit.

22. Aquaculture. A process of cultivating aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans,

and mollusks for human consumption. In contrast to commercial fishing, which
involves wild fish harvesting, aquaculture is a controlled cultivation process of
freshwater and saltwater populations.
23. Mariculture. It is a specialized branch of aquaculture (water) involving the
cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an
enclosed section of the sea, or in tanks, ponds, or raceways filled with seawater.

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the forth to sixth
weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge that
will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you can refer to other resources;
thus you are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other available resources
in the university library (e.g., e-library, search.proquest.com, etc.)

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY

Health

World Health Organization (W.H.O.) defines health as a state of complete physical,

mental, and social well-being. A person can be ill to some extent; however, health can be
improved to live a happier, longer, and more productive and satisfying lives. The disease
can also be influenced by environmental factors such as the Earth's climate system by
impairing physical and psychological functions.

The disease— impairment of an individual's well-being and capacity to function—is mostly

attributed to inadequate behavioral and environmental change. The factors that result in
morbidity (illness) and mortality (death) are diet and nutrition, infectious agent, hereditary
qualities, a poisonous substance, injury, and stress. Environmental health focuses on
disease-causing external factors, including elements of the natural, social, cultural, and
technological worlds in which we live.

Pollution

Pollution is a term used to describe the undesirable change in the environment brought
by the introduction of harmful materials or the production of unhealthy conditions (heat,
cold, sound). Contamination has a meaning similar to that of pollution and implies making
something unsuitable for specific use through the introduction of unwanted materials. The
term toxin refers to substances (pollutants) that are poisonous to living things. Toxicology
refers to the science that studies viruses or potential toxins. Toxicologists are scientists who
study in this field. A carcinogen is a toxin that increases cancer risk and one of the most
feared and controlled types of toxins in our society. Pollutants are commonly introduced
into the environment by way of point sources, such as smokestacks. Area sources, also
known as nonpoint sources, are more dispersed around the land, and it involves industrial
pollution and mobile sources, such as vehicle exhaust.

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Toxicology

Toxicology is the study of toxins

(poisons) and their effects, particularly on
living systems-because many substances are
known to be poisonous to life (whether plant,
animal, or microbial), toxicology is a broad
field, drawing from biochemistry, histology,
pharmacology, pathology, and many other
disciplines. Toxins damage or kill living
organisms because they react with cellular
components to disrupt metabolic functions. Because of this reactivity, toxins are often
dangerous even in highly dilute concentrations. In certain instances, billionths or even
trillionths of a gram may lead to irreversible damage.

EFFECTS OF TOXINS

Allergens are immune-activating agents. Some allergens act as antigens directly; that is,
white blood cells recognize them as foreign and stimulate the production of specific
antibodies. Certain allergens function indirectly by linking and modifying the composition
of foreign materials and become antigenic and induce an immune system to the response.
Formaldehyde is an excellent example of a widely used chemical that is a potent sensitizer
of the immune system. It is directly allergenic and can also trigger reactions to other
substances. Commonly used in plastics, wood products, insulation, glue, and fabrics,
formaldehyde concentrations in indoor air can be thousands of times higher than in healthy
outdoor air. Some people who suffer from sick building syndrome have headaches,
allergies, and chronic fatigue. And other symptoms caused by improperly ventilated indoor
air contaminate with carbon monoxide, mold spores, nitrogen oxide, formaldehyde, and
other pollutants emitted from carpets, furniture, fabrics, and construction materials and
other sources.

Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that disrupt the natural activity of hormones.
Hormones are chemicals released by cells into the bloodstreams in one part of the body to
regulate the function and development of tissues and organs in the body. We realize now
that some of the most gradual, yet harmful effects of persistent chemicals such as dioxins
and P.C.B.s are that they interfere with healthy growth, development, and physiology of a
variety of animals—including humans—at shallow doses.

Neurotoxins are a particular class of metabolic poisons that individually attack nerve cells
(neurons). The nervous system has an essential function in controlling the body activities,
especially to a fast-acting and devastating events. Neurotoxins have different types, and it
acts in different ways. Heavy metals like lead and mercury destroy nerve cells and cause
permanent brain damage. Organophosphates (Malathion, Parathion) and carbamates
(carbaryl, zineb, maneb) inhibit acetylcholinesterase, the enzymes that control the transfer
of signals between nerve cells and the tissues or organs they innervate (e.g., muscle).
Anesthetics (ether, chloroform, halothane, etc.) and chlorinated hydrocarbons (D.D.T.,
Dieldrin, Aldrin) disrupt nerve cell membranes needed for nerve action. Most neurotoxins
are both fast-acting and highly toxic.

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Mutagens are agents that damage or modify the genetic material (D.N.A.) in cells, such as
chemicals and radiation. If the cost happens during embryonic or fetal development, this
may contribute to congenital disability. Later in life, genetic damage can contribute to
neoplastic (tumor) formation. If reproductive cells undergo injury, the effects may be
passed on to future generations. Cells have repair mechanisms to diagnose and repair
defective genetic material, but specific changes may be hidden, and the repair cycle itself
can be flawed. It is widely agreed that there is no “safe” threshold for mutagens exposure.
Any contact has the potential to cause harm.

Teratogens are chemicals substance or other factors which cause different abnormalities
during embryonic growth and development. Some chemicals that are usually not
dangerous may cause a severe problem at these vulnerable stages of life. Alcohol is
probably the most popular teratogen in the world. Drinking during pregnancy can lead to
fetal alcohol syndrome—a cluster of complications that persist throughout a child’s life,
including craniofacial abnormalities, developmental disorder, behavioral problems, and
mental defects. Even one alcoholic drink a day has been associated with reduced birth
weight during pregnancy.

Carcinogens are substances that cause cancer, invasive, and out-of-control cell growth
resulting in malignant tumors. Cancer rates rose over the twentieth century in most
developed nations, and cancer is now the second leading cause of death in the U.S., killing
more than half a million people in 2002.

MOBILITY, DISTRIBUTION, AND FATE

There are several origins of poisonous and dangerous chemicals in the environment
and various factors related to each compound itself. The sources are toxics and hazardous
chemicals in the environment that is related to the release of chemicals itself. The target of
these chemicals is both biotic and abiotic community. The dose (amount), route of entry,
the timing of exposure, and sensitivity of the organism all play an essential function in
determining toxicity. In this section, we will look at each of these characteristics and how it
affects environmental health.
Factors in Environmental Toxicity

Factors Related to Toxic agent.

1. Chemical composition and reactivity

2. Physical characteristics (such as solubility, state)
3. Presence of impurities or contaminants
4. Stability and storage characteristics of a toxic agent
5. Availability of vehicle (such as the solvent) to carry agent
6. Movement of the agent through the environment and into cells

Factors Related to Exposure

1. Dose (concentration and volume of exposure)

2. Route, rate, and site of exposure
3. Duration and frequency of exposure
4. Time of exposure (day, season, year)

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Related Factors to Organism

1. Storage, cell permeability of agent and resistance to ingestion

2. Ability to metabolize, inactivate, sequester, or eliminate the agent
3. The tendency to activate or alter nontoxic substances, so they become toxic.
4. Concurrent infections or physical or chemical stress
5. Species and genetic characteristics of an organism
6. Nutritional status of the subject
7. Sex, body weight, age, maturity, and immunological status

Solubility

Solubility is one of the essential characteristics in determining how, where, and when a
toxic material will move through the environment. It also includes the body at its place of
action. The classification of chemical substances divides into two main groups:

1. those that dissolve more easily in oil.

2. Those that dissolve more easily in water.

Since water is everywhere, water-soluble compounds move rapidly and widely in the
environment. They seem to have easy access to most cells in the body since aqueous
solutions bathe all our cells. Molecules that are oil-or fat-soluble (usually organic molecules)
generally need a carrier to move through the environment, into, and within, the body. Once
inside the body, however, oil-soluble toxins quickly pass into tissues and cells, since the
membranes that enclose the cells are composed of similar oil-soluble chemicals. Once they
get inside cells, oil-soluble materials are likely to be accumulated and stored in lipid
deposits. They are protected from metabolic breakdown and will continue for several years.

Exposure

Just as there are many sources of toxins in our environment, there are many routes
for entry of dangerous substances into our bodies. Airborne toxins generally cause more
ill-health compared to other sources. Our lungs are programmed to efficiently exchange
gases and, at the same time, absorb toxins. The complication in measuring toxicity is that
significant differences in sensitivity exist between species.

Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

The cell performs a selective absorption and storage of variation of molecules called
bioaccumulation. It allows them to accumulate nutrients and essential minerals, but at the
same time, they also may absorb and store harmful substances through these same
mechanisms. Toxins that are instead dilute in the environment can reach dangerous levels
inside cells and tissues through this process of bioaccumulation. The effects of toxins also
are magnified in the environment through food webs. When organisms ingest other
organisms making toxins accumulated from the base and concentrated in the highest
trophic level, it is called biomagnification.
Persistence

Some chemical compounds are volatile and degrade rapidly under most environmental
conditions so that their concentrations decline quickly after release. Most modern

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herbicides and pesticides, for instance, promptly lose their toxicity. Other substances are
more persistent and last for years or even centuries in the environment. Metals—such as
lead—P.V.C. plastics, chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides, and asbestos are valuable
because they are resistant to degradation. However, this stability causes problems because
these materials persist in the environment and have unexpected effects far from their
original use sites. Some persistent organic pollutants (P.O.P.s) have become extremely
widespread, being found from the tropics to the Arctic. Long-living top predators such as
bears, humans, raptors, and sharks are where it frequently accumulate. The following are
some of the most significant concerns:

▪ Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE). These are known as flame retardants

usually used in textiles and plastics found in computers and appliances; these
chemicals are now found in humans and other species everywhere globally.

▪ Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, also

known as C8) are widely used as a nonstick, waterproof stain-resistant product such
as Teflon, Gortex, Scotchguard, and Stainmaster. The industry makes use of their
slippery, heat-stable properties to manufacture everything from airplanes and
computers to cosmetics and household cleaners.

▪ Phthalates (pronounced thalates) These are present in products such as

deodorants, plastics, and cosmetics. Also present in products used for children's
toys, medical equipment, and packaging for food. Some chemicals pose a toxic
threat to animals found in laboratories as they damage the kidney and liver and
might cause cancer.

▪ Perchlorate is a waterborne contaminant leftover of fuel utilized by rockets and

from propellants. It includes the cause of pollution in our waters, especially in waters
used for irrigation. Thus allows it to enter the human food chain.

▪ Bisphenol A (B.P.A.), widely used in various products such as bottled water and
tooth-protecting sealants. It is a vital component in the creation of polycarbonate
plastics. Furthermore, it is an environmental estrogen and may alter sexual
development in both males and females. It has been found in humans with or
without known chemical exposure. It has been found out that the presence of such
a chemical causes abnormal chromosome numbers called aneuploidy. Having this
kind of abnormality will result in several forms of mental retardation and
miscarriages during pregnancy.

▪ Atrazine is a substance applied to crops such as corn, cereal grains, sugarcanes,

and Christmas trees as herbicide in the United States of America. It is also the cause
of damage and disruption to the hormonal functions in mammals of their endocrine
system, resulting in low birth weights, disorders in the neurological services, and
abortions.

Interactions

Interactions happen because some substances have antagonistic reactions in which

materials will interfere with the effects or will somehow stimulate the breakdown of other
chemicals. The reaction occurs in Vitamin E and A, which enables to diminish the response
of some carcinogens. Subsequently, there are also materials which occur together in

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exposures; this is an additive. In essence, rats exposed to both lead and arsenic show that
the toxicity level rats are exposed to double compared to being presented with one of
them. The most significant concern about this is the synergistic effect. An interaction in
which one substance intensifies the impact of another material is called synergism. In
essence, exposing to occupational asbestos, it will increase the rate of lung cancer 20-fold
times. At the same time, smoking will also intensify rates of lung cancer by the same amount.
In other cases, workers exposed to asbestos at the same time smoke have a 400-fold
increase in cancer rates. The question now is how many substances, when combined, will
give intensified results? Synergism is an important concept that considers pollution at the
same time. It is the interaction of different materials, which results in a total effect more
significant than the added impact of separate substances.

THE MECHANISMS FOR MINIMIZING TOXIC EFFECTS

A primary concept in toxicology is that every substance is capable of being

poisonous under certain conditions. Fortunately, most of the chemicals have some safety
level or the threshold that is below their effects, which will enable them to be undetected
or insignificant. Throughout our lifetime, we consume some of these chemicals in lethal
dosage. Still, if consumed in small amounts or dosage, it will eventually be excreted or
broken down before inflicting harm to the body, and the damage caused can be repaired.
However, mechanisms that enable us to protect us from any toxins present in our body
become deleterious with other substances or in another stage of development.

Metabolic Mechanisms. Naturally, organisms contain enzymes that process waste

products and environmental poisons, which reduce toxicity levels. In mammals,
most of these enzymes are in the liver, the primary site of detoxification of both
natural wastes and introduced poisons. Excretion is also one method of reducing
and eliminating these toxins in the body. Breathing helps in excreting volatile
molecules such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen cyanide, and ketones. Sweat also helps
in the excretion of excess salts and other substances. Kidneys do urine formation
also helps in the elimination of significant amounts of soluble materials.
Accumulation of toxins in the urine can damage this vital system. However, the
kidneys and bladder are subjects to harmful toxic levels of toxic compounds.

Repair Mechanisms. Our body performs a damage repair function caused by the
exposure to regular wear-and-tear or toxic or hazardous materials. It allows
individual cells to have enzymes to help repair the damage in the Deoxyribonucleic
acid (D.N.A.) and protein at the molecular level, organs, and tissues. The skin and
the epithelial lining of our gastrointestinal tract, blood vessels, lungs, and urogenital
systems have capabilities of having high cellular reproduction rates to replace
damaged cells. There is a chance that some cells will lose healthy growth controls
with each reproduction cycle, worst, if these cells run amok, creating a tumor. Thus,
carcinogenic are agents that irritate tissue such as smoking or drinking. High risk of
developing cancer is more significant in those tissues with high cell-replacement
rates.

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MEASURING TOXICITY

In controlled conditions, it is the most commonly used and widely accepted toxicity
test to expose a population of laboratory animals to measured doses of specific substances.
This procedure takes so much time, painful, expensive, and debilitating to the animals used
as specimens in tests. Dose/response curves are not always symmetrical, making it
challenging to compare the toxicity of unlike chemicals or different species of organisms.
A convenient way to describe the toxicity of a chemical is to determine the dose to which
fifty percent (50%) of the test population is sensitive. In the case of a lethal dose (L.D.), this
is called the LD50.

Acute and Chronic Doses

Acute effects have been the effects of most toxics we have discussed. They are caused by
a single exposure to the toxin and result in an immediate health crisis of some sort. An
individual survives an urgent crisis due to an acute reaction, most likely because the effects
are reversible.

If the effects have resulted in becoming permanent, it is considered to be a Chronic effect.

A constant effect can result from a single dose of a very toxic substance, resulting from a
continuous or repeated sublethal exposure. We also describe long-lasting vulnerabilities
as chronic, although their effects may or may not persist after the toxin is removed. It usually
is challenging to assess the specific health risks of chronic exposures because other factors,
such as aging or joint diseases, act simultaneously with the consideration under study.
RISK ASSESSMENT

Risk is the possibility or results of suffering harm or loss by hazard and an indication
of the severe damage. Risk assessment (R.A.) is the scientific process of estimating the
threat that particular hazards pose to human health. It is the overall process of hazard
identification, risk analysis, and risk evaluation. Risk assessment for identified toxicity
hazards (for example, lead) includes collection and analysis of site data, development of
exposure and risk calculations, and preparation of human health and ecological impact
reports.

Exposure assessment is the process of estimating, measuring, characterizing, and

modeling the following:

1. magnitude
2. frequency
3. duration, and
4. route of exposure to a possible toxin.

Toxicity assessment weighs all available evidence and estimates the potential for
adverse health effects to occur. Risk assessment can also define as the process of
determining potential adverse health effects of exposure to pollutants and potentially toxic
materials. Exposure to toxic air pollutants can intensify your health risks. For example, if you
live near a factory that discharges cancer-causing chemicals and inhale contaminated air,
your chance of getting cancer can increase.

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https://images.app.goo.gl/zskX5jcF9wZmJKFo7

1. Identification of the hazard. It is using to evaluate if any particular

situation may have the potential to cause harm and consists of testing
materials to determine whether exposure is likely to cause health
problems. One method used is to investigate populations of people
who are exposed previously. For example, to understand the toxicity
of radiation produced from Radon (Rn) gas, researchers studied
workers in uranium (U) mines. Another method is to conduct
experiments to test effects on animals, such as monkeys, rats, or mice.
This method has drawn augmenting criticism from groups who believe
such experiments are unethical. Another approach is to try to
understand how a particular chemical works at the molecular level of
cells.

2. Dose-response assessment. This next step involves identifying

relationships between the dose of a chemical (therapeutic drug,
pollutant, or toxin) and the health effects on people. Some studies
include administering reasonably high doses of a compound to
animals. The results of exposures will be different illnesses, or
symptoms, such as tumor or rashes development, are recorded for
varying doses.

3. Exposure appraisal. This step evaluates the duration, frequency, and

intensity of human exposure to a particular chemical pollutant or toxin
in the environment. It includes some discussion of the size, nature, and
types of human populations exposed to the agent. The total
population exposed to the agent is directly proportional to the hazard
in the society.

4. The risk to an individual is generally more significant closer to the

source of exposure. Like dose-response assessment, exposure
assessment is difficult. The results are often controversial because of
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difficulties in measuring the concentration (conc.) of a toxin in doses

since it is as small as parts per million, billion, or even trillion.

5. Risk characterization. This final step aims to delineate health risk in

terms of the magnitude of the health issues and concerns that might
result from exposure to a particular pollutant or toxin. It is necessary to
identify the hazard or danger, complete the dose-response
assessment, and evaluate the exposure assessment, as outlined. This
method involves all the uncertainties of the previous actions, and
results are again likely to be controversial.

TOLERANCE

It is the ability to resist or withstand stress from exposure to a pollutant or harmful

condition. It can develop for some contaminants in some populations, but not for all
pollutants in all communities. Tolerance may result from behavioral, physiological, or
genetic adaptation.

Behavioral tolerance results from changes in the behavior; for example, mice learn
to avoid traps.

The physiological tolerance as a result when the body of an individual adjusts to

tolerate a higher level of pollutant.

AGRICULTURE, ENVIRONMENT, HUNGER

Agro-ecosystem is a farming that creates ecological conditions. It encompasses

environmental and decision networks that are connected and that perform different
functions leading to the provision of a wide range of ecosystem services. Ecological
succession is halted to keep the agroecosystem in an early-successional state. In natural
conditions, crop species would eventually be replaced by later-successional plants, and
slowing or stopping natural ecological succession requires time and effort. Biological
diversity and food chains are simplified, where the focus is on monoculture, one plant
species rather than many. Large areas are planted with a single species (plants or animals)
or even a single strain or subspecies, such as a unique hybrid of corn. The downside of the
monoculture is that it makes the entire crop vulnerable to attack by a single disease or an
only change in environmental conditions.

Farmers used to plant crops in neat fields and rows. These simple geometric layouts
make life easy for pests because the crop plants have no place to hide. In natural
ecosystems, many different species of plants grow mixed in intricate patterns, so it is harder
for pests to find their favorite victims. Agroecosystems require plowing, which is unlike any
natural soil disturbance that nothing in nature repeatedly and regularly turns over the soil
to a specific depth. Plowing exposes the soil to erosion and damages its physical structure,
leading to a decline in organic matter and chemical elements. They may include
genetically modified crops.

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Soils

Soils are complex ecosystems. It can be thought of as the ecosystem foundation, as

soil productivity determines what an ecosystem appears in terms of the plant and animal
life it can support. Geologically, soils are earth materials altered over time by physical,
chemical, and biological processes into a series of layers. Each kind of soil has its chemical
composition. Below is a soil whose color is close to that of the bedrock (which geologists
call "the parent material," for obvious reasons). We call the layers’ soil horizons.

Soil Horizon

Horizon O is often brown or black, and most are organic materials, including
decomposed or decomposing leaves and twigs.

A Horizon is often light black to brown and composed of both mineral and organic
materials. Leaching—the process of draining, washing, or draining earth materials
by the percolation of other liquids or groundwater – occurs in the horizon A and
moves clay and other materials, such as Calcium (Ca) and iron (Fe), to the horizon
B.

Horizon E is composed of light-colored materials resulting from leaching of clay,

magnesium, iron, and calcium to horizon in the lower levels. Horizon A and E
together constitute the zone of leaching.

Horizon B is also known as the zone of accumulation and enriched in clay, iron
oxides, carbonate, silica, or other material leached from overlying horizons.

Horizon C is composed of partially altered (weathered) parent material; the rock is

shown here, but the equipment could also be alluvial, such as river gravels, in other
environments. This Horizons may be stained red with iron oxides.

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Components of Soils

1. Sand and gravel are mineral particles that come from bedrock. Either coming
from the same environment or came from somewhere else, like blown by the
wind.
2. Silt and clay are tiny mineral particles. Clay holds water due to its flat surfaces
and ionic charges, which causes it to be sticky.
3. Dead organic materials are plant matter decaying; gives nutrients and the
black/brown color of the soil.
4. Soil fauna and flora are the living organisms present, such as soil fungi, worms,
bacteria, insects (help recycle organic compounds and nutrients), and plant
roots.
5. Water that comes from either rainfall or groundwater, which is essential for the
fauna and flora
6. Air that is present between the soil. The soil has tiny pockets of air that help the
organisms survive underneath.

Limiting Factors

Crops need around 20 chemical elements at just the right amounts, at the correct
times, and in the right proportions to each other. There life-important chemical elements
can be divided into two groups:

Macronutrients. Macronutrients are essential chemical elements that are necessary

for all living organisms in relatively large quantities. The macronutrients are
phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, nitrogen, potassium, oxygen, hydrogen,
and carbon.

Micronutrients. Micronutrients are essential chemical elements that are only

needed in small quantities – ranging from tiny amounts to moderate amounts,
depending on the organism. Micronutrients are the rarer metals, like copper, zinc,
molybdenum, manganese, and iron.

PESTS AND PESTICIDES

The pesticide is a general term for a chemical that kills pests, usually a toxic
chemical, but sometimes we also consider chemicals that drive pests away from pesticides.
Some pest control compounds kill a wide range of living things and are called biocides.
Herbicides are chemicals that kill plants; insecticides kill insects, and fungicides kill fungi.

The scientific, industrial revolution brought significant changes in agriculture pest control,
which we can divide into four stages:

Stage 1: Broad-Spectrum Inorganic Toxins. During the start of modern science-

based agriculture, the abundance of pests drove people to search for chemicals that
would reduce their amounts. The goal was a "magic bullet," a chemical (referred to
as narrow-spectrum pesticide) that would eliminate a single kind of pest, and leave
the rest unharmed, but this proved to be very difficult. It was common in earlier
pesticides to be made of pure organic compounds, but they were widely toxic.

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Arsenic was used in one of the previous pesticides. Arsenic was toxic to all life, even
to humans. It was useful in eliminating pests, but beneficial organisms went along
with them. It was considered very dangerous to use.

Stage 2: Petroleum-Based Sprays and Natural Plant Chemicals. (from the 1930s
onward) Plants produce natural pesticides as a defense mechanism against
herbivores and disease. The tobacco plant produced nicotine, an insecticide, and
even used it today as the primary agent. Natural plant pesticides are safer than most,
but it wasn’t the same as the desired effectiveness.

Stage 3: Artificial Organic Compounds. Artificial organic compounds have

created a revolution in agriculture, but they have some significant drawbacks. One
problem is secondary pest outbreaks, which occur after extended use (and possibly
because of a pesticide's prolonged use). Secondary pest outbreaks can come about
in two ways:

1. The reduction of the target species caused the competing second species to
flourish because of the lack of competition between the two species. This caused
the second species to become pests.
2. The pest develops resistance to pesticides through evolution and natural
selection, which favor those who have more excellent immunity to the chemical.
Resistance has grown to many insecticides.

Stage 4: Integrated Pest Management and Biological Control Integrated pest

management. (I.P.M.) uses a combination of biological control, certain chemical
pesticides, and some methods of planting crops. The key idea underlying I.P.M. is
that the goal can be control rather than the complete elimination of a pest. This
course of action can be justified for several reasons: in economics, eliminating or
even just a high percentage of the pests becomes very expensive. In contrast, the
value of ever-greater elimination becomes less and less in terms of crops to sell.

Biological control uses the natural enemy of the target pests to limit their
growth. Caterpillars and other larvae pests can be combatted with using the
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, also known as B.T., which is very useful.

Types of Pesticides

One way to classify pesticides is by their chemical structure and main components.
Some are organic (carbon-based) compounds. Others are toxic metals (such as arsenic) or
halogens (such as bromine).

Organophosphates are among the most abundantly used synthetic pesticides.

Glyphosate, the single most heavily used herbicide in the United States, is also
known by the trade name Roundup. Glyphosate is applied to 90 percent (90%) of
U.S. soybeans and other crops. "Roundup-ready" soybeans and corn— varieties
genetically modified to tolerate glyphosate while other plants in the field are
destroyed—are the most commonly planted genetically modified crops.

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Chlorinated hydrocarbons, also known as organochlorines, are highly toxic and

persistent to sensitive organisms. In the U.S., atrazine was a heavily used herbicide
until overtaken by the usage of glyphosate. Corn crops in the U.S., around 96
percent, are applied with atrazine to control weeds in the cornfields.

Fumigants are generally small molecular compounds, like ethylene dibromide,

methylene bromide, and carbon tetrachloride. These compounds can be delivered
in the form of gas for easy penetration into the soil and other materials. Fumigants
are used to control fungus in strawberry fields and other low-growing crops and
prevent decay, rodent, and insect infestations in stored grain.

Inorganic pesticides are compounds made from toxic elements, like sulfur, copper,
arsenic, and mercury. These elements are considered a broad-spectrum poison,
because they are highly poisonous and indestructible, which means they stay in the
environment forever. They usually act nerve toxins. Historically, the primary
pesticide applied to apples, and other orchard crops were arsenic powder, but
traces of the dust remain in groundwater or soil in many agricultural areas.

Natural organic pesticides, also known as botanicals, are extracts from plants. An
example before was nicotine and nicotinoid alkaloids extracted from tobacco, and
pyrethrum, extracted from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium. These compounds
also include turpentine, phenols, and other aromatic oils from conifers. These
extracts are toxic to insects, and may even prevent wood decay.

Microbial agents and biological controls use living organisms or toxins extracted
from them that are used instead of pesticides. A natural soil bacterium, Bacillus
thuringiensis, is one of the chief pest control agents allowed in organic farming.
When eaten, this bacterium targets caterpillars and beetles and eliminates them by
producing a toxin that destroys their digestive tract lining.

FOOD AND NUTRITION

Despite dire predictions that runaway population growth would soon lead to terrible
famines, world food supplies have more than kept up with increasing human numbers over
the past two centuries. The past 40 years have seen especially encouraging strides in
reducing world hunger. More than 850 million people today are considered chronically
hungry: their diets don’t provide the 2,200 kcal per day, which is deemed necessary for a
healthy and productive life. Poverty is the greatest threat to food security or the ability to
obtain sufficient food on a day-to-day basis. Food security occurs at multiple scales. In the
poorest countries, hunger may affect nearly everyone.

GREEN REVOLUTION AND GENETIC ENGINEERING

Around 50 years ago, agricultural research stations started breeding tropical wheat
and rice varieties to provide food for developing countries with a growing population. From
Mexico, Norman Borlaug developed one of the first "miracle" variations, a dwarf, high-
yielding grain. Around the same period, the International Rice Institute in the Philippines
also developed a dwarf rice strain produced three or four times more than other varieties
during that time. This production of new types that caused dramatic increases of yield was

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called the green revolution. It is one of the main reasons why food production was able to
keep up with the rapid rise in the world population over the past decades.

The green revolution varieties are considered "high responders" because they yield
more product if given optimum water, fertilizers, and pesticides. On the other hand, under
suboptimum conditions, high responders may not produce as well as traditional varieties.
Impoverished farmers cannot afford expensive fertilizers, seeds, and water to be part of the
green revolution movement, and they become left behind.

Organic farming believes to have three essential qualities: minimization of adverse

environmental impacts, more like natural ecosystems than monocultures, and not
containing artificial compounds in the food produced.

Genetic engineering is the process where genetic material from one organism is removed
and introduced into the chromosomes of another organism. This new technology has the
potential to increase both the quantity and quality of our food supply significantly. Building
entire new genes, and even organisms is now a strong possibility. Taking bits of desired
D.N.A. and synthesizing D.N.A. sequences are done to produced genetically modified
organisms (G.M.O.s), which exhibit the desired characteristics. Proponents predict
dramatic benefits from genetic engineering. Current research is done to improve the yield
and development of crops that resist drought, frost, or diseases.

Genetic engineering done for agriculture involves several different practices that are
grouped as follows:

1. faster and more efficient ways to develop new hybrids

2. introduction of the “terminator gene”; and
3. transfer of genetic properties from widely different kinds of life.

Terminator genes are present in crop seeds to make it sterile (unable to form offspring).
This gene added for economic and environmental reasons. In theory, it prevents a
genetically modified crop from growing elsewhere.

AQUACULTURE

Aquaculture can be extremely productive on a per-area basis, partly because flowing water
brings food from outside into the pond or enclosure. Farming of marine and freshwater
protein sources is growing and can become a significant way to provide food of high
nutritional quality. Mariculture is the farming of saltwater fishes. It includes only produces
a fraction of the total marine fish catch, but has increased in the last decades and will likely
to increase further in the future.

Self-Help: You can refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson.

Marten. G.G. 2008. Human Ecology: Basic Concepts for Sustainable Development.
Earthscan, USA

Marten. G.G. 2008. Human Ecology: Basic Concepts for Sustainable Development.
Earthscan, USA

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Cunningham, W. P., and Cunningham, M., 2010. Environmental Science: A Global Concern.
11th Edition. McGraw Hill, New York.

Botkin, D., and Keller, E., 2011. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet. 8 th Edition.
John Wiley and Sons, USA

Activity No. 4. Now that you have known the most essential terms in the study of
environmental science. Let us try to check your understanding of these terms. In the space
provided, write the terms, being asked in the following statements:

_______________________1. The state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being,

not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

_______________________2. Refers to the impairment of an individual’s well-being and

ability to function often due to poor adjustments between the
individual and the environment.

_______________________3. Refers to the unwanted change in the environment caused by

the introduction of harmful materials or the production of
harmful conditions.

_______________________4. A toxin that increases the risks of cancer.

_______________________5. Refers to substances that activate the immune systems.

_______________________6. It refers to chemicals that disrupt normal hormone functions.

_______________________7. An agent which damage or alter genetic materials in cells.

_______________________8. It occurs when toxic burden of a large number of organisms at

a lower trophic level is accumulated and concentrated by a
predator in a higher trophic level.

_______________________9. A waterborne contaminant left over from propellants and

rocket fuels.

_______________________10. An interaction in which one substance exacerbates the effects

of another.

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Activity No. 4. Getting acquainted with the essential terms in studying environmental
toxicology and health, evolution, ecosystems, and interactions will not be sufficient. What
matters is that you should be able to identify and discuss different toxic elements present
in the environment, whether naturally occurring or human-induced. It is also important to
determine the route and persistence of these pollutants to develop measures and
mechanisms to reduce the risk of potential food contamination and other agricultural
resources. Now, I will require you to explain your answers thoroughly.

1. What is biomagnification? Why is it essential in toxicology?

___________________________________________________________________________
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2. Differentiate acute effects from chronic effects.

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3. Identify and discuss comprehensively the components of risk management.

___________________________________________________________________________
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4. How are toxic elements being deposited in the environment? Can these toxic
elements/ chemicals contaminate the food chain?
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Activity No. 4. Studying the environment and its components requires a deeper
understanding of the core areas of environmental science. This involves understanding the
influence of human dimensions as well as the natural phenomena that resulted in different
alterations of the natural ecosystems, which eventually creates threats and danger both the
biological, physical, and chemical components of an ecosystem. Also, this includes the
analysis and understanding of how humanmade and natural components react with one
another. Based on the definitions and the essential elements in the study of environmental
and the learning exercises that you have done, please feel free to indicate your arguments
or lessons learned below.
1. Different types of elements, whether naturally present or human-induced, have
implications for biological safety as these elements tend to persist in the
environment due to its non-biodegradable nature. Since it continues, it poses
threats to human health as well as security and food safety.

2. The disease is considered an environmental response or an imbalance within an

ecosystem. This signifies that the carrying capacity of the environment has been
reached which makes a particular ecosystem unable to function very well that
resulted in the or reduce the ability to assimilate pollutants and recover.
YOUR TURN

3. ___________________________________________________________________________
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4. ___________________________________________________________________________
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5. ___________________________________________________________________________
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6. ___________________________________________________________________________
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7. ___________________________________________________________________________
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8. ___________________________________________________________________________
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9. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

10. ___________________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Q and A LIST

Do you have any questions for clarification?

Questions/ Issues Answers

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

KEYWORDS INDEX

Carcinogens Mortality Exposure

Antigens Morbidity Persistence
Risk assessment Mutagens Lethal Dose
Toxicology Solubility Tolerance

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